4.

EXCAVATION, LOADING AND TRANSPORT

Excavation and loading relates to excavating the bench material and loading them onto the
transporting equipment. However, in some cases the excavator itself transports and dumps the
bucket load (e.g. dragline, scraper). This operation may be accomplished in cyclic/discontinuous
mode or in continuous mode.
Like excavation and loading, transportation of the loaded material may also be accomplished
either in discontinuous/cyclic mode or in continuous mode. In this operation, the transporting
equipment transport the loaded material to the respective destinations – coal/ore to coal depot/ore
stock pile, and overburden/waste to overburden/waste/spoil dumps.
4.1. Discontinuous/Cyclic Methods of Excavation, Loading and Transport
The excavators and/or loaders that work in cyclic mode are all single bucket machines. These
machines excavate the material directly from the face/bench (if the material is soft enough) or
from the muck pile (loosened/blasted face) and load onto the transport equipment in a cyclical
manner. The excavators and loaders are mainly – electric rope shovels, hydraulic shovels and
backhoes, dragline and scrapers. Rope shovels and hydraulic excavators generally load the
material onto dumpers for their onward transportation, whereas the dragline and scrapers
transports their own load.
The dozers and front-end loaders are generally used as utility equipment, but under certain
conditions dozer may also be used as primary excavator and front-end loader as primary
excavator and/or loader. The cyclic mode of excavation and loading is technically applicable for all
type of material.
For cyclic transport, dumpers are mainly used. However, the material may also be transported
through self transport of scraper or by direct casting of dragline.
4.1.1. Shovel–Dumper Combination
4.1.1.1. Shovels
Development of Shovels
The shovel is one of the oldest types of excavating equipment. With time, the machine grew in
capacity, steam power was replaced by diesel fuel and finally by electricity in the larger units. The
basic configuration has changed relatively less but the efficiency and sophistication have
increased substantially (Martin et.al., 1982).
The steam shovel was invented and patented by William Otis in 1839. The first machines were
known as 'partial-swing', since the dipper arm could not rotate through 360 degrees. They were
built on a railway chassis, on which the boiler and movement engines were mounted. The shovel
arm and driving engines were mounted at one end of the chassis, which accounts for the limited
swing. Temporary rail tracks were laid by workers where the shovel was expected to work, and
repositioned as required. Later machines were supplied with caterpillar tracks, obviating the need
for rails. The full-swing, revolving shovel was developed in England in 1884, and became the
preferred format for these machines.
Perhaps the most famous application of steam shovels is the digging of the Panama Canal. One
hundred and two shovels worked in that decade-long dig. Of these, seventy-seven were built by
Bucyrus and the remaining ones were Marion shovels.
Steam shovels assisted mining operations - the iron mines of Minnesota, the copper mines of
Chile and Montana, placer mines of the Klondike - all had earth-moving equipment. But it was with
the burgeoning open-pit mines - first in Bingham Canyon, Utah – the shovels became popular,
and were being used around the world from Australia to Russia to coal mines in China.
Shovels were also used for construction, road and quarry work. Steam shovels became more and
more popular in the 1920s with the publicly funded road building programs around North America.
Thousands of miles of State Highways were built in this time period, together with new factories,
docks, ports, buildings, and grain elevators.
During the 1930s steam shovels lost out to the simpler, cheaper diesel-powered excavating
shovels. Open-pit mines were electrified at this time that helped the development of electric rope
shovels.
In the 1950s and 1960s Marion Shovel built massive stripping shovels for coal operations in the
Eastern US. Shovels of note were the Marion 360, the Marion 5900, and the Marion 6360 with a
140 m3 bucket capacity. Bucyrus constructed one of the most famous monsters - the Big Brutus,
the largest power shovel ever built and the largest still in existence. The GEM of Egypt (GEM
standing for "Giant Excavating Machine" and Egypt referring to the Egypt Valley in Belmont
County, eastern Ohio where it was first put to use), which operated from 1967 to 1988 and then
dismantled, was of comparable size (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_shovel).
So far as the development of hydraulic excavators are concerned, world’s first diesel powered all
hydraulic crawler excavator (model B 504) was developed and presented by DEMAG at the
Hannover industrial fair in the year 1954 (http://www.komatsu-mining.de/en/content/history-
komatsu-mining-germany-gmbh).
Classification of Shovels
Shovel

Stripping Shovel Loading Shovel

Rope Shovel Hydraulic Shovel

Diesel Shovel Electric Shovel

The stripping shovels are presently outdated. They were large size shovels with higher bucket
capacities and were used for direct casting of overburden/ inter-burden to spoil heap. A classical
example of stripping shovel is “Silver Spade” that worked in Ohio strip mine in Cardiz, Ohio, USA.
It was built in 1965 and worked for 42 years till a major break down occurred after which it was
dismantled. It was 67m (220 ft) tall with 61m (200 ft) long boom and weighed 6419 te (7000 t) .
The bucket capacity was 156.7 m3 (205 yd3) and the maximum casting distance was 119m (390
ft). During its working life of 42 years, it had moved 464.1106 m3 (607106 yd3) of material.
Marion 6360, also known as The Captain, was another large stripping shovel with a bucket
capacity of 140 m3 and boom length of 66m. It was used in operation by Southwestern Illinois
Coal Corporation and then by Arch Coal, before it was scrapped in early 1990.
The diesel operated rope shovels were first developed in 1930s that marked the end of era of
steam shovels. These shovels were more compact, efficient and independent (unlike the electric
rope shovels that require a trailing cable for power supply). However, with the introduction of
hydraulic shovels with diesel prime-mover the diesel rope shovels were gradually outdated and
sometimes in 1990s became totally obsolete.
The shovels that are in use in the present-day surface mines are mainly of two types – electric
rope shovel and hydraulic shovel. A shovel stands on the floor of the bench it excavates and
generally loads onto a dumper, and they have very limited capability to dig below their crawler
level. For digging below the crawler level and loading onto dumpers hydraulic backhoes are used.
Currently P&H 4100XPC (35.9 - 76.5 m3) and Cat-7495 (30.6 - 62.6 m3) are the largest electric
rope shovels built by P&H Mining Equipment and Caterpillar respectively. Cat-6120B H FS (46 -
65 m3) is the largest amongst the available hydraulic shovels. Hydraulic shovel RH 400 has a
bucket capacity of 45 m3 and a maximum cutting height of 20.2 m. Cat-6060 is the largest
capacity backhoe presently available with a bucket capacity of 34.0 m3 (https://mining.cat.com/
products/surface-mining/electric-rope-shovels; https://mining.cat.com/products/surface-mining/
hydraulic-shovels; http://www.phmining.com/en/PHMining/Mining-Equipment/Electric-Shovels.
htm).
In Indian surface mining industry, 10 – 20 m3 electric shovels and 5 – 10 m3 hydraulic shovels are
becoming more common. However, the largest size of electric shovel and the hydraulic shovel
being currently used is of 42 m3 capacity (Gevra OCP, SECL, CIL) and 36 m3 capacity (Rampur-
Agucha Mine of HZL, Vedanta) respectively.
General Features and Characteristics of Shovel
Electric Shovel
The electric shovels are rugged, high production units with all electric drives and a trailing cable to
bring power to the machine.

7
4
4 7
3 5
9 5
1 9
8 3
10 1
6 2 6 10
2 11
12 13
11
12
14
13
14

POWERED Swing and Propel – Motors Hoist – Cable/Drum Dumping – Gravity

FUNCTIONS Crowd – Cable/Drum or Gear Dipper Trip – Small Motor

1 – Bucket/Dipper 2 – Bucket Door 3 – Dipper Stick 4 – Boom Point Sheave

5 – Boom 6 – Shipper Shaft 7 – Suspension Cable 8 – Operator’s Cab
9 – A Frame 10 – Machinery House 11 – Revolving Frame 12 – Swing Circle
13 – Lower Works 14 – Crawler
General Features of Electric Shovel
 Crawler mounted (two tracks)  Cable or rack & pinion crowd system
 Fully revolving upper works  Fully enclosed machinery house
 Cable hoist system
General Characteristics of Electric Shovel
 High sustained production capability  Maintenance is performed in pit
 High reliability and a proven design  Can work in close quarters
 Heavy, rugged construction, suited to tough  High capital cost and low operating
digging conditions cost
 High tooth forces on dipper, limited by  Limited capability to dig below its floor
machine stability level
 Limited gradeability and good stability  Dumping action can be hard on trucks
 Medium ground pressures (2 to 3.5 kg/cm2)  Relatively fixed digging path
 Low operator fatigue  Limited mobility between faces
 Safe operator location and good operator  Support equipment required to
visibility maintain working area
 Good blending vertically at face  Low propel speeds
 Good performance even with bad floor
 Limited capability for selective loading
conditions
 Moderate/high operator skill and
 Long service life of over 20 years
training is required
 Altitude, temperature or humidity may
 Minimal preparation-(blasting) required
reduce electrical efficiency

Hydraulic Shovel
In hydraulic shovels the operating functions are hydraulic powered. The prime-mover for these
shovels is generally diesel power. However, in very high capacity units electric power is also used
as prime-mover.

3 2
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6 5
1
8
7
8

POWERED Swing – Hydraulic Motors Propel – Hydraulic Motors Hoist – Cylinders

FUNCTIONS Crowd - Cylinders Bucket Wristing - Cylinders Bucket Dumping - Cylinders
1 – Bucket 2 – Arm/Stick 3 – Boom 4 – Operator’s Cab
5 – Upper Structure 6 – Swing Circle 7 – Undercarriage 8 – Crawler
General Features of Hydraulic Shovel
 Crawler mounted (two tracks)  Fully revolving upper works
 All hydraulic drives  Low profile machinery house
General Characteristics of Hydraulic Shovel
 Moderate ground pressure (0.9 to 1.97  High breakout forces through wristing
kg/cm2) of narrow bucket
 Medium overall mobility (about 1.5 mph)  High bucket fill factors
 High gradeability  High swing speeds (2.5 to 5 rpm)
 Excellent positioning capabilities (spin turns)  Digging forces are not entirely limited
with independent track drives by machine stability
 Smooth, low shock dumping because
 Good stability with good ground clearances
dump action can be controlled
 Maximum versatility in bucket orientation for  Loads directly into trucks with good
face penetration placement of load
 Operator position is safe; visibility is
 Compact size and low weight good for digging, but may be marginal
for loading into larger trucks
 Low operator fatigue and moderate operator  Medium service life (20,000 to 30,000
skill required hours)
 No support equipment is required to  Typical climatic temperature range (-39
maintain working area to +49 degrees C)
 Can work in close quarters  High initial cost
 Moderate dust generation  Relatively high hydraulic maintenance

Applicability and Limitations of Electric Shovels and Hydraulic Excavators

Electric Shovel
These shovels are applied in benching operations in overburden/waste and coal/ore. The shovels
excavate and load the bench materials onto off-highway trucks, or in some cases, mobile hoppers.
These machines are simpler with high reliability and high sustained production capability. These
are particularly suitable to more severe digging conditions.
However, these are not suited for the conditions where selective extraction of the material from
the same bench is required.
Hydraulic Excavators
The hydraulic shovels are generally diesel powered with all hydraulic powered operating functions.
These are primarily excavating and loading devices. While it can swing and/or propel to transport
material short distances, it is used almost exclusively to excavate and load overburden/waste or
coal/ore onto off-highway trucks, or in some cases, mobile hoppers. The diesel power makes
these shovels more maneuverable that can be a huge advantage in a mine that wants to shift or
balance out ore grade processed in a given day or week by moving the shovel around. The diesel
power also allows these shovels to operate in remote mines far from an electric power plant.
These shovels are capable of much more precise digging and can be used efficiently where
selective extraction of the material from the same bench is required, for example targeting a
specific band of ore in a face. The smaller units may be used for utility work generally related to
mine drainage systems.
Particularly suited to tasks as trenching or excavating underwater. These are utilized in mining
when the conditions warrant keeping Hydraulic back-hoes are more suitable for below grade
digging, and this capability make them the equipment on the top of the bench surface.
4.1.1.2. Dumpers
Dumper/dump truck is a mobile piece of equipment for hauling/transporting material. It is often an
integral part of material handling systems in surface mines either for transport of coal/ore from
face to coal/ore stockpile or processing plant or for transport of overburden/waste to spoil dumps.
Development of Dumpers
The dumper/dump truck is thought to have been first conceived in the farms of late 19th century
Western Europe. As early as 1905, the first motorized dumping vehicles were developed. The first
motorized dump trucks in the United States were developed by small equipment companies such
as Galion Buggy Co. and Lauth-Juergens among many others around 1910. Such companies
flourished during World War-I due to massive wartime demand. Companies like Galion Buggy Co.
continued to grow after the war by manufacturing a number of express bodies and some smaller
dump bodies that could be easily installed on either stock or converted (heavy-duty suspension &
drive train) Model T chassis prior to 1920. Galion and Wood Mfg., Co. built all of the dump bodies
offered by Ford on their heavy-duty AA and BB chassis during the 1930s. Galion (now Galion
Godwin Truck Body Co.) is the oldest known truck body manufacturer still in operation today
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dump_truck).
Prior to World War-II, the rail-road transport was very popular in surface mines as it was a bulk
transport system that can handle any type of material over considerable distance economically.
But the main drawbacks of this system are – requirement of very flat gradient (3% i.e. 1 in 33) and
large turning radius, and the system is not flexible but rigidly engineered.
After the World War-II, truck transport system gradually became popular in surface mines due to
the following reasons – it can also handle any type of material, its requirement of gradient (6% i.e.
1 in 16) is steeper than that of rail-road transport system, it can take sharp turns and the system is
very much flexible. Because of the advantages offered by truck transport system over rail-road
transport system and the increase in depth of operation, the rail-road transport system gradually
became obsolete.
In the 1960s, with the continuous rise in diesel prices the truck transport system became more
and more costly. In an effort to keep the unit transport cost within the economic range, higher and
higher size of trucks were developed and used to take the advantage of scale of operation. Over
the last few decades, the surface mining industry had witnessed the development of truck sizes
from earlier 10 to 15 ton capacity (early 1950s) to 35 ton (1955-65) to 70 ton (late 1960s) to 150
ton (middle to late 1970s) to 240 ton (1985-95) to 320 ton (late 1990s) to 350 ton and then to 400
ton (Liebherr-T 282 C diesel electric) capacity (Walter G. Koellner et.al, 2004, “Recent Advances
in Mining Haul Trucks”, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 51, No. 2, April, pp. 321
– 329).
The power transmission and drive systems of trucks have also undergone considerable changes
with the increase in capacity. Generally the trucks upto 85 ton capacity is having mechanical
transmission system with torque converters and turbo chargers. Diesel–electric haul trucks with dc
drives are built up to 240 ton capacity. For trucks having capacities more than 240 ton, high-power
ac inverter-fed induction motor drives (similar to that are employed in locomotives) have been
developed and are used.
Classification of Dumpers
Dumpers may be classified differently based on different criterion: –
Dumping mode – Rear dump, bottom dump and side dump. In surface mining operation, rear
dump trucks are most popular and side dump trucks are hardly used.
Frame type – Rigid frame / integrated chassis and articulated frame / tractor-trailer type. Dumpers
of integrated chassis type are most common in surface mines.
Number of axles – Two axle type and three axle type. Dumpers with two axles are more popular in
surface mines.
Apart from these, the dumpers may also be classified based on their carrying capacities (50 ton to
400 ton)) and drive (mechanical, electric) systems. Generally the higher capacity (≥ 120 ton)
trucks have electric drive systems that are powered by a diesel generator installed on the truck.
General Features and Characteristics of Dumpers

4 4

6 6
3 3
1
1 2
2
5

Powered Functions Propel – Direct - Engine Steering – Cylinders Dumping - Cylinders

1 – Engine 2 – Main Frame 3 – Body

4 – Canopy 5 – Body Lift Cylinder 6 – Cab

General Features
 Diesel Power  Good traction with maximum weight applied to drive axle
 Good maneuverability  Approximate service life – 20,000 hours for units upto 100
 Good ground clearance ton capacity and 30,000 hours for higher sizes
General Characteristics of Integrated Body Rear Dump Trucks
 Unit body construction  Av. horsepower per ton of capacity – approx. 9.5
 Rugged body to withstand high  Av. payload to net vehicle weight ratio – approx.
loading impact 1.45
 Av. gross vehicle weight to horsepower ratio –
 High power and good grdeability
approx. 350
 Rear axle-dual wheel drives  Mechanical drive system upto 130 ton capacity
 Electrical wheel drive system from about 85 ton to
 Forward mounted engine
200 ton capacity
 Turning radius – about 1.1 to 1.2  Electrical axle drive system for capacities more
times overall length than 200 ton

Applicability and Limitations of Dumpers

Dumpers are used for transporting coal/ore and/or overburden/waste from the face to the
respective destinations. These can be used to haul coal/ore to stockpile or to a hopper, in
practically any surface mine. Dumping to stockpile is generally done in shallow lifts. For feeding a
hopper, a back-in hopper station is used for rear dump trucks and the bottom dump trucks move
onto a drive over grizzly. The rear dump trucks, that carry the overburden/waste to spoil piles,
dump the material following end-tipping method.
The truck transport system tends to be uneconomic when the haul distance from the working face
to the dumping destination increases to more than 2 km. Also, with the increase in the depth of
working, the haul distance between the pit floor and the surface increases that requires the
placing and maintenance of longer haul roads thereby increasing the unit cost of transportation.
4.1.1.3. Cycle Time and Productivity Calculation for Shovel and dumper
Shovel Cycle Time
When a shovel loads a dumper, its working cycle consists of four components – (i) digging
through the muck pile or the in-situ face (crowding, digging and hoisting) and loading the bucket,
(ii) forward swing of the bucket over the dumper, (iii) dumping the bucket load onto the dumper
and (iv) return swing of the bucket to the face at floor level to start the next cycle. The cycle time
of a shovel is the total time required to complete a cycle consisting of the four above mentioned
elements.
The standard cycle time is the time taken by the shovel to complete a cycle under ideal conditions
for 900 swing and this is quoted by the manufacturers. However, the actual (average) cycle time
for 900 swing is generally more than the standard one, and this is best estimated through time
study in the field during actual working of the shovel. For this a time study over more than an hour
is made and the total time is divided by the total number of cycles completed to get the actual
cycle time.
Shovel Productivity
Shovel productivity is generally expressed in terms of m3 (bank)/hour for overburden and
tonnes/hour for coal/ore or waste rock.
Theoretical productivity (Qth) may be given as

Qth = Bc  Bf  Sf  3600 m3 (bank)/hour = Bc  Bf  Sf  H  3600 m3 (bank)/year

tc  Fs tc  Fs

Qth = Bc  Bf  Sf  ρ  3600 tonnes/hour = Bc  Bf  Sf  H  ρ  3600 tonnes/year

tc  Fs tc  Fs
However, the actual or effective productivity (Qeff) is less than the theoretical productivity and is
given by
3600 3600
Qeff = Bc  Bf  Sf   Es m3 (bank)/hour = Bc  Bf  Sf  H   Es m3 (bank)/year
tc × Fs tc × Fs
3600 3600  E tonnes/year
Qeff = Bc  Bf  Sf  ρ   Es tonnes/hour = Bc  Bf  Sf  H  ρ  s
tc  Fs tc  Fs
Where,
Bc - bucket capacity, Bf - bucket fill factor, Sf - swell factor, H - working hours per year
Ρ - in-situ specific gravity of coal/ore or waste rock, as the case may be
tc - actual cycle time for 900 swing, Fs - factor of swing, Es - overall utilization factor

Bucket fill factor (Bf) is a function of average material size, bucket size and the effective digging
force. For the same average material size and the effective digging force, the bucket fill factor will
increase with the increase of bucket size. Also, for the same bucket size and the effective digging
force, the bucket fill factor will increase with the decrease of average material size.
Swell factor (Sf) is the ratio of in-situ volume to the fragmented volume for same mass of the
material. Mathematically it may be expressed as 100 / (100 + % swell). Percentage swell is a
function of degree of fragmentation and. As the degree of fragmentation increases, the
percentage swell also increases limited to a maximum value defined by the material
characteristics.
Factor of swing (FS) is a cycle time correction factor to take into account the angle of swing that
the shovel bucket has to make for loading the dumper. The swing angles and the corresponding
Fs values are given in the following table.

Angle of swing (deg.) 45 60 75 90 120 150 180

Swing Factor 0.84 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30

Overall utilization factor (Es) is the ratio of actual working hours to the scheduled shift hours.
Scheduled shift hours are the sum total of actual working hours, maintenance hours and the idle
hours. In Indian surface mines the value of Es is about 0.56.
Dumper Cycle Time
Dumper cycle time consists of six elements as shown below.
Dumper Cycle time = Spotting time + Loading time + Load travel time + Dumping time + Empty
travel time + Waiting time at shovel end.
Spotting time is the time taken for a dumper to position itself beside the shovel for getting itself
loaded. It generally varies between 0.5 to 1.0 min depending on the site conditions in case of
single spotting condition and 0.0 min in case of double spotting condition. In single spotting
condition the dumper can position only on one side of the shovel, whereas in double spotting
condition the dumper can position itself on either side of the shovel.
Loading time is the actual time taken by the shovel to load a dumper
= (No. of shovel bucket passes required to load the dumper)  (shovel cycle time)
Effective dumper capacity
Number of shovel bucket passes required =
Tonne per pass of shovel bucket
Effective dumper capacity = Rated dumper capacity  ( / 2.6),  < 2.6.
= Rated dumper capacity, otherwise
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket = Bucket capacity (m3)  bucket fill factor
 swell factor  in-situ specific gravity
Number of shovel bucket passes required to load a dumper (NP1)
Effective dumper capacity
=
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket
Actual number of passes required (NP) = Integer part of NP1
Loading time = Actual number of passes required  (shovel cycle time (sec) / 60) min
One way haul distance (km)
Load travel time =  60 min
Load travel speed (km / hour)
Dumping time typically varies from 1.0 to 2.0 min depending on the dump site conditions.
One way haul distance (km)
Empty travel time =  60 min
Empty travel speed (km / hour)
Load travel speed and empty travel speed depend on conditions of the haul road and the
gradients. Generally the load haul speed varies from 16 to 20 km / hour and empty haul speed
varies from 24 to 30 km / hour.
To determine the dumper waiting time at the shovel end it is necessary to find out the actual
number of dumpers required per shovel.
Number of dumpers required per shovel (ND1) is given by
Spotting time + loading time + load travel time + dumping time + empty travel time
ND1 =
Spotting time + loading time
Actual number of dumper required per shovel (ND) is given by
ND = ND1, if integer
= Integer part of ND1 + 1, otherwise
Waiting time at the shovel end = (ND – ND1)  (Spotting time + Loading time)
Dumper Productivity
Dumper productivity is generally expressed in terms of tonne-km/hour both for overburden / waste
rock and coal.
Theoretical productivity (DPth) may be given as
60
DPth = NP  BLs   DIST tonne-km / hour
CTd
Effective productivity (DPeff) is given by
60
DPeff = NP  BLs   DIST  Ed tonne-km / hour
Where, CTd

NP - actual number of shovel bucket passes required to load a dumper

BLs - tonne per pass of shovel bucket
CTd - dumper cycle time (min)
DIST - one way haul distance (km)
Ed - overall utilization factor (value of Ed is about 0.50)
4.1.1.4. Estimation of Shovel, Dumper and other HEMM required in a Surface Coal Mine for
a given Output
The steps to be followed for estimation of HEMM required in a surface coal mine using shovel-
dumper combination for given production and other conditions are detailed below. For estimation
of HEMM, the number of shovels and dumpers are calculated and the numbers of other
equipment are estimated following certain norm.

Calculation for Number of Shovels and Dumpers

Let,
P - required production of coal per year, tonne
THc - average thickness of the coal seam
SR - average stripping ratio, m3/tonne
H - total working hours per year (7200 for 3 shifts working)
Bco - bucket capacity of shovel handling overburden, m3
Bcc - bucket capacity of coal shovel, m3
Bfo - bucket fill factor of overburden shovel (0.8 to 0.85)
Bfc - bucket fill factor of coal shovel (0.8 to 0.85)
So - % swell of over burden
Sc - % swell of coal
o - in-situ density of over burden (2.4 to 2.6), tonne/m3
c - in-situ density of coal (1.3 to 1.6) tonne/m3
E - overall utilization factor for shovels (0.56 for 3 shift working)
Fs - swing factor for shovel (1 for 90 deg. swing)
Tco - standard cycle time for overburden shovel, sec
Contd…
 Tcc - standard cycle time for coal shovel, sec
Dco - capacity of overburden dumper, tonne
Dcc - capacity of coal dumper, tonne
Sto - spotting time for overburden dumper (0.2 to 1.0), min
Stc - spotting time for coal dumper (0.2 to 1.0), min
Dto - dumping time for overburden dumper (1.0 to 2.0), min
Dtc - dumping time for coal dumper (1.0 to 2.0), min
Tlo - load travel speed for overburden dumper (20 to 30 kmph)
Tlc - load travel speed for coal dumper (20 to 30 kmph).
Teo - empty travel speed for overburden dumper (1.5 times Tlo)
Tec - empty travel speed for coal dumper (1.5 times Tlc).
DISTo - average distance of waste dump from overburden face, km
DISTc - average distance of coal stockyard from coal face, km

Calculation for Number of Coal Shovel

Total production of coal per year = P tonne.
Total workings hours per year = H
Effective production per hour per shovel,
Qch = Bcc  Bfc  100  3600  c  E tonne
100 + Sc tcc  Fs
Effective production per year per shovel,
Qcy = Bcc  Bfc  100  3600  c  H  E tonne
100 + Sc tcc  Fs
So, Number of working shovel required (NS1c) = P / Qcy
P  (100 + Sc)  (tcc  Fs)
=
Bcc  Bfc  100  3600  c  H  E
Actual number of working shovel required for coal is given by -
NSc = NS1c, if integer
= Integer part of NS1c + 1, otherwise
Calculation for Number of Overburden Shovel
Total production of coal per year = P tonne.
Average stripping ration = SR m3/tonne.
So, Total excavation of overburden required per year = (P  SR) m3
Effective excavation capacity per hour per shovel,
Qoh = Bco  Bfo  100  3600  E m3
100 + So tco  Fs
Effective excavation capacity per year per shovel,
Qoy = Bco  Bfo  100  3600  H  E m3
100 + So tco  Fs
So, Number of working shovel required (NS1o) = (P × SR) /Qoy
P  SR  (100 + So)  (tco  Fs)
=
Bco  Bfo  100  3600  H  E
Actual number of working shovel required for overburden
NSo = NS1o, if integer
= Integer part of NS1o + 1, otherwise
Calculation for Number of Dumpers for Coal
Dumper Cycle time = Spotting time + Loading time + Load travel time + Dumping time + Empty
travel time + Waiting time at shovel end.
Loading time is the actual time taken by the shovel to load a dumper
= (No of shovel bucket passes required to load the dumper)  (shovel cycle time)
Effective dumper capacity
Number of shovel bucket passes required =
Tonne per pass of shovel bucket
Effective dumper capacity = Rated dumper capacity  (/2.6),  < 2.6.
= Rated dumper capacity, otherwise
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket = Bucket capacity (m3)  (100 / (100 + % Swell))
 fill factor  in-situ density (tonne/m3)
In this case,
Effective dumper capacity = (Dcc  c) / 2.6
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket = Bcc  Bfc  c  (100 / (100 + Sc))
Number of shovel bucket passes required to load a dumper (NP1)
= (Dcc  c  (100 + Sc)) / (2.6  Bcc  Bfc  c  100)
Actual number of passes required, NPc = Integer part of NP1
So, the dumper loading time = NPc  tcc / 60 (min)
Load travel time = (DISTc / Tlc)  60 (min)
Empty travel time = (DISTc / Tec) × 60 (min)
The number of dumpers required per shovel (ND1c)
Spotting time + Loading time + Load travel time + Dumping time + Empty travel time
=
Spotting time + Loading time
[Stc + ((NPc  tcc)/60) + ((DISTc  60)/Tlc) + Dtc + ((DISTc  60)/Tec)]
=
[Stc + ((NPc  tcc)/60)]
Actual number of working dumper required per working coal shovel,
NDc = ND1c, if integer
= Integer part of ND1c + 1, otherwise
So, total number of working dumpers for coal = NSc x NDc
Calculation for Number of Dumpers for Overburden
Effective dumper capacity = Dco
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket = Bco × Bfo × ρo × 100/(100 + So)
Number of shovel bucket passes required to load a dumper (NP2)
= (Dco  (100 + So)) / (Bco  Bfo  o  100)
Actual number of passes required, NPo = Integer part of NP2.
So, the dumper loading time = (NPo × tco) / 60 (min)
Load travel time = (DISTo / Tlo) × 60 (min)
Empty travel time = (DISTo / Teo) × 60 (min)
So, the number of dumpers required per shovel (ND1o)
[Sto + ((NPo  tco)/60) + ((DISTo  60)/Tlo) + Dto + ((DISTo  60)/Teo)]
=
[Sto + ((NPo  tco)/60)]
Actual number of working dumpers required per working overburden shovel,
NDo = ND1o (if integer)
= Integer part of ND1o + 1 (otherwise)
So, the number of working dumpers for overburden = NSo  NDo
Estimation of Other HEMM
Number of working drills required = Number of working shovels
Number of working = 0.5 per working shovel + 1 to 1.5 for sundry jobs
dozers required + 1 or 2 at coal stockyard + 1 or 2 at waste dump
Number of working front- = 1 or 2 for supporting jobs at the pit + 1 to 3
end loaders required (based on production level) at the coal stockyard.
Number of working motor graders required = 1 or 2 for road maintenance.
Number of cranes required = 1 or more depending on production level
Number of water sprinklers required = 1 or more based on production level
Numerical Example
Estimate the HEMM required in a surface mine producing 4.5 million tonne of coal per year and
being worked by shovel dumper combination. The average seam thickness is 10m and the
average stripping ratio is 2.5 m3/tonne.
Given Conditions:
Production of coal per year = 4.5  106 tonne
Average stripping ratio = 2.5 m3/tonne
Coal seam thickness = 10 m.
Assumptions:
Total available hours/year = 300  3  8 = 7200
Overall utilization of available hours for shovels = 56%
Bank density of coal = 1.4 te/m3
Coal shovel bucket capacity = 5m3
Overburden shovel bucket capacity = 5m3
Coal shovel fill factor = 0.85
Overburden shovel fill factor = 0.8
% Swell of coal = % Swell of overburden = 20%
Bank density of overburden = 2.6 te/m3
Angle of swing for coal shovel and overburden shovel = 90 deg.
Standard cycle time of shovel (both for coal and overburden) = 30 sec.
Rated Capacity of dumpers (both for coal and overburden) = 50 te.
Spotting time for dumpers (both for coal and overburden) = 0.3 min.
Dumping time for dumpers (both for coal overburden) = 1.5 min.
Load travel speed for dumpers (both for coal overburden) = 20 kmph.
Empty travel speed for dumpers (both for coal and overburden) = 30 kmph.
Haul distance (one way) both for coal and overburden = 1 km.
Calculation
Average thickness of overburden
Stripping ratio =
Average thickness of coal seam  in-situ density of coal
So, Average Thickness of overburden = 2.5  10  1.4 m. = 35 m.
This may be handled by 3 benches of height 12 m, 12m and 11 m.
Number of coal shovel
Required production per year = (4.5  106) tonne
Effective production per year per shovel
= (5  0.85  100  3600  1.4  7200  0.56) / ((100 + 20)  30) te = 2,399,040 te
Number of working shovels required = (4.5  106) / 2399040 = 1.87…
Actual number of working shovels required = 2
Number of overburden shovels
Required excavation capacity per year = 4.5  106  2.5 m3
Effective excavation capacity per year per shovel
= (5  0.8  100  3600  7200  0.56) / ((100 + 20)  30 = 1,612,800 m3
Number of working shovels required = (4.5  106  2.5) / 1,612,800 = 6.97…
Actual number of working shovels required = 7
Number of Dumpers for coal
Effective dumper capacity = (50  1.4) / 2.6 te = 27 te
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket = (5  0.85  1.4  100) / (100 + 20) = 4.958…
Number of passes required to load the dumper = (27 / 4.96) = 5.44…
Actual number of pass = 5 => Dumper Loading time = 5  30 sec = 2.5 min
Spotting time = 0.3 min
Load travel time = (1  60) / 20 min = 3 min
Dumping time = 1.5 min
Empty travel time = (1  60) / 30 min = 2 min
Total number of dumpers required per shovel = (0.3 + 2.5 + 3 + 1.5 + 2) / (0.3 + 2.5)
= 9.3/2.8 = 3.32…
Actual number of dumpers required per shovel = 4
Waiting time for each dumper = (4  2.8) – 9.3 min = 11.2 – 9.3 min = 1.9 min
Total number of dumpers required for coal = 2  4 = 8

Number of Dumpers for overburden

Effective dumper capacity = 50 te.
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket = (5  0.8  2.6  100) / (100 + 20) = 8.666…
Number of passes required to load the dumper = 50 / 8.67 = 5.76…
Actual number of pass = 5 => Dumper loading time = 5 × 30 sec = 2.5 min.
Spotting time = 0.3 min.
Load travel time = 3 min.
Dumping time = 1.5 min.
Empty travel time = 2 min.
The number of dumpers required per shovel = (0.3 + 2.5 + 3 + 1.5 + 2) / (0.3 + 2.5)
= 9.3/2.8 = 3.32…
Actual number of dumpers required per shovel = 4
Waiting time for each dumper = (4  2.8) – 9.3 min = 11.2 – 9.3 min = 1.9 min
Total number of dumpers required for overburden = 7  4 = 28.

Statement of HEMM Required in the Mine

Sl. Qty.
Item Capacity Remarks
No. Working Total
1. Coal shovel 5.0 m3 2 3 Spare-1
2. Dumper for coal shovels 50 te. 8 12 Spare-4
3. Drill for coal faces 150 mm. 2 3 Spare-1
4. Overburden shovel 5.0 m3 7 9 Spare-2
5. Dumper for overburden shovels 50 te. 28 42 Spare-14
6. Drill for overburden faces 250 mm. 7 9 Spare-2
7. Dozer 250/350 hp 9 11 Spare-2
8. Front end loader 6.0 m3 3 4 Spare-1
9. Motor grader - 2 3 Spare-1
10. Crane 2 3 Spare-1
11. Water sprinkler 2 3 Spare-1
4.1.1.5. Estimation of Shovel, Dumper and other HEMM required in a Surface Iron Ore Mine
for a given Output
The steps to be followed for estimation of HEMM required in a surface iron ore mine, or any other
mine where both ore and waste are mined in same bench, using shovel-dumper combination for
given production and other conditions are detailed below. For estimation of HEMM, the number of
shovels and dumpers are calculated and the numbers of other equipment are estimated following
certain norm.

Calculation for Number of Shovels and Dumpers

Let,
P - required production of ore per year, tonne
SR - average stripping ratio, tonne/tonne
H - total working hours per year (7200 for 3 shifts working)
Bc - bucket capacity of shovel, m3
Bf - bucket fill factor of shovel (0.8 to 0.85)
S - % swell of ore and waste
o - in-situ density of ore, tonne/m3
w - in-situ density of waste, tonne/m3
E - overall utilization factor for shovels (0.56 for 3 shift working)
Fs - swing factor for shovel (1 for 90 deg. swing)
Tc - standard cycle time for shovel, sec
Dc - capacity of dumper, tonne
St - spotting time for dumper (0.2 to 1.0), min
Dt - dumping time for dumper (1.0 to 2.0), min
Tl - load travel speed for dumper (20 to 30 kmph)
Te - empty travel speed for dumper (1.5 times Tl)
DIST - average haul distance for ore and waste, km

Calculation for Number of Shovel

Total production of ore per year = P tonne
Total production of waste per year = P  SR tonne
Total production of ore and waste per year = P  (1 + SR) tonne
Total volume of ore per year = P / o m3
Total volume of waste per year = (P  SR) / w m3
Total volume of ore and waste per year = P [(1/o) + (SR / w)] m3
Average density of composite ore and waste, av = [P  (1 + SR)] / P [(1/o) + (SR / w)] te/ m3
= (1 + SR) / [(1/o) + (SR / w)] te/ m3 = [(1 + SR)  o  w] / (w + SR  o) te/ m3
Total workings hours per year = H
Effective production per hour per shovel,
Qch = Bc  Bf  100  3600  av  E tonne
100 + S tc  Fs
Effective production per year per shovel,
Qcy = Bc  Bf  100  3600  av  H  E tonne
100 + S tc  Fs

So, Number of working shovel required (NS1) = P  (1 + SR) / Qcy

P  (1 + SR)  (100 + S)  (tc  Fs)
=
Bc  Bf  100  3600  av  H  E
Actual number of working shovel required is given by -
NS = NS1, if integer
= Integer part of NS1 + 1, otherwise
Calculation for Number of Dumpers
Dumper Cycle time = Spotting time + Loading time + Load travel time + Dumping time + Empty
travel time + Waiting time at shovel end.
Loading time is the actual time taken by the shovel to load a dumper
= (No of shovel bucket passes required to load the dumper)  (shovel cycle time)
Effective dumper capacity
Number of shovel bucket passes required =
Tonne per pass of shovel bucket
Effective dumper capacity = Rated dumper capacity  (/2.6),  < 2.6.
= Rated dumper capacity, otherwise
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket = Bucket capacity (m3)  (100 / (100 + % Swell))
 fill factor  in-situ density (tonne/m3)
In this case,
Effective dumper capacity = Dc
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket = Bc  Bf  av  (100/(100 + S))
Number of shovel bucket passes required to load a dumper (NP1)
= (Dc  (100 + S)) / (Bc  Bf  av  100)
Actual number of passes required, NP = Integer part of NP1
So, the dumper loading time = NP  tc / 60 (min)
Load travel time = (DIST / Tl)  60 (min)
Empty travel time = (DIST / Te) × 60 (min)
The number of dumpers required per shovel (ND1)
Spotting time + Loading time + Load travel time + Dumping time + Empty travel time
=
Spotting time + Loading time
[St + ((NP  tc)/60) + ((DIST  60)/Tl) + Dt + ((DIST  60)/Te)]
=
[St + ((NP  tc)/60)]
Actual number of working dumper required per working coal shovel,
ND = ND1, if integer
= Integer part of ND1 + 1, otherwise
So, total number of working dumpers = NS  ND
Estimation of Other HEMM
Number of working drills required = Number of working shovels
Number of working = 0.5 per working shovel + 1 to 1.5 for sundry jobs + 1 or 2 at
dozers required crusher + 1 or 2 at ore stockpile area + 1 or 2 at waste dump
Number of working front- = 1 or 2 for supporting jobs at the pit + 1 to 3 (based on
end loaders required production level) at the ore stockpile area
Number of working motor graders required = 1 or 2 for road maintenance.
Number of cranes required = 1 or more depending on production level
Number of water sprinklers required = 1 or more based on production level
Numerical Example
Estimate the HEMM required in a surface Iron Ore mine for producing 6.0 million tonne of ore per
year. The average stripping ratio is 0.3 tonne/tonne. The mine will be worked by shovel dumper
combination with a bench height of 12m.
Given Conditions:
Production of ore per year = 6.0  106 tonne
Average stripping ratio = 0.3 tonne/tonne
Bench height = 12 m.
Assumptions:
Total available hours/year = 300  3  8 = 7200
Overall utilization of available hours for shovels = 56%
Bank density of ore = 3.6 te/m3
Bank density of waste = 2.8 te/m3
Shovel bucket capacity = 5m3.
Shovel fill factor = 0.8.
% Swell for ore and waste = 25%.
Angle of swing for shovel = 90 deg.
Standard cycle time of shovel = 30 sec.
Rated Capacity of dumpers = 50 te.
Spotting time for dumpers = 0.3 min.
Dumping time for dumpers = 1.5 min.
Load travel speed for dumpers = 20 kmph.
Empty travel speed for dumpers = 30 kmph.
Haul distance (one way) both for ore and waste = 1 km.
Calculation
Production of ore per year = 6.0  106 tonne
Handling of waste per year = 0.3  6.0  106 tonne = 1.8  106 tonne
Total material to be handled per year = (6.0 + 1.8)  106 tonne = 7.8  106 tonne
Bank density of ore = 3.6 te/m3 Bank density of waste = 2.8 te/m3
Average density of composite ore and waste, av = [(1 + SR)  o  w] / (w + SR  o) te/ m3
Average density of composite ore and waste,
av = [(1 + 0.3)  3.6  2.8] / (2.8 + 0.3  3.6) te/ m3 = (1.3  3.6  2.8) / (2.8 + 1.08) te/ m3
= (13.104 / 3.88) te/ m3= 3.377… te/ m3
Number of shovel
Required handling of total material (ore and waste) per year = (7.8  106) tonne
Average density of composite ore and waste = (13.104 / 3.88) te/ m3
Effective production per year per shovel
= (5  0.8  100  3600  13.104  7200  0.56) / ((100 + 25)  3.88  30) te
= 76,082,872,320 / 14,550 te = 5,229,063.39 te
Number of working shovels required = (7.8  106) / 5,229,063.39 = 1.49…
Actual number of working shovels required = 2
Number of Dumpers
Effective dumper capacity = 50 te, as av > 2.6 te/ m3
Tonnes per pass of shovel bucket = (5  0.8  13.104  100) / ((100 + 25)  3.88) = 10.807…
Number of passes required to load the dumper = (50 / 10.807) = 4.62…
Actual number of pass = 4 => Dumper Loading time = 4  30 sec = 2.0 min.
Spotting time = 0.3 min.
Load travel time = (1  60) / 20 min = 3 min
Dumping time = 1.5 min
Empty travel time = (1  60) / 30 min = 2 min
Total number of dumpers required per shovel = (0.3 + 2 + 3 + 1.5 + 2) / (0.3 + 2)
= 8.8 / 2.3 = 3.82…
Actual number of dumpers required per shovel = 4
Waiting time for each dumper = (4  2.3) – 8.8 min = 9.2 – 8.8 min = 0.4 min
Total number of dumpers required = 2 × 4 = 8
Statement of HEMM Required in the Mine
Sl. Qty.
Item Capacity Remarks
No. Working Total
1. Shovel 5.0 m3 2 2 Spare included
2. Dumper 50 te. 8 12 Spare-4
3. Drill 225 mm. 2 2 Spare included
4. Dozer 250/350 hp 5 6 Spare-1
5. Front end loader 3.0 m3 3 4 Spare-1
6. Motor grader - 2 3 Spare-1
7. Crane - 2 3 Spare-1
8. Water sprinkler - 2 3 Spare-1

4.1.1.6. Dependence of Shovel Productivity on Dumper Capacity

Let a shovel of bucket capacity Bc is loading two dumpers of significantly different capacity.
The shovel cycle time = tc min
Effective bucket load per pass of shovel = Bl = Bc  Bf  (100/(100+S))   te.
No. of passes required to fill the smaller capacity dumper = n
No. of passes required to fill the larger capacity dumper = n + m
For single spotting condition, spotting time for both the dumpers = ts min
For the smaller dumper,
No. of pass to fill the dumper = n => Total time to fill the dumper = n  tc min
Effective total time to fill the dumper = (n  tc) + ts min
No. of dumpers filled per hour = 60 / ((n  tc) + ts)
Effective hourly shovel productivity, Psd = (60  n  Bl) / ((n  tc) + ts) = (60  Bl) / (tc + (ts / n))
Similarly, for the larger dumper,
Effective hourly shovel productivity, Pld = (60  (n + m)  Bl) / [((n + m)  tc) + ts]
= (60  Bl) / [tc + (ts / (n + m))]
As (n + m) > n, Pld > Psd
For double spotting condition, spotting time for both the dumpers = 0 min
Under this condition,
The effective hourly shovel productivity corresponding to both the dumpers = (60  Bl) / tc
So for a given shovel, its effective productivity will increase with significant increase in dumper
capacity in single spotting condition. However, in double spotting condition the effective
productivity of a shovel becomes independent of the dumper capacity.
Dependence of Dumper Productivity on Shovel Capacity
Let a dumper is being loaded by two shovels of significantly different capacity.
The cycle time for smaller shovel = tc min
The cycle time for larger shovel = (tc + tc) min
Effective bucket load per pass of smaller capacity shovel = Bl1 = Bc1  Bf1  (100/(100+S))   te.
Effective bucket load per pass of larger capacity shovel = Bl2 = Bc2  Bf2  (100/(100+S))   te.
No. of passes required to fill the dumper by smaller capacity shovel = n
No. of passes required to fill the dumper by larger capacity shovel = (n – m)
So, n  Bl1  (n – m)  Bl2
The loading time required for the dumper by smaller capacity shovel, tl1 = (n  tc) min
The loading time required for the dumper by larger capacity shovel, tl2 = (n – m)  (tc + tc) min
= ((n – m)  tc) min + ((n – m)  tc) min
As tc << tc, ((n – m)  tc) < (n  tc) => tl2 < tl1
Total dumper cycle time when loaded by smaller shovel, tdc1 = (ts + tl1 + tlt + td + tet) min
Total dumper cycle time when loaded by larger shovel, tdc2 = (ts + tl2 + tlt + td + tet) min
As tl2 < tl1, tdc2 < tdc1
Effective hourly dumper productivity when loaded by smaller shovel, Ps1 = (60  n  Bl1) / tdc1
Effective hourly dumper productivity when loaded by larger shovel, Ps2 = (60  (n – m)  Bl1) / tdc2
= (60  n  Bl1) / tdc2
As tdc2 < tdc1, Ps1 < Ps2
This is true for both the single and double spotting condition. Hence, the effective dumper
productivity increases with the significant increase in shovel bucket capacity irrespective of
spotting condition.