Basic Protection Philosophy

Angsu Mukherjee
AREVA India

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Protection - Why Is It Needed?

All Power Systems may experience faults at some

time.
PROTECTION IS INSTALLED TO :

Detect fault occurrence and isolate the faulted
equipment.

SO THAT :

Damage to the faulted equipment is limited;

Disruption of supplies to adjacent unfaulted
equipment is minimised.

PROTECTION IS EFFECTIVELY AN INSURANCE POLICY

- AN INVESTMENT AGAINST DAMAGE FROM FUTURE
FAULTS.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Protection - Why Is It Needed?

FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS RISK :

Severe damage to the faulted equipment :

Excessive current may flow;

Causes burning of conductors or equipment
windings;

Arcing - energy dissipation;

Risk of explosions for oil - filled switchgear, or when
in hazardous environments.

Damage to adjacent plant :

As the fault evolves, if not cleared quickly;

Due to the voltage depression / loss of supply.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Protection - Why Is It Needed?

FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS RISK :

Danger to staff or the public :

Risk of shock from direct contact with the faulted
equipment;

Danger of potential (voltage) rises in exposed
metalwork – accessible to touch;

Fumes released by burning insulation;

Burns etc.

Disruption to adjacent plant :

Prolonged voltage dips cause motors to stall;

Loss of synchronism for synchronous generators /
motors.
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004
 Protection - Why Is It Needed?

SUMMARY :

Protection must :

Detect faults and abnormal operating conditions;

Isolate the faulted equipment.

So as to :

Limit damage caused by fault energy;

Limit effect on rest of system.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Important Considerations When Applying
Protection

Types of fault and abnormal conditions to be protected against

Quantities available for measurement

Types of protection available

Speed

Fault position discrimination

Dependability / Reliability

Security / Stability

Overlap of protections

Phase discrimination / Selectivity

CTs and VTs

Auxiliary supplies

Back-up protection

Cost

Duplication of protection

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure

Underground Cables

Diggers
Overloading
Oil Leakage
Ageing

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure

Overhead Lines

Lightning
Kites
Trees
Moisture
Salt
Birds
Broken Conductors

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure

Machines

Mechanical Damage
Unbalanced Load

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Types of Fault
a
b
Ø/E
c

a
b
Ø/Ø/E
c
e

a
Ø/Ø b
c

a a
3Ø b b
c 3Ø/E c

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Types of Fault

a a'
CROSS b b'
COUNTRY c c'
FAULT
e e

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Types of Fault

a
OPEN
b
CIRCUIT
+ Ø/E c

FAULT
BETWEEN
ADJACENT
PARALLEL
LINES

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Types of Fault

a
CHANGING
FAULT IN
CABLE
b c

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Types Of Protection

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Types of Protection

Fuses
For : LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and
Transformers, VTs, Auxiliary Supplies

Direct Acting AC Trip

For : LV Systems, Pole Mounted Reclosers

Overcurrent and Earthfault

Widely used in all Power Systems
Non-Directional
Voltage Dependant
Directional

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Types of Protection

Differential
For : Feeders, Busbars, Transformers, Generators,
etc.
High Impedance
Restricted E/F
Biased (or low-impedance)
Pilot Wire
Digital

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Types of Protection

Distance
For : Distribution Feeders and Transmission
and Sub-Transmission Circuits
Also used as Back-up Protection for
Transformers and Generators

Phase Comparison
For : Transmission Lines

Directional Comparison
For : Transmission Lines

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Types of Protection

Miscellaneous
Under and Over Voltage
Under and Over Frequency
Special Relays for Generators,
Transformers, Motors, etc.

Control Relays
Auto-Reclose, Tap Change Control, etc.

Tripping and Auxiliary Relays

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Overcurrent Protection Direct Acting AC Trip

51

Trip Coil

IF

AC series trip

common for electromechanical O/C relays

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Overcurrent Protection Direct Acting AC Trip

IF'

+
Sensitive
51 Trip
Coil
-

IF

Capacitor discharge trip

used with static relays where no secure DC
supply is available

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Overcurrent Protection DC Shunt Trip

IF
IF'

51

DC SHUNT
BATTERY TRIP COIL

Requires secure DC auxiliary

No trip if DC fails
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004
 Overcurrent Protection Co-ordination Principle

Relay closest to fault

R1 R2 must operate first
IF1
Other relays must have
adequate additional
operating time to
T prevent them operating

Current setting chosen
to allow FLC

Consider worst case
conditions, operating
modes and current
IS2 IS1 Maximum I flows
Fault
Level

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Differential Protection Principle (1)

Protected
Circuit

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Differential Protection Principle (2)

Protected
Circuit

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

Relay
ZS PT.
IR ZL

Normal
VS VR ZLOAD
Load

VR
Impedance measured ZR = = Z L + Z LOAD
ΙR

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

ZL

ZS IR ZF

VS VR ZLOAD Fault

Impedance Measured ZR = VR/IR = ZF

Relay Operates if ZF < Z where Z = setting

Increasing VR has a Restraining Effect ∴VR
called Restraining Voltage

Increasing IR has an Operating Effect

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Plain Impedance Characteristic

jX ZL Impedance Seen At
Measuring Location
For Line Faults

TRIP STABLE

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Impedance Characteristic Generation

jIX
IF zF
IZ
V2 V1
VF V3

IR
Trip TRIP STABLE
Spring

Restrain Voltage to Relay = V

Operate
Current to Relay = I
Replica Impedance = Z
Ampere Turns : VF IZ
Trip Condition : S2 < S1
Trip Conditions : VF < IFZ
where : S1 = IZ ≈ Z
S2 = V ≈ ZF

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Buchholz Relay Installation

3 x internal pipe
Conservator
diameter (minimum)
5 x internal pipe
diameter (minimum)

Oil conservator
3 minimum

Transformer

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Autoreclose Benefits (1)

Improved continuity of supply

Supply restoration is automatic (does not require

human intervention)

Shorter duration interruptions

Less consumer hours lost

Use of instantaneous protection for faster fault clearance

(NB: some healthy circuits may also be tripped)

Less damage

Less pre-heating of circuit breaker contacts (reduced
maintenance?)

Less chance of transient fault becoming permanent

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Autoreclose Benefits (2)

Less frequent visits to substations

More unmanned substations

Reduced operating costs

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Definitions & Considerations

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Classes of Protection

Non-Unit, or Unrestricted Protection :

No specific point downstream up to which

protection will protect

Will operate for faults on the protected

equipment;

May also operate for faults on downstream
equipment, which has its own protection;

Need for discrimination with downstream
protection, usually by means of time grading.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Classes of Protection

Unit, or Restricted Protection :

Has an accurately defined zone of protection

An item of power system plant is protected as

a unit;

Will not operate for out of zone faults, thus no
back-up protection for downstream faults.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Co-ordination

LOAD

SOURCE
LOAD

LOAD

F1 LOAD F2
F3

Co-ordinate protection so that relay nearest to

fault operates first – minimises amount of
system disconnection.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 ANSI Reference Numbers

2 Time Delay 51 Time Delayed Overcurrent

21 Distance 51N Time Delayed Earthfault
25 Synchronising Check 52 Circuit Breaker
27 Undervoltage 52a Auxiliary Switch - Normally Open
30 Annunciator 52b Auxiliary Switch - Normally Closed
32 Directional Power 59 Overvoltage
37 Undercurrent or Under Power 60 Voltage or Current Balance
40 Field Failure 64 Instantaneous Earth Fault (High Impedance)
46 Negative Sequence 67 Directional Overcurrent
49 Thermal 67N Directional Earthfault
50 Instantaneous Overcurrent 74 Alarm
79 Auto-Reclose 85 Signal Receive
81 Frequency 86 Lock-Out
85 Signal Receive 87 Differential
86 Lock-Out

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Important Considerations When Applying
Protection

Speed
Fast operation :
Minimises damage and danger
Very fast operation :
Minimises system instability
Discrimination and security can be costly to
achieve as it generally involves additional
signaling / communications equipment.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Important Considerations When Applying
Protection

Fault Position Discrimination

Power system divided into PROTECTED ZONES
Must isolate only the faulty equipment or section

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Zones of Protection

TRANSF- BUSBAR
BUSBAR ORMER ZONE
ZONE ZONE
FEEDER
ZONE

GENERATION ZONE

BUSBAR
ZONE FEEDER
ZONE

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Important Considerations When Applying
Protection

Overlap of Protections
No blind spots
Where possible use overlapping CTs

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Protection Overlap

BBP BBP
‘1’ ‘2’

H J

‘Z’

G LP LP K L
‘H’ ‘J’

LP LP
‘K’ ‘L’

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Important Considerations When Applying
Protection

Dependability / Reliability
Protection must operate when required to
Failure to operate can be extremely damaging
and disruptive
Faults are rare. Protection must operate even
after years of inactivity
Improved by use of: Back-up protection and
duplicate protection

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Important Considerations When Applying
Protection

Security / Stability
Protection must not operate when not required to,
e.g. due to : Load switching
Faults on other parts of the system
Recoverable power swings

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Important Considerations When Applying
Protection

Phase Discrimination
Correct indication of phases involved in the fault
Important for single phase tripping and auto-
reclosing applications

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Cost

The cost of protection is equivalent to an insurance

policy against damage to plant, and loss of supply
and customer goodwill.

Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics

and technical factors. Cost of protection should be
balanced against the cost of potential hazards.

There is an economic limit on what can be spent.

MINIMUM COST : Must ensure that all faulty

equipment is isolated by
protection.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Cost

TOTAL COST should take account of :

Relays, schemes and associated panels and

panel wiring

Setting studies

Commissioning

CTs and VTs

Maintenance and repairs to relays

Damage repair if protection fails to operate

Lost revenue if protection operates
unnecessarily

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Cost

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Large numbers of switching and distribution

points, transformers and feeders

Economics often overrides technical issues

Protection may be the minimum consistent
with statutory safety regulations

Speed less important than on transmission
systems

Back-up protection can be simple and is often
inherent in the main protection

Although important, the consequences of
maloperation or failure to operate is less
serious than for transmission systems

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Cost
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Emphasis is on technical considerations rather

than economics

Economics cannot be ignored but is of
secondary importance compared with the need
for highly reliable, fully discriminative high speed
protection

Higher protection costs justifiable by high capital
cost of power system elements protected

Risk of security of supply should be reduced to
lowest practical levels

High speed protection requires unit protection

Duplicate protections used to improve reliability

Single phase tripping and auto-reclose may be
required to maintain system stability
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004
 Important Considerations When Applying
Protection

Current and Voltage Transformers

These are an essential part of the protection scheme

to reduce primary current and volts to a low level
suitable to input to relay.

They must be suitably specified to meet the
requirements of the protective relays.

Correct connection of CTs and VTs to the protection is
important. In particular for directional, distance, phase
comparison and differential protections.

VTs may be electromagnetic or capacitor types.

Busbar VTs : Special consideration needed when
used for line protection.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Current Transformer Circuits

Never open circuit a CT secondary circuit, so :

Never fuse CT circuits;

VTs must be fused or protected by MCB.

Do wire test blocks in circuit (both VT and CT) to
allow commissioning and periodic injection testing of
relays.

Earth CT and VT circuits at one point only;
Wire gauge > 2.5mm2 recommended for mechanical
strength.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Auxiliary Supplies

Required for : TRIPPING CIRCUIT BREAKERS

CLOSING CIRCUIT BREAKERS
PROTECTION and TRIP RELAYS

AC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are only used on LV and MV systems.

DC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are more secure than AC supplies.
SEPARATELY FUSED SUPPLIES used for each protection.
DUPLICATE BATTERIES are occasionally provided for extra
security.
MODERN PROTECTION RELAYS need a continuous auxiliary
supply.
During unoperated (healthy) conditions, they draw a small
‘QUIESCENT’ load to keep relay circuits energised.
During operation, they draw a larger current which increases due to
operation of output elements.

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

 Relay Outputs
TRIP OUTPUT CONTACTS :

Check that these are rated sufficiently to make and
carry the circuit breaker trip coil current. If not, a
heavier duty tripping relay will be needed.

Use a circuit breaker normally open (52a) contact to
interrupt trip coil current. This extends the life of the
protection relay trip contacts.
TYPE OF CONTACTS :
Make (M) / Close when energised, typically
Normally Open (NO) used for tripping.

Break (B) / Close when de-energised.

Normally Closed (NC)

Changeover (C/O) Can be break before make (BBM)

or make before break (MBB).

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004