Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A comprehensive review of cogeneration system in a microgrid: A

perspective from architecture and operating system
⁎
Normazlina Mat Isa, Chee Wei Tan , A.H.M. Yatim
Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Several factors such as climate change, increment in fuel cost and digital technology era have lead to
Cogenerations transformation of conventional grid into smart grid. Existing microgrid can be integrated with smart grid
Prime movers characteristics by various topologies, including cogeneration system where both electricity and thermal energy
Hierarchical control from single source of fuel can be produced. Cogeneration system has better efficiency, lower costs and able to
Fuel cell
reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to singular conventional methods. This paper presents a
Commercial building
comprehensive review of cogeneration system, covering the principle operation and types of prime movers
available for use in power plant, building and industrial plant. Prime movers such as gas turbine, steam turbine,
micro turbine, reciprocate engine and fuel cell are compared in terms of size (kW), efficiency and principal
operation. This review also describes the hierarchical control system for cogeneration system; classified into
three types, which are local, centralized and decentralized. This study tries to find the most suitable control
strategy for certain cogeneration system by referring to the related standards available. A number of
cogeneration applications in commercial buildings, including hospital, airport, shopping complex and hotel,
are presented to show the effectiveness of the cogeneration system. Overall, this paper presents comparison
between each prime mover technology, factors that influence the selection of prime movers, challenges and
prospects of cogeneration system.

1. Introduction implementation [3]. In addition, global workforce has begun applying

digital, computerized and communication technologies in their daily
Integration of cogeneration system or combined heat and power work, since the 21st century electricity delivery system involves
(CHP) is not new because these technologies have been used in the consumers in electricity generation and power trading. Modern tech-
industrial plants in the early 1880s when steam was the primary source nologies in digital, computer and communication have urged people to
of energy. Cogeneration is defined as energy generation unit that be more alert in their power usage [4], since as customers of power
simultaneously produces both electricity and thermal from a single fuel system industry, they have the responsibility to better manage their
source. Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) defines cogen- grid, handle costly power outage, perform real time meter reading and
eration as the production of electric energy and steam or forms of have choices of dynamic power prices [5–9]. With regard to SG
useful energy, such as heat, that can be used for industrial, commercial, technologies, microgrids are developed with various topology combina-
heating or cooling purposes [1]. Meanwhile, World Alliance for tions of energy sources, energy storages, power electronics devices and
Decentralization Energy defines cogeneration as a “process of produ- loads. Among all microgrid topologies, cogeneration system or com-
cing both electricity and usable thermal energy (heating or cooling) at bined heat and power (CHP) is the best mechanism that can help to
high efficiency and near the point of use” [2]. In current situation achieve SG objectives.
where power generation systems are facing substantial transformation Cogeneration is not new; industrial plants have used the cogenera-
from conventional electricity production to modern Smart Grid (SG), tions concept in early 1880s when steam was the primary source of
adaptation of cogeneration system undeniably more efficient and energy. At that time, electricity had just emerged as a source for both
suitable in many cases of energy generation. Issues like climate power and lighting [10]. The use of cogeneration system became a
changes, increment in fuel prices, and advancement of digital and common practice when the engineers utilized steam belt and pulley
communication technologies are the main factors that lead to more SG mechanism to produce electric power by motors; which is a transfor-

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N.M. Isa), [email protected] (C.W. Tan), [email protected] (A.H.M. Yatim).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.034
Received 20 February 2016; Received in revised form 4 June 2017; Accepted 9 June 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Please cite this article as: Isa, N.M., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.034
N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

mation from mechanical powered system into an electrically powered destruction evaluation, by evaluating the variations of temperature of
system. In early 20th century, coal fired boilers and steam turbine high pressure steam, temperature of reheat and condenser pressure in
generators were used to generate electricity, and the by-product, the the developed cogeneration system. Authors in [22] discussed the
exhaust steam, was used for industrial heating applications [11]. issues on environmental impact of small scale cogeneration facilities,
Implementation of cogeneration in power plant station declined in including standalone facilities like thermal storage tank and back-up
US by 1950s, accounting for only 15% of total electrical generation, and boiler. The measure data were then used to create dimension of
the further dropped to about 5% in 1974. This was due to the cogeneration facilities to fulfill certain heat demand and study the
construction of central electric power plants and reliable utility grids, impact of thermal storage tanks on the operational behavior of 40
leading to the reduction in the cost of electricity. This influenced the different residential heat-demand profiles. S.Shams in [23] introduced
industrial plants to buy electricity from utility companies and stop a new and simple method to increase the efficiency of on-site distribu-
generating their own. Moreover, factors like increasing regulatory tion generators through cogeneration techniques, whose results were
policies regarding electric generation, low fuel costs, advance boilers then compared to those of single heat and power techniques. They
technologies and strict environmental control have led to the decline of concluded that the utilization of cogeneration based reciprocate engine
cogeneration system [12]. Nevertheless, this downward trend started to can increase the efficiency per consumed fuel while decreasing the gas
revert after the first fuel crisis in 1973. Due to the increment in energy emissions.
prices and uncertainty of fuel supply supplies, engineers started to find Since renewable energy resources have become famous recently,
other alternatives to produce their electricity by using more efficient some researchers tried to integrate renewable energy resources into
system that can utilize unconventional fuels like cogeneration. cogeneration system. Thilak in [24] reviewed the application of various
Cogeneration system are suitable for building applications, including resources of renewable energy, including biomass and solar in the
hospitals, institutional buildings, hotels, office buildings and single- cogeneration system. His review covered the area of design, analysis,
and multi-family residential buildings [13]. The applications of cogen- modelling and simulation, energy policies, as well as economic and
erations in buildings have to satisfy both electrical and thermal environmental issues. Other than that, [25] presented a development of
demands, which depend on the magnitude of the electrical and thermal cogeneration system with renewable energy generation consist of wind
load, operating strategy. On the negative side, surplus energy may have energy, PV, heat recovery boiler and battery. The analysis dealt with the
to be stored or sold, while deficiency of energy may have to be made up problem of operation of cogeneration system, besides discussion on the
by purchasing electricity and heat from other sources such as utility effect of battery and peak-valley electricity price on system operation
grid [14]. The excess heat energy produced can be stored in thermal costs. A technical, economic and market review of rankine cycle of
storage devices, such as water tank, while the electricity excess energy cogeneration system is described in [26] and the design of micro-CHP
can be stored in electrical storage devices like batteries or capacitors. for residential utilization is explained in [27]. Reference [28] presents a
Technologies like fuel cell and engines based cogeneration are promis- model of micro CHP system, whose transient analysis had been
ing for small scale cogeneration for residential and commercial validated with laboratory results. A wood pellet stirling engine micro-
building, but currently, internal combustions engines are the only CHP unit is presented [29] to characterize its annual performance
system available at reasonable cost [15]. Therefore, governments when integrated to a building.
especially in Europe, US, Canada and Japan are leading the role in Various articles in the literature have described the implementation
establishing and promoting the development of cogeneration applica- of cogeneration in power generation. However, these articles only cater
tions, not only in industrial plant, but also in other sectors including the application of the cogeneration system without explaining the
commercial and residential building. In Malaysia, cogeneration system concept and principle operation of each cogeneration technology,
has existed for almost a decade now. Several policies for cogeneration especially on how prime movers should operate. It is important to
projects have been issued in different projects, specifically 13 for public identify and understand the performance of cogeneration technologies
facilities, and one for the private sectors [16]. Regard of government to select the best for a desired system. While most articles, such as
support in providing the incentives and the proven technical viability of articles [30–36] thoroughly explain cogeneration implementation in
cogenerations systems, Malaysia has stepped forward in achievement power plant, the applications of cogeneration in commercial building
when in 2007, there were 24 major cogeneration plants in Peninsular such as hospital, airport, shopping complex, university and hotel are
Malaysia with a total capacity of 713.2 MW [17]. Numerous articles in still limited, especially in Asian countries like Malaysia. Hence, this
related literature discuss about researches to improvise the cogenera- study aims to introduce a novel cogeneration system that can be
tion system, covering the area of policies for cogeneration implementa- integrated into microgrids, especially in buildings. The operation
tion, architecture design, efficiency, control system, optimization, principle and classification of cogeneration system based on prime
techno-economic analysis and system performances. Cristiano in [18] movers is described with reference to several related research works.
discussed the policy of opportunistic maintenance, to consider more Discussion includes explanation on hierarchical control system de-
than one decision criterion by using a multi-attribute value function, signed for cogeneration control system. Furthermore, the application of
for a study developed for a cogeneration system that uses sugarcane cogeneration system in several commercial building is comprehensively
bagasse at a power plant in northeastern Brazil. Authors in [19] reviewed. This paper also presents comparison between each prime
presented a control system for two cogeneration units and two mover, factors that influence selection of prime movers, challenges and
additional heating plants, where 3000 customers from industry, office future research directions of the cogeneration system.
building and residential settlements are supplied by the system. A This paper starts with Section 1, which presents the background
proportional integral (PI) controller tuning method for cooling of the study of cogeneration. Section 2 reviews the application of smart grid,
hydrogen production in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell microgrid and cogeneration system, including the standards employed
(PEMFC) based micro-cogeneration was presented in [20]. In this for cogeneration installation and application. Section 3 describes the
method, the output response attained from the proposed controller is principle operation of cogeneration, followed by Section 4 which
critically damped response with damping ratio, f = 1 and the control presents the type of cogeneration system and prime movers technology
signal is slowly varied for safe control signal. Flow rate control of the with their application. Section 5 caters discussion on cogeneration
hydrogen production unit within the micro-cogeneration is implemen- control system, including local control, centralized control and decen-
ted by simulating the temperature control system in MATLAB envir- tralized control. Afterwards, Section 6 explains parameters to evaluate
onment. Authors in [21] presented the effect of key parameters on the cogeneration performance. Section 7 presents the application of
output power and efficiency in first and second law of thermodynamics cogeneration in various buildings, while Section 8 discusses some
point of view. This includes the variation inefficiency and energy cogeneration issues. Challenges and future prospect of cogeneration

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. An overview of smart grid concept.

system is presented in Section 9, then the conclusion of this manuscript gies in SG plays a main role. Nevertheless, SG that can be attached with
is given in Section 10. multiple component, including distributed renewable energy resources,
distributed energy storage and various levels of load, need to follow
2. System description standard regulation to ensure smooth implementation [40]. Reference
[41] lists the technology and concept of SG including distributed
2.1. Smart grid energy resources with generation and storage, advanced and distrib-
uted communications whereby all the grid components are able to
Conventional electricity network consists of three main parts which communicate, and have intelligent metering [42], according to policies
and regulatory actions which are necessary to achieve integration of all
explain power electricity movement from source to consumers, which
are generation, transmission and distribution. The existing grid has the parts in SG. More emphases on SG technology can be found in
articles [43–45] and [5], which discuss the characteristic, advantages,
features of electrochemical structure, one way communication, centra-
lized generation, less sensors, manual recovery, manual checks/test, opportunities, issues and challenges in SG.
Technologies like automated and power electronics are combined in
and some degrees of control by customer [37]. Smart power grid is a
more intelligent electrical network, with higher efficiency, flexibility, order to achieve the SG performance. Power electronics play the crucial
role in smart grid to interface renewable energy resources (RERs) to
reliability and security of the electrical system, as the grid is observable,
controllable, automated and fully automated, as shown in Fig. 1. the grid [46,47]. Besides, it provides necessary control features for
controllable power system. Power converters permit the electrical
Compared to existing electrical grids, Smart Grid (SG) have the
features of digital structure, two-way communication, distributed energy consumers to create micro grid that can function independently
or in parallel with the main grid. Apart from power electronics roles in
generation, numerous sensors, self-monitoring, self-healing capabil-
ities, remote checks and test, and pervasive control, thus with more energy conversion, energy management system is also critical part to
ensure power reliability, efficiency and stability in microgrid system.
customers [38]. Fig. 2 shows the comparison between existing grid and
SG system, in which the existing conventional grid has lack of Energy Management System (EMS), an important module in the
scheduling system, is also an important part for micro-grid technology,
communication capabilities, compared to SG infrastructure which is
full of advance sensing, communication and computing abilities [9]. In for data management, monitoring, control and optimization for micro-
grid dispatch control center. In summary, SG tries to achieve five main
this case, the issues of reliable and real time information are the key
factors for reliable delivery of power from the generating unit to the objectives, as following:
end users. It is necessary to avoid the effect of equipment failures,
capacity constraints and natural accident that cause power distur- a. Advance technology to permit the profitable building energy man-
agement system to use intelligent control strategies combined with
bances, which is solvable by online power system condition monitoring,
storage system and load generation.
diagnosis and protection [39]. SG is expected to have the character-
b. Customers to participate in power market, where they can buy and
istics of being well-organized and plug-and-play integration of micro-
sell electricity based on dynamic rates
grid, to be able to be connected with dedicated highway for exchange of
c. Demand side elasticity to reduce transmission, energy storage and
command and data power transfer. Intelligent monitoring and modern
central generation infrastructure costs
communication technologies have become essential to realize the SG
features. This means that the infrastructure of information technolo- d. Two-way communication between supply and demand allow market

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Fig. 2. Comparison of traditional grid information technology with smart grid information technology [40].

signals to propagate to the consumers with load forecast and flywheels, etc.), or use of traditional generation with inertia with the
generation bids going back to the grid controllers and market micro-sources. Anitha in [51] reviewed battery technology and con-
operators. cluded that a lead–acid battery is the most suitable for micro-grid
e. SG offer electricity product with good quality, carbon content and applications, because it is capable of providing large currents for a very
efficiency short interval of time. Basically, there are two types of microgrid, which
are AC micro-grid and DC micro-grid; both can operate either in stand-
alone or grid connected mode [52]. During grid-connected mode, they
2.2. Microgrid can be controlled as a power node to improve the power flow of power
grid, while during islanding mode, it offers high reliability power
Microgrid is a low voltage distribution network, formed by dis- supply to the critical load. Microgrid operation has four operating
tributed energy resources (DERs), energy storage (ESS) and load; all of stages: 1) transient stage of going to grid-connected mode, 2) steady
which participate in active network management of SG [48]. Micro-grid stage of grid-connected mode, 3) transient stage of going to island
adapts the technology implemented in SG to provide energy services mode, and 4) steady stage of island mode. Manager of micro-grid has to
for small communities such as typical housing estate, isolated rural ensure every stage's reliability to meet the demand from the load
community, mixed suburban environment, academic or public com- [53,54]. Development of micro grid will become highly important due
munity like university or school, commercial area, industrial site, to its intelligence, flexibility, environmental protection and the diversi-
trading estate and municipal residential [49]. Fig. 3 shows the basic fication of energy utilization in the future.
configuration of microgrid, whose architecture basically consists of In microgrid, loads can be categorized into four types, which are
Distributed Generators (DG), Energy Storage Systems (ESS) and loads. critical load, controllable loads, sensitive to price load, and thermal
DG resources can be solar PV or wind turbine, while the storage system load. Critical load is the demands that must be met at all times, such as
can be in the form of battery or super-capacitor. The generators may servers and loads related to essential processes. In controllable load,
either be one of two types; distributed generation units inside the the magnitude of certain demands might be flexible. Controllable
microgrid control area, which is managed independently from the demand has a preferred level, but the demand level can be lowered if
microgrid manager, and distributed generation units inside the micro- a certain cost is associated with the load shedding. The magnitude of
grid control area, which is owned by the microgrid manager. These price sensitive load depends on energy price. If energy price is higher
units have micro-sources from renewable energy sources like wind than the margin price, load demand will decrease to a predefined value
turbine or solar PV. As to ensure system reliability, forecasting must be or to zero. Thermal load that requires thermal energy is provided by
considered by incorporation of wind or sun characteristic into genera- boiler and recovers heat from microturbine. Another part in the control
tion planning. In microgrid, due to large time constants (from 10 to system is the control system unit for the safe operation of microgrid in
200 s) of the responses from the resources such as fuel cells and various operation modes. The control system unit can be based on
microturbines, a storage device must be able to provide the amount of central controller or distributed controller. Here, the selection of
power needed to balance the system following disturbances or sig- controller depends mainly on the microgrid operation mode.
nificant load changes [50]. The micro-grid storage system can be in Microgrid system not only offers reliable electricity supply but also
several forms like batteries or super-capacitors on DC bus for each efficient utilization of the renewable energy. It also reduces carbon
micro-sources, direct connection of ac storage devices (batteries,

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Fig. 3. Basic configuration of micro-grid.

emissions as well as utility bills [55]. Furthermore, microgrid technol- [64] explained the standards used in microgrid to comply with the
ogy provides flexible and high efficiency platform for distributed features in micro-grid. Omid in [65] proposed the applications of IEC/
generation, as well as generation and utilization of renewable energy; ISO 62264 standards to microgrid and Virtual Power Plant. This
in which can improve the utility system performance through cogen- standard emphasizes the control method that can be applied in
eration system or combined heat and power (CHP) system [56]. microgrid. According to the standard, control method for microgrid
Prasenjit Basak in [57] and Qiang Fu in [58] explained comprehen- can be explained in five levels, namely generation process level, sensing
sively the architecture, controls, protection and demonstrations of and adjusting generation level, monitoring and supervising level,
micro-grid, while Lidula in [59] presented some existing micro-grid maintaining and optimizing level, and market structure and business
networks in America, Europe and Asia. Taha in [60] conducted an model level. The levels of control method in this standard are simplified
overview on recent research works based on micro-grid area. Indeed, as shown in Fig. 4. Communication standards applied in SG technology
micro grid is interesting due to their tremendous applications, besides including IEC 61970, IEC 61850, IEEE P2030 and ANSI C12.18 have
its advantages in three different classes: technical, economic and been discussed in article [39]. Authors in [40] presented the main
environmentally friendly. From technical point of view, the benefits standards specifically needed for SG protection automation. Table 1
are such as supporting the power remote communities, higher energy lists some of the series of IEC and IEEE standards related to micro-grid
efficiency, less vulnerability of large networks and power blackouts work.
reductions [61]. Microgrid can be designed accordingly to customer's
demand such as to enhance local reliability, reduce feeder losses, 2.3. Cogeneration system
support local voltages, increase efficiency through the use of waste heat
and provide uninterruptible power supply [62]. Basu in [63] reviewed Recently, cogeneration system or combined heat and power (CHP)
comprehensively the economic benefits of micro grid, like improve- system are broadly used in microgrid as to fulfill both electricity
ment of bus voltages, line loss reduction, reduction in emission, waste demand and thermal loads. Cogeneration system has the ability to
heat utilization, interruption cost or the customer, minimization of fuel generate both electricity and thermal power. During the electrical
cost, ancillary services etc. generation process, a lot of energy is wasted as thermal energy. To take
the advantages of the wastes thermal energy, cogeneration system use
2.2.1. Standards in micro-grid it to produce the heat with utilize of distributed energy resources such
Since microgrid is a complicated system with various elements as fuel cells and micro turbine [71]. Meanwhile, the electricity power
attached, several numbers of standards have been developed. One of produced by cogeneration can be used onsite or distributed through the
the most important is the IEEE Standard for Interconnecting utility grid or both. Cogeneration system has efficiency up to 85%
Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems 1547. This family compared to conventional separate energy generation process. Thermal
standard is developed by the IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee energy is usually used onsite for industrial process heat or steam, space
21, which establishes the criteria and requirements for the intercon- conditioning and hot water. Yet, if the cogeneration system produces
nection of distributed resources with electric power systems. Although more useful thermal energy than needed onsite, it distribution to
no specific standard has been developed to deal with micro-grids, some nearby facilities can substantially improve the cogeneration's econom-
of the existing standards for DERs can be adapted to them. Estefanıa in ics and energy efficiency. According to [24], cogenerations system is an

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Level 5 : Business Planning and Logistic

(control : business model and plan market structure)

Level 4 : Maintaining and optimization

(Control : Energy generation controls, power flow between MG and the grid)

Level 3 : Supervisory Control for the generation process

(Control : MGCC and Synchoronize Regultedd P or Q, bring back power
output of storage to zero)

Level 2 : Sensing and regulating generation

(Controll : regulating and keep the system stable, ensure the voltage control in
storage is well due tu dynamic changes)

Level 1: Generation process

(Control : regulate each module, inner voltage and current control loop)

Fig. 4. Control system level suggested in IEC/ ISO 62264 standards.

old and proven practice. However, due to current energy crisis, there [72]:
has been a resurgence of interest in cogeneration technology for
industrial sites, commercial buildings and rural applications. • Less air pollution such as SO2,NOx and Hg
Cogeneration system should provide enough thermal energy to meet • Provide on-site electricity generation that is resilient in the face of
many types of industrial demand, such as space heating and cooling for grid outages
variety of different commercial applications, at the same time supply- • Provide power for critical cervices in emergencies
ing significant amounts of electricity to the utility grid. Since cogenera- • Avoid economic losses by deferring the investment in new electricity
tion is able to produce two forms of energy in one process, they can transmission and distribution infrastructure
provide substantial energy saving relative to the conventional separate • Relieve congestion constraints on existing infrastructure
electric and thermal energy technologies. Therefore, cogeneration • Require less energy cost, reduce the risk of electric disruptions and
system is most likely to be competitive with conventional separate enhance energy reliability.
electric and thermal energy technologies as it is relatively inexpensively
with many benefits. The advantages of cogeneration systems include Cogeneration system is also able to predict uncertain electricity

Table 1
List of standards for microgrid [39,64].

Standard Description Scopes

IEEE 1547 [45] Criteria and requirements for interconnection of ·1547.1 Conformance test
DERs with the main grid ·1547.2. Application guide
·1547.3. Monitoring and control
·1547.4. Design, operation and integration of DERs
·1547.5. Interconnection guidelines for electric power sources greater than 10 MVA c 1547.6.
Interconnection with distribution secondary networks c 1547.7. Distribution impact studies for
interconnection of DERs
·1547.8. Recommended practice for establishing methods and procedures
EN 50160 [46] Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by ·Definitions and indicative values for a number of power quality phenomena in LV and MV
public distribution networks networks
·Limits for power frequency, voltage variations, harmonics voltage, voltage unbalance, flicker and
mains signaling
IEC 61000 [47] General conditions or rules necessary for achieving ·Safety function and integrity requirements
electromagnetic compatibility ·Compatibility levels
·Emission and immunity limits
·Measurement and testing techniques
·Installation guidelines, mitigation methods and devices
IEEE C37.95 [48] Protective relaying of utility-consumer ·Establishment of consumer service requirements and supply methods
interconnections ·Protection system design considerations
IEC 61850 [66] Communication – Data exchange
– Power network parameters
IEC 61970-301 [67] Energy management system – To ensure reliable operation of the interconnected power networks
IEC 62325 [68] Energy market – A framework for energy market communication
– Business operational view with technical e-business architecture
IEC 61968 [69] System interface – System interface for distribution management
IEEE 37.118 [49,70] IEEE Standard for Synchrophasor for Power ·Definition of a synchronized phasor
Systems ·Time synchronization, application of time tags
·Method to verify measurement compliance with the standard
·Message formats for communication with a PMU

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Fig. 5. Topping and bottoming cycles in cogeneration system.

price. Because of this, buildings like hospitals, schools, university number of relevant information, since efficient data management is
campuses, hotels, nursing homes, office buildings, single or multi- necessary to control the cogeneration system. A control strategy for
family houses and apartment complexes takes the benefits of cogenera- cogeneration system is described in upcoming sections.
tion system to meet their power demand [73]. As an example, hospitals
that use both electricity and thermal energy, taking advantage of 3. Principle operation of cogeneration system
favorable utility rate and hedging against rising electricity prices.
Instead of purchasing electricity from the local utility and burn There are three main operations in cogeneration system, which are
conventional fuel in an on-site furnace or boiler to produce thermal topping cycle, bottoming cycle and combined cycle. Mostly, cogenera-
energy, hospitals can use cogeneration system to provide both energy tion is operated in topping cycle, where fuel is first used to generate the
services by one energy efficient method. The applications of cogenera- electricity or mechanical energy at the facility, and a portion of the
tion in buildings must satisfy both electric and thermal demands. Wen- waste heat from power generation will be used to provide useful
Tien Tsai in [74] performed an analysis of cogeneration system thermal energy. In typical topping cycle of cogeneration system, fuel is
installed in Taiwan. In the study, electricity supply, consumption and used by prime mover to generate electric or mechanical power. The
sources during past two decades, 1984–2004 were analyzed. produced electricity may be used for the building and facilities, or it
Meanwhile, researchers in reference [75] developed a model of optimal will be transferred to the power grid. Next, the prime mover's hot
energy planning for a commercial building by integrating solar and exhaust is used to provide process heat, hot water or space heating for
cogeneration system. the site. Topping cycle plant focuses on generating electricity and
Compared to conventional generation system, cogeneration can selling excess electricity to an electricity utility, and this plant is usually
reach up to 80% of efficiency. Efficiency of the cogeneration system sized to meet the heat demands of a site, with consideration of
determines the performance of cogenerations implementation [30]. In electricity generations being a secondary. The topping cycle plant
this regards, the efficiency of the cogenerations system depends on the always requires additional fuel which is included in the operational
type of the prime mover, its size and the temperature at which the cost along with power production. Meanwhile, bottoming cycle type of
recovery heat can be utilized. The efficiency is generally expressed in cogeneration systems first produces useful heat for a manufacturing
both electrical efficiency and overall efficiency, as in Eqs. (1′) and (2′) process by fuel combustion or any heat-generating chemical reaction,
[30]. and recovers some portion of the exhaust heat to generate electricity.
electrical output(kW) Bottoming cycle is also referred as Waste Heat to Power (WHP) and it
Electrical efficiency =
fuel input(kW) (1′) is mostly applied in process industries, like glass and steel where very
high temperature is needed. A percentage of the rejected heat is then
usefull thermal + electrical output(kW) recovered and used for power production in building, facilities or grid
Overall efficiency =
fuel input(kW) (2′) [10]. Fig. 5(a) and (b) show the topping and bottoming cogeneration
Integration of cogeneration system into smart electric power system principle operations, respectively. In the latest technology, the topping
requires a sophisticated and automated control system for energy and bottoming cycle is joined together to form combined cycle with
management supervision. This is to ensure the operations of the better efficiency, as shown in Fig. 6.
cogeneration system in accordance to the power and heat demand of
the consumers. The operation schedule of the cogeneration system will 4. Technology in cogeneration system
be calculated by an optimization tool, based on a forecast of the power
and heat demand. Optimization tools are based on mathematical Basically, a cogeneration system consists of generators, heat
models that describe the relations between the main influence factors recovery and electrical interconnection component. Cogeneration
and the power and heat demand. Cogeneration system requires large technology is categorized according to their prime movers or the heat

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fuel (Liquid or Gas)

Combustor

Compressor
Gas
Electricity output
Turbine

Air inlet

HRSG Thermal energy

Exhaust
Economizer Steam
Electricity output
turbine

Pump

Condensor

Fig. 6. Block diagram of combined cycle cogeneration.

engines. The role of these prime movers is to burn a variety of fuels, turbine application. Wang Shen in [77] analyzed the characteristic of
including natural gas, coal, oil and alternative fuel in order to produce energy consumption of the demand side system of cogeneration system
shaft power or mechanical energy. Besides being used to drive a with micro gas turbine. The fuel saving rate for different running
generator to produce electricity, the mechanical energy from the prime condition was evaluated in this study, inclusive of a comparative study
mover can also be used to drive rotating equipment like compressors, for the systems with and without auxiliary fuel supply for the
pumps and fans. Combustion process by prime movers consumes fuel absorption. Results of this study showed that under special condition
such as coal, natural gas and biomass to power the generator to where the efficiency for power generation plus grid is less than 34.5%,
produce electricity or drive rotating equipment. Besides, prime mover the output will save the energy. Researchers in [78] optimized the
will produce thermal energy that can be captured and used for other sizing for a gas fired grid connected cogeneration system planning in
onsite processes to generate steam or hot water, heat air for drying, or Malaysia, whereby the optimization approach was presented. This is a
cool water for cooling purpose. Prime movers in cogeneration system parallel study, as currently, the Malaysian government is encouraging
as stated in the literature can be classified into two classes, which are the development of cogeneration by utilizing renewable energy re-
combustion-based technology and electrochemical based technology. sources, along with introduction of some policies [79]. Meanwhile,
In the current market, there are five primary commercially available researchers in [80] conducted a study to improve the operational
prime movers for cogeneration system: gas turbines, steam turbines, parameters for natural gas in cogeneration plant in public building in
reciprocating engines, micro turbines and fuel cell. Each of this Thailand. Two case studies were conducted in order to study the
technology is explained in the following subsection. alternatives parameters. The first one was conducted on a 52.5 MW
cogeneration plant at the Suvarnabhumi Airport and the second was on
a 9.9 MW cogeneration plant of the government office building
4.1. Gas turbines complex. The Suvarnabhumi Airport uses District Cooling System
and Power Plant (DCAP), which is a natural gas based cogeneration
Gas turbine cogeneration system is highly reliable as it has capacity plant designed for supplying electricity, and providing steam and
between 500 kW and 250 MW, and can be used for high-grade heat chilled water for cooling purposes at the airport area, with a total
applications. Gas turbine for cogeneration system consists of generator, capacity of 52,5 MW electrical power and 25,240 RT (88,765 kW) of
combustion chamber, recupator, compressor and turbine connected by cooling energy. Another case study was done on a cogeneration plant
a shaft [76]. The operation of gas turbines is similar to that of jet designed to supply electricity and cooling at the new government office
engines, where natural gas is combusted and used to turn the turbine building complex, which houses offices, restaurants and shops that
blades; and it will spin an electrical generator. Then, the integrated open from 8.00 A.M. to 5.00 P.M. from Monday to Friday. The plant
heat recovery system will capture the heat from the gas turbine exhaust utilizes natural gas based cogeneration with 9.9 MW electricity and
stream. The exhaust heat produced can be used for heating or cooling 6000 RT (21,000 kW) cooling capacity. The parameters of efficiency
purpose. The heat from the system is also recovered from the hot had been measured and compared in this study, which showed that the
exhaust gas using a heat recovery system. Fig. 7 shows a basic cycle of improvement of the system's efficiency is important, not only for
gas turbine cogeneration system recovering heat from the gas turbine's operating performance, but also for savings of primary energy and
hot exhaust gases to produce useful thermal and electrical energy for emissions. Therefore, the selection of new prime mover resulted in
the site consumption. overall efficiency improvement from 48% to 61%; 24% increase in
There are numerous studies in literature which focused on the gas

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Gas

Air

Alternator
Turbine
Turbine

Turbine Alternator
Exhaust gases

HRGS
Condenser
Cooling

Water

Steam

Feed water

Boiler feed pump

Fig. 7. Block diagram of a typical gas turbine cogeneration structure.

primary energy saving and 27% improvement of CO2 emission reduc- produce more electricity per unit of fuel compared than back turbines.
tion. In another study reported in [81], a hybrid cogeneration plant This is because, more energy contained in the steam is extracted by the
consisting of three 46 MW gas turbines units and one 36.6 MW steam turbine [87].
turbine a gas turbines was developed. The cogeneration plant was Normally, steam turbines have capacity between 50 kW to 250 MW,
designed to improve the power service quality in the Hsin-Chu Science- and work by combusting fuel in a boiler to heat water to create high-
based Industrial Park. Article [82] presents a development of combina- pressure steam, which will turn a turbine to generate electricity. The
tion gas turbine-steam turbine combined cogeneration system. This low-pressure steam output from the steam turbine can be used to
study intended to analyze the energy consumption by new constructed provide useful thermal energy either in buildings, factory or utility grid,
tool in Korea in order to forecast the liquid petroleum gas (LPG) as illustrated in Fig. 10. Numerous researches have been done to
demand in 14 years. Meanwhile, [83] presents a cogeneration system investigate the application of steam turbine for cogeneration system.
consisting of a gas turbine with two-cycle process, installed at the However, it is beyond this study to discuss all the related articles.
University Campus in Trsat and the new Clinical Hospital Center in Therefore, only several of them are highlighted. As example, Amit in
Rijeka, to generate steam for heating and produce electrical energy. [31] found that the generated power by 35 TPH boiler in 6 MW captive
According to the design, the university campus will be supplied with a power plant can have the largest destruction energy. Marshman in [88]
natural gas from the main gas line, which is high-pressured gas. Gas developed a steam-based cogeneration system to provide heat for
pressure will be reduced from high pressure (4e6 bar) to moderate pulping process, and to generate electricity for sale to regional
pressure (up to 1 bar) at the gas measuring and regulation station, providers. Meanwhile, article [89] presents a comparison between
which will be located in the university campus area. Articles [84,85] the performance of a cogeneration system based steam turbine and
presents investigation on gas turbine application, by demonstrating the conventional diesel steam boiler. The work aimed to solve the dilemma
operation of micro gas turbine cogeneration system with latent heat to replace the traditional generation system with new cogeneration
storage at the Energy Technology Research Institute of the National system. The initial modelling work of steam turbines cogeneration was
Institute Advances Industrial Science and Technology. A 30 kW followed by calculation of total expected setup and operational cost of
Capstone micro gas turbine with hot water package and a vacuum- steam turbines cogeneration. K.Alanne in [90] characterized a boiler-
type hot water were used in the experiment. The exterior of the latent integrated rotary steam engine (RSE) micro-cogeneration system and
heat storage tank was made of SUS304 stainless steel, with height of specified a two-control volume thermodynamic model to conduct
1.8 m and 348 mm in diameter with 96 capsules. Detailed explanation performance analysis in residential applications. The finding showed
is discussed comprehensively in the provided reference. Anita in [86] that the RSE integrated with a 17 kWth pellet-fuelled boiler could
presented an efficient nonlinear programme (NLP) model for simulta- obtain an electrical output of 1.925 kWe, at temperature of 150 °C,
neous cogeneration system of electricity by using an open gas turbine reaching electrical efficiency of 9%, based on the lower heating value of
for an exothermic reactor circuit system. the fuel, LHV and thermal efficiency of 77% (LHV). The above system
can operate up to 1274 h per year in a single family house in Finland,
4.2. Steam turbines meeting 31% of the house electrical demand. The amount of electricity
delivered into the grid is 989 kW h/y. Rodrigo in article [91] showed
Steam turbines cogeneration system may use variety of fuels such as how thermo-economic models can be adapted to allocate overall CO2
natural gas, solid waste, coal, wood, wood waste and agricultural emission of four different gases and steam turbine cogeneration
byproducts to generate electric and thermal power. A general steam systems to the final products (net power and heat). In thermo-
turbine diagram is shown in Fig. 8 while Fig. 9(a) and (b) illustrate economic analysis, a single model of Second Law Thermodynamic
several types of steam turbines, including back pressure and conden- analysis is combined with economic factors, which one must consider
sing. In back pressure turbines, exhaust steam is at a pressure higher in the design and/ or performance evaluation and optimization of any
than the atmosphere, but in condensing turbines, the exhaust steam is energy system. Article [92] presents investigation on a modified
at pressure lower than atmosphere. Hence, condensing turbines operation in steam injected operation. In this work, simulation was

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Wet Steam
Tower
Water
Return
Steam condenser
Compressor Steam
turbine

Steam supply Condensate

Evaporator Condenser

Tower
Water
Supply

Fig. 8. Block diagram of a general steam turbine cogeneration system.

done on 5 MW class gas turbine cogeneration plant, by injecting steam (Otto) engines [93]. Normally, diesel engines are used for large scale
to analyze the influence of bypassing some of the discharged air from cogeneration. These engines have four stroke direct injection engines
the compressor to the turbine exit on the operability. fitted with a turbo-charger and intercooler. Diesel engines run on diesel
fuel (sometime heavy oil) but they can also be set up to operate on a
4.3. Reciprocating engines dual fuel mode; in which they can burn primarily natural gas with small
amount of diesel pilot fuel. Stationary diesel engines can operate at
In many cases, reciprocating engine cogeneration systems are well speeds between 500 and 1500 rpm. However, the cooling system for
suited to various distributed generation applications, industrial, com- diesel engines are more complicated compared to cooling system in
mercial and institutional facilities. Reciprocating engines or reciprocat- spark ignition engines since the temperature in spark ignition is often
ing internal combustion engines are suitable for small scale cogenera- lower (usually 85 °C maximum)[94]. In comparison to diesel engines,
tions applications due to their robust and well proven technology. They spark ignition engines have heat recovery system normally up to 160 °C
can start quickly, follow load well, have good part-load efficiencies and of hot water or 20 bar steam output, which is more suitable for smaller
have high reliability as well as able to increase overall plant capacity cogeneration applications such as residential and open chamber
and availability. Besides, reciprocating engines have higher electrical engines. Normally, spark ignition engines run on natural gas although
efficiency compared to gas turbines, thus lower fuel-related operating they can operated by using propane, gasoline or landfill gas [93,94].
costs. In addition, the initial cost of reciprocating engine generator sets There are six main components of reciprocating engines, which are the
is generally lower than gas turbines generator sets of up to 3–5 MW in engine, generator, heat recovery system, exhaust system, controls and
size. Reciprocating engines also can be operated by using broad variety acoustic enclosure [93]. A spark ignition engine consists of four main
of fuels with excellent availability. However, the maintenance cost of parts, which are the exhaust gas heat exchanger, jacket water heat
reciprocating engines is higher compared to the gas turbines, but the exchanger, lube oil heat exchanger, valve and generator, as shown in
maintenance can often be handled by in-house staff or provided by Fig. 11 [93]. The operation in the engines starts with fuel and air being
local service organizations. Usually, reciprocating engines are in use of mixed, usually before introduction into the combustion cylinder for
standby, peak shaving, grid support, and CHP small applications of less spark ignited units. Next, the air is compressed before mixing with the
than 5 MW such as hot water, low pressure steam or waste heat fuel. The fuel or air mixture is then introduced into a combustion
absorptions. Fig. 11 shows the principle operation of reciprocating cylinder that is closed at one end and contains a moveable piston. After
engines cogeneration system. There are two sources of heat for that, the mixture is compressed by the piston, which moves toward the
recovery purpose. The first is exhaust gas at high temperature and top of the cylinder.
the other one is engine jacket cooling water system at low temperature. Although numerous research works have employed reciprocating
Generally, reciprocating engines are classified based on their method of engines as their cogeneration system, it is beyond this article to discuss
ignition, either compression ignition (diesel) engines or spark ignition all. Nevertheless, this section will highlight several references related to

Steam
Steam
Turbine
Boiler
Turbine
Boiler

Process
Process

Condenser

Process Cooling
water

(a) Back pressure turbine

(b) Condensing turbine

Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of steam turbine cogeneration, (a) back pressure turbine, (b) condensing turbine.

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 10. An example of steam turbine with boiler cogeneration application for buildings, factory and grid.

the study scope. Muccillo in [95] designed a micro cogeneration system (which can better handle transient operating conditions) would be
based on reciprocating engines. A plant was built, with installation of more effective in reducing NOX emissions and can improve the fuel
Lombardini 686 cm3 twin cylinder reciprocating engine with a volu- economy at higher loads. Reciprocating engines based cogeneration
metric compression ration equal to 10.5 unit. L.Federick in [96] also can be employed for residential load, as proposed and proven by a
conducted a dynamic simulation for a small Joule cycle reciprocating study in article [100]. In the study, cogeneration based stirling engines
Ericson engine for micro-cogeneration. In this study, both pressure were used to supply the residential area which have 8 kW of hot water
losses and the variation of the thermos-physical properties of the and 1 kW electricity. Three test cases were considered by fixing the
working fluid were considered as a function of the temperature in the temperature of the cogeneration water at the unit inlet alternatively:
system. The models developed in MATLAB environment took into 30, 50 and 70 °C, while the mass flow rate of the water was kept at the
account the optimal settings of the expansion cylinder valves, and the nominal value of 0.194 kg/s. The Stirling unit showed electrical
characteristic parameters of the engine were determined. K.T.Yun in efficiency slightly exceeding 9% and a thermal efficiency of 90% (both
[97] presented a power generation and heat recovery model for based on the Higher Heating Value) when the cogeneration water inlet
reciprocating engines to serve as an alternative to constant engine temperature was 30 °C, which decreased to about 84% with water inlet
efficiencies or empirical efficiency curves. Article [98] presents a theory at 70 °C. The Primary Energy Index was remarkably positive for all
of thermodynamic heat-engine concept which has the potential of cases, ranging from 17% to 22%, as the temperature of the water inlet
attaining a high efficiency and power density relative to competing reduced from 70 °C to 30 °C.
solutions, while having a simple construction with few moving parts
and dynamic seals, allowing low capital and operating costs, and long
4.4. Microturbine
lifetimes. In this study, a spatially lumped dynamic model of a class of
unsteady heat-engine referred to as the ‘Evaporative Reciprocating-
Microturbine are small combustion turbines that burn gaseous or
Piston Engine’ (ERPE) had been developed as an electronic circuit
liquid fuels to drive electrical generator. Micro turbines are similar to
representation, which was then compared to fundamental reciprocate
gas turbines in their design and construction. They have been
engines. Yunjin in [99] investigated the effects of biogas composition
commercially used for more than a decade because of their small and
on the combustion characteristics for stirling ignite engines. The
compact size, besides having lightweight combustion turbines with
finding of this study concluded that a significant reduction in NOX
high efficiency [101]. Other advantages of micro turbine are flexibility
emissions could be expected when using biogases containing CO2;
in connection method, able to stack in parallel to serve larger loads, can
however, an increase in fuel consumption would be unavoidable. A lean
provide reliable and stable power, and produces lower emissions
burn strategy is effective for reducing both fuel consumption and NOX
compared to reciprocating engines. The power output from micro
emissions; however, the use of biogas with stoichiometric air–fuel ratio
turbines is typically within 33,030–330 kW. Normally, thermal energy

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of spark ignite engine (reciprocating engines) [93].

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

To stack

Exhaust heat
recovery Recuperator

Rectifier
Fuel

High
frequency Compressor Combustor
generator Exhaust

Air

Fig. 12. An overview block diagram of microturbine cogeneration system.

Table 2
Important attributes of microturbine.

Electrical output Within 33,030–330 kW with modular package up to 1000 kW

Thermal output Temperature within 533 K to 589 K (260 °C to 316 °C), suitable for supplying thermal needs such as hot water and steam. Besides, a thermal energy
storage will be used to store chilled water in order to provide cooling output [105].
Fuel flexibility Can use various types of fuel: natural gas, sour gas, liquid fuels (gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, heating oil)
Reliability and life 40,000 to 80,000 h with overhaul
Emissions Low NOx combustion when operating in natural gas
Modularity Units may be connected in parallel to serve larger loads and to provide power reliability
Part-load operation Units can be operated to follow load with some efficiency penalties
Dimensions Compact and light weight, 0.7–0.85 m and 18–23 kg/kW

Fig. 13. Schematic of microturbine based cogeneration system.

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

from heat exchanger will be used for portable water heating, absorption 11%, which actually would increase the electrical efficiency of the
cooling, space heating, process heating and other building uses [102]. cogeneration system.
Microturbine are lightweight and compact, and has low noise, vibration
and low emissions, compared to combustion engine generators (re-
4.5. Fuel cells
ciprocating engines). Furthermore, microturbine are flexible in fuel
type and can burn various fuel including natural gas and liquid fuels.
The latest technology in cogeneration prime movers is utilizing fuel
Fig. 12 presents the basic micro turbines components which are the
cells, as fuel cells are capable to serve power and thermal needs with
combined compressor or turbine unit, generator, recuperator, com-
very low emissions and with high electrical efficiency [101]. In [114], J.
bustor, and heat exchanger. A microturbine has eight main attributes
Halliday reported that fuel cell is becoming famous due to its efficiency
that show microturbine characteristic; electrical output, thermal out-
in providing heat and power for urban application. The type of fuel cell
put, fuel flexibility, reliability and life, emissions, modularity, part load
determines the temperature of the heat liberated during the process
operation and dimensions, as shown in Table 2 [103]. Fig. 13
and its suitability for cogeneration applications [115]. There are two
illustrates schematic of typical microturbine that provides power,
types of fuel cell classified based on the temperature level. Proton
heating and cooling system. The operation starts with the compressor
Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) is usually used for low level
section raising the air pressure equal to atmosphere pressure, then the
temperature, since it generates thermal energy suitable for low-
air enters a recuperator that preheats the air using turbine exhaust.
pressure steam and hot water in cogeneration system. Solid oxide fuel
Next, the heated air enters the combustor, where pressurized fuel is
cell (SOFC) is used for high temperature application, such as combined
injected and burned. Since commercial buildings are typically supplied
cycles and other cogeneration process applications, because it can work
with low-pressure natural gas, a compressor generally is needed to
at a very high temperature, around 800– 1000 °C. Basically, fuel cell
pressurize the gas prior to injection. After combustion, the exhaust
uses an electrochemical reaction or battery-like process to convert
products enter the turbine, which provides shaft power to the
chemical energy, for example hydrogen into water and electricity,
compressor and a generator. The generator typically produces high-
through electrolysis process. Hydrogen can be obtained by processing
frequency power, which is changed to desired frequency (50 Hz or
natural gas, methanol, coal or other hydrocarbon fuels. In fuel cell, the
60 Hz). The turbine exhaust gas, which is typically at temperature of
electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen will release
about 1100OF (600 °C), enters the recuperator. Next, the exhaust gas
chemical energy, which will then be converted into electrical energy.
(typically at 500°F(260 °C)) is either released into the atmosphere, or
Reference [116] comprehensively reviews the history, advancement in
into one or more heat-recovery heat exchangers to produce heating or
technology, advantages and challenges, stationary and portable, design
cooling loads for the cogeneration system [104].
level and methodology, system evaluation factors and thermodynamic
Since microturbine technology have various advantages, numerous
principles in fuel cell. Fig. 14 shows an internal structure of fuel cell
researches have been done utilizing micro turbines as prime mover in
conversion flow, in which an electrolyte combines hydrogen with
cogeneration system. This section presents several works on micro
oxygen from air to produce hot water or steam and electrical current.
turbine application. Ismail conducted a technical and economical
As shown in the figure, molecular hydrogen is delivered from a gas flow
modelling of microturbine for hybrid renewable energy resources, as
stream to anode as it will react electrochemically. Then, the hydrogen is
in reference [106]. The study found that microturbine offer more
oxidized to produce hydrogen ions and electrons, as described in Eqs.
advantages compared to reciprocating engines, which include long
(1)–(3) [116].
lifetime (about 45,000 h), light weight, small size, small number of
Ions that migrate through the acidic electrolyte and the electrons
moving parts, fast response, higher efficiency, lower emissions, lower
are forced to flow through an external circuit, to reach the cathode, as
electricity costs, higher flexibility and opportunities to utilize waste
in Eq. (1). Next, the electrons and hydrogen ions will react with oxygen
fuels with less noise. Researchers in [107] also studied the applications
supplied from external gas flow at the cathode, to form water, as in Eq.
of micro-turbine as the prime mover of CHP system. In this work, the
(2). Lastly, the chemical reactions in the fuel cell produce water, heat
prime movers is properly sized with the development of technical-
and electricity, as described in Eq. (3).
economic approach to select the optimum arrangement of microtur-
bine. Three modes of operation were projected: one-way connection H2→2H++2e− (1)
(OWC) mode, two way connection (TWC) mode and heat demand
1
following (HDF) mode. Articles [108] and [109] catered modelling and O2 +2H++2e−→H2 O
2 (2)
simulation of microturbine based on GAST model developed by
General Electric [110]. An experiment to develop micro turbines is 1
presented in article [111]. The result of this experiment confirmed the H2+ O2→H2 O+Welec+Qelec
2 (3)
possibility of micro turbine for developing ICE by utilizing turbochar-
ger with reversible electric machine to improve engine performance. Fuel cells are categorized according to the material used for the
The development concept was based on unification of micro turbine electrolyte. There are five types currently under development:
with mass production of turbocharges and generators. Micro turbines
also can be used as a backup generator by combination with fuel cell
and battery storage, as performed by the researchers in article [112].
The main objective of this work was to control the microgrid consisting
of several generator accompanied by a back-up microturbine, fuel cell
and battery, whereby the work stress up to the energy management
strategy employed Adaptive Modified Particle Swarm Optimization
algorithm (AMPSO). The microturbine, fuel cell and battery functioned
to solve the level of power mismatch or to store the surplus energy until
needed. Article [113] presents technical testing for characterisation of
micro Humid Air Turbine (mHAT) based recupator micro turbine. This
experiment work was done at Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), by using
T100 mGT equipped with a spray saturation tower. The study demon-
strated the performance of water injection in micro turbine could Fig. 14. The illustration of the electrochemical process flow in the internal structure of a
increase more than 30%, while the fuel consumption would rise only by fuel cell.

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 3
Domain specific studies employing fuel cell for cogeneration system.

Domain Finding References

Control system New methods and techniques have been proposed to control fuel cell and supercapacitor, by using simple and [117,118,137]
effective algorithm to produce references. Simulation results of the hybrid system (solar, fuel cell and battery)
shows good respond. Control strategy eliminates the need for dump load by limiting the power drawn from the
sources.
Energy management system The supervisory control introduced in the energy management system is essential to ensure optimum reliability [138–143]
and cost of the hybrid system (fuel cell and renewable energy sources).
System sizing Optimization sizing methods to optimize the size of hybrid components, using fuel cell as the hydrogen storage, in [120,129]
order to achieve optimum system reliability as well as not to oversize the system components.
Characteristic and performance of Dynamic model of fuel cell has been used to examine and analyze the characteristics of Ballard Nexa 1.2 kW [119,121]
fuel cell PEMFC to obtain accurate dynamic performance in simulation. The accurate dynamic model is significant to
evaluate the feasibility of fuel cell application in buildings.
Techno-economic Various studies have been conducted using different simulation tools to assess the economic feasibility for [124,125,144–149]
buildings employing cogeneration based system.

Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC), molten carbonate fuel cells 250 ml/min and 325 ml/min) and two operating temperatures of
(MCFCs), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), alkaline fuel cells (AFCs), 650 °C and 75 °C on the output of electrical and thermal powers.
and proton exchange membrane (also called as polymer electrolyte
membrane) fuel cells (PEMFCs). Among them, PEMFC is operated 4.6. Hybrid cogeneration prime mover with renewable energy
under low temperature, while the others operate at higher temperature.
Article [116] provide a comprehensive review of fuel cell technology It is well known that cogeneration can work independently with
including history, competing technologies, design thermodynamic and existing prime mover technology. A step forward, there is also a
electrochemical principles of fuel cell. Fuel cell has quiet operation and research that combined multiple prime movers into one configuration.
could be sited almost everywhere. As there are many advantages of fuel As an example, A. Buonomano in [150] discussed several possible
cell, there plentiful research work on fuel cell based cogeneration configurations of SOFC with gas turbine. Cogeneration system that
system is performed. Recently, fuel cells are being used in hybrid combines main prime movers with renewable energy resource has
technology, which combines the fuel cell with other types of renewable gained interest due to combined advantages of both cogeneration
energy. References [114,117–129] circle around studies on control system and distributed energy resources. N. Thilak Raj in reference
system, sizing and system behavior of fuel cell. Table 3 presents some [24] presented the suitability of integrating renewable energy resources
domain studies on of fuel cell in energy management system and with cogeneration system. This study introduced a novel method,
techno-economic feasibility, which also prove that fuel cell is the most inclusive of comparison with existing designs, modelling and simula-
preferred energy supplier for cogeneration application. Zehra Ural in tion, theoretical and experimental analysis, together with the environ-
[130,131] designed and developed PEMFC, while El-Sharkh in [132] mental issues for the renewable energy based cogeneration. The result
analyzed the economic output of fuel cell using the evolutionary from the study proved that cogeneration system can be utilized with
programming based methodology. Sheila in [133] modelled micro- renewable energy resources to optimize efficiency. Numerous articles
generation based on fuel cell, by integrating the stack with necessary that discuss about the hybrid cogeneration system found in the
sub-systems for it to operate as a residential heat and power generator. literature. However, it is beyond this article to discuss all of them.
References [126] and [128] catered about dynamic modelling, simula- Table 4 presents several up-to-date hybrid cogeneration works which
tion and optimization, by simulating combination of fuel cell with other include hybrid prime mover and hybrid cogeneration system with
renewable energy resources to observe the behavior of fuel cell. Han in renewable resources.
[126] performed the modelling and optimization process to maximize
the efficiency of PEMFC. In the study, empirical and semi-empirical
5. Cogeneration control strategy
models had been used, which covered most of the system components
including the stack, humidifier, blower, power converter, and a pump
Since cogeneration has components such as generators, prime
and other balance of plants. This study show that the efficiency gap
movers, distributed resources and load, an efficient control system is
between the best and worst performance of the system can reach up to
needed to ensure the system operate properly to fulfill a demand.
1.2–5.5%, depending on the power load. Reference [134] introduces
Energy management system with well-organized data of each part in
two mathematical modelling for computing the steady state and
the cogeneration system is one example of control method [19]. Energy
dynamic characteristics of PEMFC, including the performance. The
controlling tool is important to enhance the efficiency of generation
study showed that the performance of a fuel cell can be expressed by
process in cogeneration system [19]. According to IEC/ISO 62264
the voltage-load current (V-I) characteristics, whereby the fuel cell
international standard as explained in [65], microgrid control system
system is divided into three control volumes. From this, a lumped-
has five levels: level zero (generation process), level one (the process of
parameter model for the sub-system can be established using the mass
sensing and adjusting generation), level two (monitoring and super-
and heat transfer equations. Reference [121] presents simplified
vising), level three (maintaining and optimizing) and level four (market
PEMFC model for developing cogeneration application. This model
structure and business model). Meanwhile, the control system for
uses Annex 42 fuel cell with seven measurable variables to predict
cogeneration based microgrid system has three levels: primary level,
power, heat and fuel consumption of a building. In this research work,
secondary level and tertiary level. The principal of these three layer is
the proposed cogeneration model was validated by experimental
further categorized as local control, centralized control and decentra-
measurements. In reference [135], Mahlia studied and analyzed the
lized control. This type of control system depends on the size of the
feasibility of the fuel cell based system to be used in Malaysia.
microgrid area. L.Meng in [161] described comprehensively the
Reference [136] presents an experimental work where a single tubular
hierarchical control concept of microgrid component. The article
solid oxide fuel cell(SOFC) with an electrolyte of stabilized zirconia
explains the concept of hierarchical control system, and the description
8 mol% ceramic powder were used for cogeneration purpose. The study
of control approach for centralized control system. A centralized
showed the effects of three different fuel flow-rates (174 ml/min,
control consists of power management for microgrid, economic dis-

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 N.M. Isa et al.

Table 4
Cogeneration system available in the literatures.

Authors /Year Combination of prime mover (hybrid cogeneration) Research interest/Finding References

GT ST RE MT FC Solar Wind Others

A.Immanuel (2014) / / / Exergy analysis has been performed to determine the exergetic efficiency of combustor. According to the analysis, it was [151]
found that an efficiency was increased from 74.5% to 81.8% as well as steam to air ratio (SAR) was increased from 0.3 to
0.9.
A.Mundada (2015) / / battery A quantifying analysis has been performed to observe the economic viability of autonomous systems by assessing the [152]
levelized cost of electricity (LCOE).
Kallol Roy (2014) / / / / Diesel, battery In this study, an energy management system has been proposed to schedule energy generation. Throughout the proposed [153]
algorithm, an optimal sizing and operation were obtained. Therefore a developed system can achieve a reliable system in a
minimum cost.
J.Kalina (2011) / Biomass In this work, the investigation of a distributed generation plants that built from gasifier, Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) [154]
and Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) machine as a bottoming unit has been performed. The finding from three different
setups show that the total electricity generation efficiency of the plants depended on engine selection and configuration of
the systems. The lowest value obtained was 23.6% while the highest was 28.3%.
S.Obara (2015) / / Flywheel In this study, a modelling for a cogeneration's equipments has been done using numerical analysis, which consider an [155]
energy balance, mass balance and transient characteristics of the equipments. Besides, a fluctuation of the power output of
the SOFC and PV as a combined generator has been described. PID controller was used for governor free control and air
flow rate control at the SOFC output as well as the fluctuation in PV output was also observed. The finding conclude that
load following is difficult to achieve without an inertia system due to the late response of SOFC in the air flow rate control.
When the control power fluctuations use a flywheel, the output power is greater than a backup power storage facilities.
M.Kalantar (2009) / / / Battery A development of a supervisory controller to manage standalone system operation has been presented whereby Genetic [108]

15
Algorithm has been used to obtain the optimal sizing and minimum operation cost. In addition, a supervisory control
system employing fuzzy logic was designed to manage the maximum energy captured from the wind turbine and solar
arrays. The energy generated has been consumed by dump load and stored in the storage.
A.C.Fereira (2015) / / Stirling engine In this study, a stirling engines and concentrated solar energy has been used as a heat sources for thermal-economic [156]
optimization. Initially, modelling of the components has been done to observe the responses of the system. Besides,
regenerator heat transfer, pressure drop and thermal losses has been considered in the thermodynamic analysis. The
results of this study shows that implementation of mathematical model reached an optimal solution disclosing a positive
annual worth (627 V/year) for the best physical configuration of the system. Also, the best configuration that represents a
cogeneration system able to deliver 3.65 kW of electrical power and 11.06 kW of thermal power to fulfill the base heating
load of a residential building.
P.Balcombe (2014) / / Stirling engine battery In this research, life cycle analysis has been performed to compare the feasibility of developed cogeneration with [157,158]
conventional grid –boiler system. Life cycle assessment has been carried out for these purposes by simulating a daily and
seasonal energy demand of different household types. The analysis results showed that the impacts are reduced by 35–
100% compared to electricity from the grid and heat from gas boilers. Since no study has investigated integrated PV-
SECHP-battery system, the result has been compared individually with those available in the literatures. This gives large
rooms for research opportunities in PV-SECHP-battery integration.
S.Pedrazzi (2010) / / Hydrogen In this study, a complete mathematical modelling and simulation has been presented. A simulations result gave an [159]
electrical efficiency and thermal efficiency of 8.2% and 12.5%, respectively. In addition, hydrogen annual surplus of
110.5 kg could be obtained, which can, for instance, be used to feed a hydrogen powered car for about 9500 km.
G.Prinsloo (2016) / / In this article, a development of hierarchical digital supervisory control for solar powered micro-generation has been [160]
presented. Besides, a digital simulation experiments have been conducted to evaluate the operational plans and operational
cost of energy management for different storage system. The results showed that an improved energy management
efficiency is able to reduce operational cost and customer's energy bill.
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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

the MPPT performance for Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV),

and described current mode controlled MPPT algorithm including
rapid convergence and steady state accuracy. Meanwhile, authors in
[169] introduced a dynamic control behavior results of a Doubly-Fed
Induction Generator (DFIG) and two other synchronous sources (a
diesel and a small hydro-generator) within a microgrid. In this study,
the entire load that exceeded the normal power demand of the micro
grid internal generation was shed based on the simulation response of
the generators upon returning to the pre-overload condition.

5.2. Centralized control

In centralized control, the management of the micro grid is

performed by a central controller located at the global control level,
known as Microgrid Central Control (MGCC). Normally, a MGCC is
available for each microgrid to interface with the Distributed
Management System (DMS), therefore the definition of centralization
Fig. 15. Links in microgrid centralized control system. or decentralization is based on the position of the MGCC. Centralized
control system is suitable for small sized micro grids as it is feasible to
patch, optimization approach and rule based methodology for energy control with the presence of an operator. In order to do a control
management system. A. M.Bouzid [162] reviewed a control system for purpose, variables such as active and reactive power are collected from
a distribute power generation systems, including cogeneration based the Distributed Generators (DGs), Energy Storage System (ESS) and
on renewable energy. The analysis extended the control mechanism critical loads. At the same time, data about market conditions, security
that focuses on three topologies, namely grid-forming, grid feeding and issues and request from upper controls unit are taken into account.
grid supporting. This means that a communication network links all the hierarchical
control levels. A secondary centralized control compensates the varia-
tions of voltage and frequency in primary control level before it
5.1. Local control proceeds to the tertiary control levels [58,170]. Fig. 15 shows the
relationship of each operator in centralized control system developed
Local control is also known as internal control loop target to based on hierarchical controls; designed with added various degrees of
manage the power of Micro Sources (MS). Basically in microgrid, intelligence [171]. Many available literature in the references describe
control starts with the source operating control by the use of power about centralized control, for example a series of studies by Dimeas and
electronics devices, either in current or voltage control modes. At this Hatziargyriou [171–173]. They explained the concept of centralized
level of control, the target is to control operating points without any control by defining the function of distribution network operator
communication system. Also, the local control aims to manage the (DNO) and market operator (MO). This concept requires a commu-
power electronic interface in voltage and current control mode, as well nication link to ensure the information delivered between each
as to manage the frequency and voltage in the microgrid regardless the segment in microgrid to be successful. The information flow in a
system is connected to the grid or standalone. Meanwhile, in current centralized control is presented in Fig. 16. Article [174] presents a
control mode, where the system is often in grid connection mode, the centralized control consisting of one master controller and several slave
control strategy mainly focuses on management of the active and controllers for various renewable energy and energy storage system.
reactive power. As this is a basic control system, the measured data for According to [175], the control level of hierarchical systems can be
local controllers are local voltages and currents, and have simple categorized as Local controllers that consist of Microsources
circuitry and low cost. Most local controllers will exist together with Controllers (MCs) and Load Controllers (LCs), Microgrid Central
other types of controllers, as majority of microsources require power- Controller (MGCCs) and Distribution Management System (DMS). In
electronic interfaces to convert their output to suit with power system reference [176], Ali Bidram explained the hierarchical based control
specifications. Zheng Zeng in [163] reviewed the topologies and control system for microgrid, in which a hierarchical supervision with type
strategies of multi-functional grid-connected inverters (MFGCIs). In management and control scheme supported by a communication
solar photovoltaic, the design, implementation and experimentation of infrastructure was used to monitor and control the cogeneration
a digital solar controller is usually require Maximum Power Point system. Antonis in [177] developed an optimization algorithm for
Tracker (MPPT) command [164]. MPPT is an automatic control low voltage networking application, in which the controller shall
algorithm function to adjust the power interfaces and achieve the best optimize the operation of microgrid during the interconnected opera-
possible power harvest, during moment variations of light level, tion. Reference [178] presents a Distributed Model Predictive Control
shading, temperature and photovoltaic module. Besides, the aim of (DMPC) for efficient management strategy of energy distribution in a
the MPPT is to regulate the solar operating voltage close to the
maximum power point when it is under atmospheric changes [165].
Presented paper in [20] discussed a proportional integral (PI) control
tuning method for cooling the hydrogen production in polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell based cogeneration with 5 kW
electrical and 30 kW thermal capacity. In this work, the modelling and
control system were designed using MATLAB/Simulink and industrial
Programmable Logic Control (PLC). A dynamic control system is
introduced in [166] for integrated wind turbine, combining solar
photovoltaic as main power resources and diesel generator as a backup
system. In this work, MPPT is used to control both solar and wind in
order to move the operating voltage close to the maximum power under
changing atmosphere conditions. Authors in [167] and [168] studied Fig. 16. Information flow in a centralized control system [172].

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

buildings. Reference [179] presents a centralized control for optimizing MAS to solve the control strategy in micro grid system, consisting of
nodal voltages of distribution networks in PV-inverters. Control actions four agents: production agent, consumption agent, power system agent
are centrally evaluated in real-time by solving a constrained dynamic and MGCC agent [177]. The procedure to implement the MAS can be
optimization problem, and aim at minimizing the voltage deviation found extensively in articles [60,188–194]. Aspects in terms of benefit
from a reference value. Another work in [180] proposed a modified and drawback of centralized and decentralized control system are given
central wind farm controller using central control approaches, where in Table 6.
active power control problems had been managed using optimization
techniques. From the literatures, it can be noted that all microgrid
terminals are regulated and managed by the energy control center
during communication signal transmission. This will require large size 5.4. Control strategy for different cogeneration system
of data center for microgrid with sophisticated operation modes and
controllable mode transitions. As a result, the centralized control puts Due to factors like size and location of the micro-grid system, each
heavy burden to the ECC itself. Hence, centralized control configura- employed control system is different. The load type of cogeneration
tion is not suitable for expandable microgrids which have open system also determines how the control strategy should fulfill the
boundary and huge number of terminals [181]. In order to solve this system environment efficiently and satisfactorily. Similarly, every
drawback, a decentralized control system is projected, where the cogeneration system is formed by a combination of complicated
distributed terminals have their own right to make their own decisions elements including generators, storage, engine combustor and recup-
based on the local information. The following section explains about erator. Since they need to provide enough thermal energy to meet many
the decentralized control system. types of industrial process needs, a competence control strategy is
necessary to ensure the success of cogeneration system. Control
strategy deals with issues that come from several areas including
5.3. Decentralized control technical areas, time scales and physical levels. In addition, the domain
of load power sharing, voltage/frequency and power quality regulation,
Since microgrid is a complex and heterogeneous system with market participation, short-/long-term scheduling have to be in con-
diverse controllable devices, a centralized control requires a reliable sideration. As thoroughly discussed in article [161], control strategy of
and high-speed communication network between the central controller any system in microgrid (or cogeneration) should be designed based on
and local regulators [182]. Besides, the centralized control structure is the hierarchical control method, whereby the level of system to be
not fully compatible with special feature of microgrid which have plug- controlled should be recognized. Table 7 presents some control
and-play functionality. Thus, alternative for centralized control by strategies utilized in several cogeneration systems.
providing decentralized control system is encouraged [183]. The
purpose of decentralized control is to specify the maximum power
generated by the micro-sources, and at the same time taking into
account the capability of micro-grid to support the consumer and 6. Cogeneration performance parameters
increase power export to the grid for market participation. Normally,
this type of control is ideally implemented in the microgrid of different The performance parameters of cogeneration system are categor-
suppliers, as there are needs to make separate decision regarding ized into two parts, which are characteristic of cogeneration candidates
individual situation, besides requiring some micro-grid to function as and performance parameters of cogeneration plant. In order to fully
intelligent control unit. The best characteristic of microgrid that should exploit the cogeneration facility all over the years, the potential
use the decentralized control method is given in Table 5. Decentralized candidates of cogeneration system should have several criteria. First,
control system has been used in large number of studies, including an adequate thermal energy needs must match with the electricity and
conventional decentralized control method by means of voltage/ thermal demand. This is important to ensure both electricity and
current droop control or voltage/power droop control, for example in thermal demands can be fulfilled by the generators. Hence, in the first
articles [175,184,185]. Researchers in [175] performed a control of a step of cogeneration system development, the compatibility of any
single phase ac to dc converter using droop control, while researchers existing thermal system with the proposed cogeneration facility should
in [184] chose a droop control concept to control the converter. The be determined. Second, a reasonable high electrical load factor or
implementation of droop control was to use the active power “P” as a operating hours of the cogeneration system should be recognized. This
function of the angular frequency ω and use the reactive power “Q” as a means that, the duration of electricity and thermal consumption must
function of the voltage amplitude “E”. Meanwhile in reference [185], a be well recognized so that the size of cogeneration system developed is
DC link voltage was maintained by droop control, as a function of the worth to support both electrical and thermal demands. Third, a
expected state of charge (SOC) of the battery. Article [186] presents candidate of cogeneration system should have fairly constant and
improvisation of these conventional methods of droop control with the matching electrical and thermal energy demand profiles. In addition,
introduction of mode-adaptive decentralized control scheme. a part of load operation of the cogeneration plant should be avoided
Recently, a decentralized control using a Multi Agent System (MAS) because it will give a negative impact to the economic viability of the
has become a famous approach for supervisory control. Abhilash in cogeneration project [71].
[187] reported the application of MAS in the control and operation of There are several cogeneration system parameters that need to be
microgrids. Dimeas in [188] and [173] described the framework of considered before undertaking any economic analysis, which are heat
to power ratio, quality of thermal energy needed, electrical and thermal
Table 5 energy demand patterns, fuel availability, required system reliability,
Characteristic of microgrid system suitable for use in decentralized control system. local environment regulations, dependency on the local power grid, and
option for exporting excess electricity to the grid or to the third party.
Each microgrid has different owners, thus a case requiring several decisions should
be taken independently and locally. In comparison with each other, fuel cell prime mover technology has
the highest typical power to heat ratio. Also, fuel cell cogeneration
The operation of microgrid in a market environment requires the action of the system requires 32,000–64,000 h to overhaul. In comparison to other
controller of each unit participating in the market with certain intelligence.
prime movers, fuel cell can reach 55–80% total efficiency. The
The local energy sources may have other tasks than only supplying power to the local
distribution networks. performance parameters of cogeneration prime movers are summar-
ized in Table 8 [71].

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 6
Benefits and drawbacks of centralized and decentralized control system.

Centralized control system Decentralized control system

Benefits • Simple implementation • Plug-and-play compatible

• Easy to maintain • Easy to expand
• Low in cost • Can avoid single point of failure
• Widely used and widely operated worldwide • Suitable for large scale, complex and heterogeneous systems
• Has large control over the entire system
Drawbacks • Has computational burden • System needs synchronization between each terminal.
• Requires large database • Time consuming for local controller to reach the center control.
• Needs high speed bandwidth links • Convergence rates can be affected by communication network topology.
• May face single point of failure • High cost needed in the existing control and communication facility.
• Hard to expand • A distributed location of controllers makes it hard to manage.
• Unfriendly for plug-and-play features
7. Application of cogeneration system in commercial produced by their own cogeneration system, and only 2% is purchased
building from external providers. The technical specifications for cogeneration
power plant in LVDIA list are thermal power input, effective thermal
A cogeneration system can be applied in facilities that need two or power available for end user, gross electric power, net electric power,
more energy uses. Energy uses include electricity, hot water, steam, outlet water temperature and inlet water temperature with 57.4 MWt,
chilled water, space heating, chemical bath heating, air-conditioning 17.8 MWt, 25.7 MWe, 25.3 MWe, 130 °C and 80 °C, respectively. More
etc. Typically, a building needs electricity and hot water to operate their detailed explanations about the cogeneration system in LVDIA is
function. Obviously, electricity has universal use in all buildings, while provided in the reference. Article [205] presents analysis on emission
hot-water applications are more specific for commercial, residential or reduction in Istanbul International airport when employing cogenera-
industrial applications. Steam is used in many facilities to provide tion system. The study demonstrated the importance of airport
space heating, in-process systems, sterilization of instrument, cooking developer to choose power and energy generator that can reduce
and other applications. The usual uses of heat water from cogeneration emission level. Articles [206,207] present studies on Malpensa
system in typical amenities are given in Table 9 [200] while the next International Airport (MIA) which utilizes cogeneration system for
subsection presents a detail on cogeneration application in several generating power. MIA uses gas turbine cogeneration system with a
commercial facilities including airport, hospital and hotel. heat recovery boiler (rated capacity at 20.0 MWe, 28.1 MWt) and
absorption chiller at 20.0 MWe. The analysis on both technical and
7.1. Airport building economic viability of cogeneration system in this airport shows that
cogeneration system reduces the energy intensity significantly com-
Energy consumption in airport building depends on large numbers pared to conventional power generation system.
of factors, since energy demand depends on both structural and
operational variables. Structural factors include surface, volume, 7.2. Hospital building
building orientation, external and roof thermal insulation, while
operational variables are number of passengers per year, average Hospital is a building with hope. It works around the clock every
occupancy levels in air conditioning areas and seasonal fluctuation. day, using both electricity and thermal energy. Hospital is a suitable
Generally, airport buildings use cogeneration with added cooling candidate for cogeneration system implementation since it has specific
function (called trigeneration), which consist of cooling, heating and requirement of hospital building such as high space heating demand,
power technology in a single generation. Fig. 17 shows a basic year round heating demand for hot water, high power demand, need of
configuration of this technology, which combines absorbing chillers, backup generators for emergency cases and small plant footprint to
auxiliary boiler for cooling and heating function, respectively. give more space for treating patients [208]. Hospitals are perfect
Suvarnabhumi Airport in Thailand uses a District Cooling System candidate to implement cogeneration system since they utilize both
and Power Plant (DCAP) based on natural gas cogeneration system. electrical and thermal energy in their services. In Europe, there are
The DCAP has been designed to supply electricity, steam and chilled hospital buildings that implement cogeneration system to fulfill their
water for heating and cooling purposes for the airport. The controlled load demand. There are also numerous research studies on the
temperature in the airport is 24 °C with 50–60% relative humidity, and implementation of cogeneration system in order to improve the
the cooling network is designed as a radiant floor cooling system. The existing cogeneration system in hospitals [209]. Alfredo in [87]
facility of cogeneration system for this airport consists of two gas discussed the energetic and economic benefits generated by cogenera-
turbines, each with capacity of 20 MW electrical output, one steam tion system installed in hospital building. There are various cogenera-
turbine, two heat recovery steam generators (HRGS) and four auxiliary tion topologies employed in hospital building, but all have general
boilers. The system operates at 8760 h, annually and the electricity configuration as shown in Fig. 18. Previously, most hospitals cogenera-
generation is around 378,000 MWh annually. Since the electricity tion system use gas and steam combustion in their cogeneration
demand of this airport is 394,000 MWh annually, extra electricity system. Before, utilizing fuel cell has limited capability, but now they
from the grid is imported to satisfy the requirement [80]. Reference have move forward to employ fuel cell as a prime mover in their
[203] presents the analysis on cogeneration performances against cogeneration system.
energy consumption by Leonardo da Vinci International Airport Several research studies presented the utilization of fuel cell in
(LDVIA) in Rome. LDVIA is Italy's major airport and one of the most hospitals, due to the benefits of fuel cell, such as able to reduce onsite
important airports in Europe, located in Fiumicino, 28 km from the emissions directly, environmental friendly, able to provide energy
center of Rome [204]. LVDIA has been equipped with cogeneration services for that site, compact, silent and clean. Thomas in [211]
system since 2008, along with many of the world's major airports, described the advantages of integrating the fuel cell in hospital power
including Italian Malpensa and Linate airport, the JFK Airport of New supply together with examples of hospital site that use fuel cell in their
York, and Heathrow airport in London. At LVDIA, the electric energy cogeneration system. Kaiser Foundation Hospitals has agreed with the
generated to cover electric energy needed is almost entirely self- Southern California Gas Company as partner to test the reliability and

18
 Table 7
Type of control system for different cogeneration in literatures.

Authors /Year Type of cogeneration system Control system approach Articles

N.M. Isa et al.

GT ST RE MT FC Hyb

M.Kalantar (2009) / A supervisory control system has been developed to manage the system operation. Genetic Algorithm is used to obtain optimal sizing and minimum [108]
operation cost.
A.Cagnano (2015) / A centralized voltage control scheme has been designed to control a grid-connected photovoltaic plant. The proposed control system has been tested on a [179]
typical medium voltage distribution network.
P.Garcia (2014) / PV WT An energy management system based on adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system has been developed to control the entire system. The result shows that the [195]
improved system gives better and more reliable performance compared to traditional PI controller.
Xiao Wu (2016) / A predictive control approach has been used to control a 80 kW micro gas turbine, in which the result shows improvement in operation performance. [196]
A.P. Wiese (2015) / An experiment work of a fully nonlinear model predictive control has been performed for a gas turbine cogeneration system. Initially, the formulation of [197]
model predictive control has been modelled to minimize output tracking error. Furthermore, a controller performance has been evaluated by regulation
experiments.
S.Semprini (2016) / PV A control approach has been performed based on three operation strategy. First, fuel have been supplied to ensure the system output maintained at rated [198]
value during sun hours. Second, fuel was supplied to ensure the overall efficiency always above a certain minimum value. Third, the system was assumed to
work at full capacity from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. during working hours. First control approach shows a good performance in terms of fuel supplied to the system.
M.Mokhtar (2012) / Multi agent system control based for efficient energy has been used to control energy flow in building. Simulation results proved that the control approach [193]
gives better energy control and thermal comfort.
V.Dash (2015) / A control algorithm has been proposed to obtain the power management for hybrid cogeneration system. The control algorithm diverts the excess PV power [118]
into the electrolyzer when battery reaches 99.5% to protect the battery from overcharging. In this control strategy, the dump load can be eliminated by
limiting the power drawn from the sources, to match the load requirements.
S.Kohsri (2011) / / A control and monitoring approach has been constructed in Labview software, where the main central control system requires data from the remote energy [199]
system. The data needed include power generation, load consumption and control parameters.

19
Table 8
Cogeneration size, cost and performance parameters.

Characteristic Technology Steam turbine Gas turbine Microturbine Reciprocate engine Fuel cell

Cost [26,200,201] Installation cost ($/kW) 670–1100 1200–3300 2500–4300 1500–2900 5000–6500
O & M costs ($/kW) 0.006 to 0.01 0.009 to 0.013 0.009–0.013 0.009–0.025 0.032–0.038
Size [116,202] Capacities 500 kW to 80 MW 250 kW- 200 MW 20–250 kW 20 kW- MW 0–83.6 MW
Performance parameters Electric efficiency (%) 5–40% 24–36% 22–28% 27–41% 30–63%
[26,202] Overall efficiency (%) Near to 80% 66–71% 63–70% 77–80% 55–80%
Effective electrical 75–77% 50–62% 49–57% 75–80% 55–80%
efficiency
Typical power to heat 0.07–0.1 0.6–1.1 0.5–0.7 0.5–1.2 1–2
ratio
Part-load ok poor ok ok good
Hours to overhaul > 50,000 25,000–50,000 40,000–80,000 30,000–60,000 32,000–64,000
(hour)
Availability 72–99% 93 – 96% 98–99% 96 – 98% > 95%
Start-up time 1 h to 1 day 10 min to 1 day 60 s 10 s 3 h to 2 days
Power density (kW/m2) > 100 20–500 5–70 35–50 5–20
Fuel pressure (psig) n/a 100–500 (compressor) 50–140 (compressor) Nil Nil
Fuels All Natural gas, synthetic gas, landfill Natural gas, sour gas, liquid Natural gas, biogas, LPG, sour gas, Hydrogen, natural gas,
gas and oil fuel fuels industrial manufactured gas propane, methanol
Uses for thermal output Processed steam, district heating, Heat, hot water, low power and Hot water, chiller and Space heating, hot water, cooling and Hot water, low power and
hot water, chilled water high power steam heating low power steam high power
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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 9
Water heating from cogeneration development utilization in several public amenities.

Amenities Water heating application

Restaurants Kitchen services for dishwashing, lavatory hot water

Hotels Guest room water for bathing and showering, laundry service, kitchen service for dish washing, swimming pool heating, spa heating
Health and fitness center Swimming pool heating, spa heating, showers and lavatory services
Municipalities Swimming pool heating, spa heating, lavatory and shower services
Hospital Patient room bathing and showering, therapeutic pools, spa, swimming pools, kitchen service, laundry
Recreational pool Swimming pool heating, water slide areas, tubing and wave riding water heating, shower, lavatory services
Nursing homes and care services Patient room showering and bathing, therapeutic pools, spas, kitchen and laundry
Coin operated laundries Hot water for laundry
Metal plating factories Hot chemical bath
Residential Swimming pool heating, spa heating, lavatory water for bathing and showering, kitchen and laundry
Food processing plant Hot water for cooking, cleaning dishes, lavatory services

feasibility of fuel cell to power hospitals. Their initial plan was to install boiler can be used for all purposes similar to fossil fuel boiler, such as
four 200 kW acid phosphoric fuel cells at three hospitals in order to providing heat, domestic hot water, sterilization, laundry, heat for
improve power quality, energy security, reduce on-site emission and absorption chilling and power production by steam turbine and
financial savings. There are also hospitals that currently use hybrid generator. The recovered heat is used for space heating, cooling,
cogeneration in their system. Kow Loon Hospital in Hong Kong cooking, cleaning or other uses. Fig. 20 shows a biomass cogeneration
operates by hybrid cogeneration system, utilizing grid-connected plant implemented in this hospital.
hybrid solar, and wind turbine combined with conventional boiler Renedo in [214] studied different cogeneration alternatives for
system. The installed system consists of 108 solar photovoltaic panels University Hospital in Spain by analyzing different possibilities for
and 2 Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT). The system fully takes providing heating, air conditioning and hot tap water to a hospital
advantage of solar and wind power to generate electricity, whose center. In order to this, two types of cogenerations system are
annual energy output is about 29,000 kWh, and able to reduce around considered, one with diesel engines and another one with gas turbines.
22,620 kg of Carbon Dioxide [212]. However, when there is neither sun For each method, two different control strategies were studied in order
nor wind, the hospital will draw electricity from Hong Kong's conven- to maximize the electrical production and to maximize the time of use
tional power grid in order to maintain the power supply. The installed at full load. Also, the study proposed a solution to reduce emission of
photovoltaic panels and VAWT are arranged to fully utilize the roof CO2. In [215], C.J Renedo analyzed different alternatives to provide
space, as illustrated in Fig. 19. energy to hospitals. This study considered several power sizes and
North Country Hospital in Newport utilizes biomass cogeneration control strategies for diesel engines and gas turbines, whose result
system to fulfill their load demand. It is typical in rural general show that the options with diesel engines are more efficient compared
hospitals across America to have 25 beds for internal patient care, an to the ones with gas turbines. A study on conventional cogeneration
emergency room, a dialysis unit and critical outpatient services in an system in Tzaneio Hospital in Greece is described in reference [216].
area of 121,000 square feet [213]. The steam produced from biomass The system uses two large boilers, each with a rated power of

Natural Cooling water

Gas Turbine
Gas

G
Air
Generator

Abrsorption chillers
HRGS

Steam
Turbine
From
feed
G
water
tank

Natural
gas Condenser

Auxillary
From Boilers To feed
feed water
water tank
tank
To airport hotel, kitchen
and others

Fig. 17. General cogeneration system in airport building.

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 18. General configuration of cogeneration system installed in hospital building [210].

absorption machine, which has the possibility to achieve a global

efficiency around 58%. Reference [124] presents a techno-economic
analysis for the installation of hybrid cogeneration consisting of
photovoltaic, battery and fuel cell in hospitals in Malaysia.
Throughout the simulation analysis using HOMER environment, the
proposed cogeneration system projected the lowest TNPC, LCOE and
operating cost which are $ 106,551, 0.091 $/kWh and 7245 $/year,
respectively. Besides, the proposed cogeneration system had been
proven environmentally friendly as it would only produce total of
25,873 kg/year of pollutant gas. Another work on cogeneration system
for hospital located in south of Italy is presented in [217]. The
proposed work had been tested through experimental dataset using
real thermal and electric consumption data. The results showed that
the energy performance could significantly increase to 20% with
Fig. 19. Photovoltaic panel and VAWT installed at the roof of Kow Loon Hospital, Hong
optimal sizing and time planning of cogeneration system compared
Kong [212].
to a plant that does not adopt any cogeneration system.

7.3. Hotel building

Hotel is a commercial building that contributes to a country's

economy through the tourism activity. The energy consumption in the
hotel would significantly affect the level of greenhouse emissions.
Cogeneration system is an alternative to the solution, as it can assist
hotel owners to produce their energy for internal use. The literature
shows that there are many types of cogeneration system utilized in
hotel building. However, it is beyond this study to discuss all of them in
this article. In reference [218], Hotel Icon located in Hong Kong was
used as a case study to observe the viability of fuel cell based
Fig. 20. Biomass-cogeneration plant in North Country Hospital [213]. cogeneration system. Hotel ICON consumed 12.26 GWh electricity in
year 2012; in total consuming US$1.44M. To overcome this situation, a
10,00,000 kcal/h, and two smaller boilers with capacity of cogeneration system based on SOFC was proposed, since the study
750,000 kcal/h each. The steam generators operate by natural gas focused on a large scale application instead of single family use. The
and have a total steam production of 2000 kg/h. The exhaust gases are cogeneration suggested in this work consisted of five units of SOFC,
passed in through a central chimney. The exhausted steam boiler is model 200 kW ES-5700. In the configuration, if the electrical energy
used for water heating, and in the form of steam, it will be used for demand exceeded the SOFC capacity, they would be complemented by
washing machines, sterilization, operating rooms and kitchen facilities. the grid supply. The analysis also considered the benefits in economical
The natural diesel gas engine operates for 8000 h/year and the backup view which would give payback in 10 years. Meanwhile, technical
unit operates for 5000 h /year, thus the developed cogeneration is analysis showed increment of efficiency from 84% to 94%. Also, the
indeed economically profitable. The analysis also considered the value researcher suggested the implementation of trigeneration in the hotel
of Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR), Internal Rate Return (IRR) and Net building to improve energy saving in the building. J.R Galvão in [219]
Present Value (NPV) for lifetime of 20 years. Article [210] presents a selected Marvão Castle hotel in Portugal as a case study. The hotel uses
thermodynamics and thermo economic study for Hospital de Clinicas two combustion engines, one is a boiler for hot water and the second is
Barao Geraldo, in which the second law of thermodynamic was used to an emergency engine used to supply electricity. The hybrid cogenera-
analyze the cogeneration system. The hospital under study uses tion consists of gas turbine, biomass and solar to generate energy,
alternative internal combustion engine (AICE) to fulfill their demand. which had been analyzed experimentally. The analysis proved that
The analysis was based on four scenarios which correspond to hybrid cogeneration is technically reliable and economical solution,
cogeneration technologies. The finding showed that the most efficient which also offers efficient energy consumption and low emission level.
plant is the cogeneration plant that associate AICE with double effect A photovoltaic source for the energy model added to the main

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

cogeneration system would supply additional electrical energy at peaks run when the demand of heat is high. The installed prime mover will be
periods, while excess energy would be sold at price of 0.6175 €/kWhe. operated at full load at all times, if the electricity demand of the site
Although the PV panels generally produce 7.22% of electricity the exceeds capability. The third factor is the selection of prime mover,
whole year around, during the months of July and August, the PV where gas turbines and reciprocating engines will recover exhaust heat
panels can produce more than 8.23%. Article [220] presents an in the form of steam or hot water. There are various uses of recovered
optimization study for large scale hotel that combinations fuel cell, heat in hospital buildings, such as space heating, domestic water
wind and solar in their power generation system. The hotel site is heating and pool heating. In addition, the steam or hot water also
located in south eastern of Queensland, Australia, with annual energy can be used by fire absorption chillers to supply chilled water for
consumption of 5.5 GWh, with an average energy consumption of hospital space conditioning. Steam can also be used for sterilization
15,000 kWh/day. Peak load for the year is 966 kW. The finding from purpose. Another factor is financial issues, because cogeneration
optimization analysis through HOMER software showed that hybrid systems are generally expensive to install. The installation cost ranges
cogeneration with PV and wind resulted in a competitive NPC, thus a from $1200 (RM3600)/kW, and up to $1900 (RM5700)/kW. The cost
negative GHG emission in total, facilitated through sale of excess may increase due to design enhancement, because of the building
electricity to the grid. Amir in [75] performed an analysis on three configuration for housing the cogeneration system, and the inclusion of
types of cogeneration technology comprising of micro turbines, internal thermal-end use equipment, such as temperature controlled heat
combustion engines and fuel cell with solar and conventional sources, exchangers and absorption chillers. In addition, the installation cost
to meet the demand of hotel complex located in Coimbra, Portugal. The is also affected by site condition, if it is able to permit electrical and fuel
study used both photovoltaic and solar thermal for electricity genera- interconnection cost.
tion, while the micro turbines cogeneration systems operated by
producing high-energy gas stream run by electrical generator. The 8.2. Installing a cogeneration plant
internal combustion engine and SOFC operated by electrochemical
process, utilizing natural gas to produce electricity and thermal energy. Engineers and project planners will need to investigate the plant
The finding showed that combination of cogeneration and renewable development beforehand, in terms of financial aspect, because this is
energy can give substantial impact to the technical and economical important for the suitability of plant location in the next procedure.
aspect of energy generation. Mahesh in [221] conducted thermody- This is vital to ensure that there will be no practical obstacle that
namic and economic analysis of diesel cogeneration and trigeneration. cannot be overcome as part of the normal cogeneration design and
The system under study consisted of diesel generator, exhaust heat development process. Besides, early optimum consideration on the
recovery unit, thermal stabilizers, auxiliary boiler and absorption selected location will avoid excessive costs. In this manner, the plant
chiller to supply a typical 100-room hotel in India. Thermodynamic needs to be sited in a location where it can remain for a long period
analysis was formulated in the system, taking into account the basis of without disruption or obstruction, either initially or in future. The
first law of thermodynamics. The selection of diesel generator in the potential location also should have sufficient space to allow access for
measurement and analysis for auxiliary boiler and chiller would maintenance and to house auxiliary equipment. Since cogeneration
maximize the fuel savings and reduce cost. plant must be connected to the existing site, they require some
modifications of utility connections. Therefore, they will need to be
7.4. Other buildings accessed for storing additional fuel, water and other related things.
Development and implementation of cogeneration system will produce
Cogeneration system is also being used in various types of building, long-term noise because of continuous operation. Due to this condi-
including supermarkets, educational institutions, office buildings and tion, the location selected should have minimum impact of noise.
residential. The current trend now is to employ hybrid cogeneration to
boost the benefits for existing system. Table 10 presents several 8.3. Financial evaluation and investment for cogeneration system
researches on cogeneration system application in other types of
commercial buildings including general building, residential or house Further development of the cogeneration system needs to acknowl-
and shopping complex. edge the existing technical aspect of the system. Financial assessment
throughout the life cycle of the project also must be evaluated. The
8. Discussion on cogeneration issues owner of cogeneration project needs to consider the initial investment,
including the cost of re-engineering and planning. The plant owner has
This section discusses some important issues that need to be to know the requirement of the plant. If the cogeneration equipment
highlighted in developing cogeneration system based on the review needs to be imported, the prevailing taxes and duties of the equipment
on the aspects of cogeneration system from technical point of view. cost should be added. On the other hand, if the system owner plans to
purchase cogeneration equipment from different supplier and then
8.1. Factors that influence the cogeneration choices assemble them on site, the cost of preparing the site for civil,
mechanical and electrical work such as electrical connections, piping
Several factors like cogeneration size, electrical-thermal require- of hot and cold utilities, instrumentation and control must be taken
ment, prime movers selection and financial cost influence the selection into account. Moreover, if the planner wants to adopt a cogeneration
of cogeneration system the most. In reality, there are several factors system as a retrofit at an existing site, the cost of item will greatly
that influence the decision to choose cogeneration type. The first factor depend on the existing facilities, either to replace or upgrade. The
is the base electrical load matching, where the cogeneration plant is installation of cogeneration system by integrating the plant into
sized to meet the minimum electricity demand of the site based on the existing setup may lead to decrement in economic evaluation. Here,
historical demand curve. The rest of the required power is purchased the cost associated with such losses has to be included in the total
from the utility grid. The site thermal energy requirement could be met project cost. The cost analysis for annual cost should also include the
by the cogeneration system alone or by additional boiler. If the thermal insurance fees and properties taxes. In addition, the operating and
energy generated by the base electrical load exceeds the plant's demand maintenance costs should include the direct and indirect cost of
and if the situation allows, excess thermal energy can be exported to operating new cogeneration facilities like equipment overhauls and
the neighboring clients [74]. The second factor is the base thermal load replacement of parts. Fuel cost will give significant impact to the
matching, where the cogeneration system is sized to supply the development of the cogeneration system. Hence, to estimate the results
minimum thermal energy of the site. Stand-by boilers or burners will of cogeneration system payback in profit, the analysis of net present

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Table 10
Application of cogeneration system in others commercial buildings.

Type of building Type of cogeneration Findings References

General buildings Hybrid fuel cell, micro turbine, An energy saving has been improved and it also reduce an operational cost of the designed [13]
photovoltaic. system.
Hybrid hydrogen, SOFC, gas turbine and An exergy efficiencies in the system has been increased with addition of external [222]
generator heat exchanger parameter. Hybrid cogeneration which combined hydrogen, SOFC, gas turbine and
generator heat exchanger give an optimal cost.
Hybrid solar thermal, PV and micro CHP In this study, a calculation of primary energy consumption and emissions inclusion of Life [223]
Cycle Cost analysis has been performed. The results show that the primary energy
consumption of the proposed design is lower than the conventional case.
Gas turbine Application of gas turbine cogeneration in two type of building had shown an increment in [80]
system efficiency, mass balance and energy balance while the thermodynamic properties
and emission has been reduced.
Hybrid solar and fuel cell In this article, three operation of SOFC and PV system has been analyzed and compared. [224]
The operation of single SOFC gave 83.6% efficiency compared to others combination.
Residential/ houses Gas engine and waste-heat boiler (GE/ This study has been performed to evaluate the energy savings that can be achieved by [225]
WHB) unit adoption of the cogeneration system for eight apartments in residential areas. The area of
studied apartments are in range of 57200 m2 to 182760 m2. The results obtained shows
that more than 30% energy save for natural gas based cogeneration system.
Micro CHP (fuel cell) In this study, a micro CHP has been developed for a residential. The analysis for thermal [226]
storage and thermal load has been accomplished by the hydraulic process. The results show
that the cogeneration can increase the system balance.
Stirling engine In this study, an experimental and a numerical analysis of a commercial stirling unit for [100]
8 kW of hot water and 1 kW electricity has been performed. The analysis for stirling unit
have shown an increment in electric efficiency and thermal efficiency of 9% and 90%,
respectively.
Hybrid Fuel cell, photovoltaic, hydrogen, In this article, a hub model for residential has been presented. This hub is able to receive [227]
PHEV electricity, natural gas and solar radiation at its input port to supply essential electrical,
heating and cooling demands at the output port. In order to achieve the target, an
optimization problem has been formulated and solved for three different case studies with
objective function of minimizing total energy cost. The results gave a cost saving up to 40%
and multi-optimization result a reduction in emission level.
Natural gas-fuelled internal combustion In this study, a system consist of a natural gas-fuelled internal combustion engine [228]
engine cogeneration unit with 6.0 kW has been presented. The finding from simulation showed
that the proposed system made was possible to reduce the primary energy consumption,
the equivalent carbon dioxide emissions and reduce the operating costs with respect to the
reference system. The system offered 6.5% energy demand saving, 12.2% reduction in
emissions and 20.5% reduction in operating cost.
Shopping complex Hybrid CHP-CCHP, solar photovoltaic In this study, the effectiveness and flexibility of modelling approach for the analysis, [229]
and solar thermal design, and ongoing assessment of new DER technologies under changing market
conditions has been validated. The result show that the system had produced a system
balance and it offers 94% balance in cost and 50% reduction in emissions.
Natural gas An evaluation against a factors that can give an impact to the installation of cogeneration [230]
system in a shopping complex has been studied. Besides, a technical visit to two shopping
malls in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil had pointed out that factors of system capacity and
reliability of energy supply contributed to use natural gas cogeneration system in the
shopping complex.
Natural gas fired In this study, the technical and economic potential of natural gas fired cogeneration system [231]
for mall in Brazil has been identified throughout the use of an assessment model. The
analysis from an economics study proved that the system with ROI under 25% require the
support from the policies maker.

value (NPV) is normally performed. In NPV analysis, investment fuel source will have to make sure fuel availability, because fuels like
decision will be made based on the financial indicators calculated from natural gas, water and diesel should be maintained in certain specific
the cash flow stream. The estimation on profit payback from the amount with reliable prices. The off-take risks include quantity of
cogeneration system will help the project owner to minimize risk. A energy produced, capacity of charge, base unit price, and term of
sensitivity analysis can also been done to observe the initial and future contract. Besides these, political risks can affect the cogeneration
condition of potential cogeneration plant system. system development, including the legislation, taxation and environ-
mental controls. The project have to fulfill the requirement ruled by the
stakeholder, while making sure the implementation of cogeneration
8.4. Potential risk in development of cogeneration system plant is permitted and provide a huge benefit to the society.

Integration of cogeneration project into existing power generation

plant will pose several risks to the entire system runner. There are five 9. Challenges and future prospects
categories of risks that may happen: construction, operation, fuel
supply, off-take and political. In construction risk categories, the issues Cogeneration technology that offers high efficiency in the transfor-
that may occur are regarding to time, cost, technology and quality of mation of energy with minimum environmental pollution comes with
the project. Certified engineer and engineering workers with related several challenges. In order to reap the maximum benefit from this
experience can help to overcome this problem. Operation risk may system, several efforts have to be in account. First, it needs to have the
happen due to the maintenance of the performance levels and cost of right size, especially the size of the generator. Proper size will produce
constraint. Experienced operators can help to monitor system perfor- the right amount of energy to supply load with minimum losses. In this
mance. Cogeneration system that operates based on the availability of case, equipment modelling is an important exercise for cogeneration

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N.M. Isa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

optimization. In practical point of view, cogeneration configuration size 10. Conclusion

depends on the site condition and requirement. From economic view,
cogeneration plants are more sensitive to changeable input parameters This paper has comprehensively reviewed cogeneration system that
compared to classical separate heat and power generation. This is can be adapted into microgrid. This paper starts by explaining the
because cogeneration plants are more complex in terms of process concept of smart grid, microgrid and cogeneration system, followed by
configuration, products costs and values of electricity, steam, hot water the principle operation of cogeneration. Compared to traditional grid,
and chilled water. For example, implementing cogeneration system at a smart grid has extra benefits, including digital structure, two-way
hospital facility will present other challenges in terms of system sizing communication, distributed generation, numerous sensors and smart
and equipment selection, economic strategies, financing, site, electrical meter, remote checks and control, pervasive control and more custo-
and thermal design conditions, pollutant emission and government- mers. Also, smart grid can perform self-healing and self-monitoring
permitted policies. function. Microgrid that adapts the features of smart grid but operated
The selection of prime movers type for a developed cogeneration with lower level voltage is more efficient and manageable. This study
system will also be a tough challenge. This is because prime movers proposes microgrid configuration, whose energy resources system,
suitable for the plant requirement can only permit certain maximum energy storage system and loads are designed according to various
energy production to fulfill the load demand. In order to choose the suitable topologies to fulfill all load requirements. Several standards
best prime movers for cogeneration plant, several factors have to be such as IEC 61970,61970, IEC 61850,61850, IEEE P2030 and ANSI
taken into account such as performance of prime movers, electrical and C12.18 are outlined as guide for practical implementation of microgrid.
thermal design conditions, air emissions reduction, electrical utility Among all topologies in microgrid, cogeneration is the most efficient
interface, gas utility interface, operations and maintenance, and project way to produce and manipulate energy. In cogeneration system
risk mitigation system. Among all prime movers types, fuel cell seems technology, both thermal and electricity can be generated simulta-
to be most promising technology as they can suit many types of load neously using single fuel, with efficiency up to 85%. Compared to
profile, either in stationary or mobile applications. Fuel cells have the traditional power generation, cogeneration system is more prominent
potential for use in traditional technologies in various markets, as their as it is more efficient, able to reduce an energy cost, able to predict
size ranges from very small batteries and sensors up to multi-megawatt uncertain electricity price, can reduce air pollutant and able to enhance
power plants. However, one of the challenges in transforming the the reliability of power system. Due to these benefits, cogeneration is
market of fuel cells is the lack of information on lifecycle and widely implemented in buildings like hotels, hospitals, education
emissions. Therefore, analytical and numerical analyses have to be buildings and industrial buildings. Prime movers in cogeneration
done to ensure the suitability of prime mover with the power plant. system are gas turbine, steam turbine, micro turbine, reciprocate
Control system for the cogeneration is another crucial technical engine and fuel cell. Among all, fuel cell is the most promising
challenge. The recognition of control types such as centralized, technology since it has most efficient performance, with 55–80%,
decentralized and local controls to control the developed system is compared to others. In addition, fuel cell has the flexibility in terms
necessary before the overall system can operate well. For example, in of fuel resources as it can come from hydrogen, natural gas, propane
industrial process, special control procedure is needed to perform and methanol. This paper also presents the performance parameter for
industrial automation. Industrial automation can be defined as all each prime mover, including power to heat ratio, part load, hours to
automatically executed actions to guarantee industrial production overhaul, start-up time and power density. Since cogeneration has
system to operate in desired operating conditions and fulfill desired similar concept with microgrid, it requires a sophisticated control
tasks. The operation take into account suitable programmable logic system to manage its operation. Thus, cogeneration employs a hier-
control (PLC) and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) archical control system consisting of three types of control; local
programs, conventional control tasks (e.g. feedback control), as well as control, centralized and decentralized control. Each control methodol-
complex control procedures. ogy has to consider the requirement of plant besides fulfilling the
The next challenge is the implementation of economic strategies, as demand. This paper has also described two types of performance
financial support is the key of successful system. A cogeneration system parameters of cogeneration that influence the efficiency of the system,
must aim to get the profit payback, to cover the cost of maintenance as which are characteristic of cogeneration candidates and performance
well as support fuel cost. Selection of the most appropriate method for parameters of cogeneration plant. In addition, since cogeneration uses
financing the project depends on the state of the company's profile, a single process to generate both electricity and usable heat or cooling,
degree of risk and benefits associated with the project. Hence, the appropriate size for the proportions of heat and power needed is
economic investigation is a must, normally analyzed using net present vary from site to site, so the type of plant must be selected carefully and
value (NPV) to estimate the investment profit. appropriate operating schemes must be established to match demands
The challenges in developing a cogeneration system offer research as closely as possible. Since cogeneration system is suitable to be
opportunities in area of system sizing and equipment selection, control implemented in many types of building, a review on the application in
system, economic strategies, and contract for system installation. This commercial building has been included. The effectiveness of cogenera-
is due to reason that no technology will remain static solely for tion system in real situation has been studied by observing several case
technologies that are still in early stage like cogeneration system. studies in commercial buildings including airport, hospital and hotel.
Cogeneration is still in its early age because their application is still new Majority of the researches employed renewable energy combined with
in major companies, especially in Asia. Nevertheless, expanding the cogeneration prime mover to obtain maximum benefits from the
cogeneration system in a future still has a positive prospect. Modern desired system. Various designs, prime movers performance, and
control systems currently ongoing processes are mostly designed to economic and environmental aspects have been observed in each case
integrate renewable energy resources into the grid. Because of the study. This paper will be useful for researchers in cogeneration
aging factors in equipment installation, transformation from conven- technologies as guide to make effective decisions, as well as generate
tional grid to more intelligent grid requires more development on more ideas in application of cogeneration in modern micro grid power
cogeneration system in urban and rural building. By implementing the system.
cogenerations system, people can save more in terms of expenditure. In
fact, with certain regulations provided by the government, cogenera- Acknowledgement
tion project owners can gain additional profit from the incentive
provided. Moreover, the support from the stake holder will ease the The authors would like to express gratitude to Ministry of Higher
installation and implementation of cogeneration. Education Malaysia (MOHE) for financial support and Universiti

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Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for providing comprehensive library facil- [32] Buoro D, Pinamonti P, Reini M. Optimization of a distributed cogeneration system
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