Stereopsis

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For other uses, see Stereopsis (fungus).
Stereopsis (from the Greek στερεο- stereo- meaning "solid", and ὄψις opsis,
"appearance, sight") is a term that is most often used to refer to the perception
of depth and 3-dimensional structure obtained on the basis of visual information deriving
from two eyes by individuals with normally developed binocular vision.[1] Because the
eyes of humans, and many animals, are located at different lateral positions on the
head, binocular vision results in two slightly different images projected to the retinas of
the eyes. The differences are mainly in the relative horizontal position of objects in the
two images. These positional differences are referred to as horizontal disparities or,
more generally, binocular disparities. Disparities are processed in the visual cortex of
the brain to yield depth perception. While binocular disparities are naturally present
when viewing a real 3-dimensional scene with two eyes, they can also be simulated by
artificially presenting two different images separately to each eye using a method
called stereoscopy. The perception of depth in such cases is also referred to as
"stereoscopic depth".[1]
The perception of depth and 3-dimensional structure is, however, possible with
information visible from one eye alone, such as differences in object size and motion
parallax (differences in the image of an object over time with observer
movement),[2] though the impression of depth in these cases is often not as vivid as that
obtained from binocular disparities.[3] Therefore, the term stereopsis (or stereoscopic
depth) can also refer specifically to the unique impression of depth associated with
binocular vision; what is colloquially referred to as seeing "in 3D".
It has been suggested that the impression of "real" separation in depth is linked to the
precision with which depth is derived, and that a conscious awareness of this precision
– perceived as an impression of interactability and realness – may help guide the
planning of motor action.[4]

Contents

 1Distinctions
o 1.1Coarse and fine stereopsis
o 1.2Static and dynamic stimuli
o 1.3Research on perception mechanisms
 2Prevalence and impact of stereopsis in humans
 3History of investigations into stereopsis
 4Human stereopsis in popular culture
 5Geometrical basis
 6Interaction of stereopsis with other depth cues
 7Computer stereo vision
 8Computer stereo display
 9Stereopsis tests
o 9.1Random dot stereotests
o 9.2Contour stereotests
 10Deficiency and treatment
 11In animals
 12See also
 13References
 14Bibliography
 15External links

Distinctions[edit]
Coarse and fine stereopsis[edit]
There are two distinct aspects to stereopsis: coarse stereopsis and fine stereopsis, and
provide depth information of different degree of spatial and temporal precision.

 Coarse stereopsis (also called gross stereopsis) appears to be used to

judge stereoscopic motion in the periphery. It provides the sense of being immersed
in one's surroundings and is therefore sometimes also referred to as qualitative
stereopsis.[5] Coarse stereopsis is important for orientation in space while moving, for
example when descending a flight of stairs.
 Fine stereopsis is mainly based on static differences. It allows the individual to
determine the depth of objects in the central visual area (Panum's fusional area) and
is therefore also called quantitative stereopsis. It is typically measured in random-dot
tests; persons having coarse but no fine stereopsis are often unable to perform on
random-dot tests, also due to visual crowding[5] which is based on interaction effects
from adjacent visual contours. Fine stereopsis is important for fine-motor tasks such
as threading a needle.
The stereopsis which an individual can achieve is limited by the level of visual acuity of
the poorer eye. In particular, patients who have comparatively lower visual acuity tend
to need relatively larger spatial frequencies to be present in the input images, else they
cannot achieve stereopsis.[6] Fine stereopsis requires both eyes to have a good visual
acuity in order to detect small spatial differences, and is easily disrupted by early visual
deprivation. There are indications that in the course of the development of the visual
system in infants, coarse stereopsis may develop before fine stereopsis and that coarse
stereopsis guides the vergence movements which are needed in order for fine
stereopsis to develop in a subsequent stage.[7][8] Furthermore, there are indications that
coarse stereopsis is the mechanism that keeps the two eyes aligned after strabismus
surgery.[9]
Static and dynamic stimuli[edit]
It has also been suggested to distinguish between two different types of stereoscopic
depth perception: static depth perception (or static stereo perception) and motion-in-
depth perception (or stereo motion perception). Some individuals who have strabismus
and show no depth perception using static stereotests (in particular, using Titmus tests,
see this article's section on contour stereotests) do perceive motion in depth when
tested using dynamic random dot stereograms.[10][11][12] One study found the combination
of motion stereopsis and no static stereopsis to be present only in exotropes, not
in esotropes.[13]
Research on perception mechanisms[edit]
There are strong indications that the stereoscopic mechanism consists of at least two
perceptual mechanisms,[14] possibly three.[15] Coarse and fine stereopsis are processed
by two different physiological subsystems, with a coarse stereopsis being derived
from diplopic stimuli (that is, stimuli with disparities well beyond the range of binocular
fusion) and yielding only a vague impression of depth magnitude.[14] Coarse stereopsis
appears to be associated with the magno pathway which processes low spatial
frequency disparities and motion, and fine stereopsis with the parvo pathway which
processes high spatial frequency disparities.[16] The coarse stereoscopic system seems
to be able to provide residual binocular depth information in some individuals who lack
fine stereopsis.[17] Individuals have been found to integrate the various stimuli, for
example stereoscopic cues and motion occlusion, in different ways. [18]
How the brain combines the different cues – including stereo, motion, vergence angle
and monocular cues – for sensing motion in depth and 3D object position is an area of
active research in vision science and neighboring disciplines.[19][20][21][22]

Prevalence and impact of stereopsis in humans[edit]

Not everyone has the same ability to see using stereopsis. One study shows that 97.3%
are able to distinguish depth at horizontal disparities of 2.3 minutes of arc or smaller,
and at least 80% could distinguish depth at horizontal differences of 30 seconds of
arc.[23]
Stereopsis has a positive impact on exercising practical tasks such as needle-threading,
ball-catching (especially in fast ball games[24]), pouring liquids, and others. Professional
activity may involve operating stereoscopic instruments such as a binocular microscope.
While some of these tasks may profit from compensation of the visual system by means
of other depth cues, there are some roles for which stereopsis is imperative.
Occupations requiring the precise judgment of distance sometimes include a
requirement to demonstrate some level of stereopsis; in particular, there is such a
requirement for airplane pilots (even if the first pilot to fly around the world alone, Wiley
Post, accomplished his feat with monocular vision only.)[25] Also surgeons[26] normally
demonstrate high stereo acuity. As to car driving, a study found a positive impact of
stereopsis in specific situations at intermediate distances only;[27] furthermore, a study on
elderly persons found that glare, visual field loss, and useful field of view were
significant predictors of crash involvement, whereas the elderly persons' values of visual
acuity, contrast sensitivity, and stereoacuity were not associated with crashes. [28]
Binocular vision has further advantages aside from stereopsis, in particular the
enhancement of vision quality through binocular summation; persons with strabismus
(even those who have no double vision) have lower scores of binocular summation, and
this appears to incite persons with strabismus to close one eye in visually demanding
situations.[29][30]
It has long been recognized that full binocular vision, including stereopsis, is an
important factor in the stabilization of post-surgical outcome of strabismus corrections.
Many persons lacking stereopsis have (or have had) visible strabismus, which is known
to have a potential socioeconomic impact on children and adults. In particular, both
large-angle and small-angle strabismus can negatively affect self-esteem, as it
interferes with normal eye contact, often causing embarrassment, anger, and feelings of
awkwardness.[31] For further details on this, see psychosocial effects of strabismus.
It has been noted that with the growing introduction of 3D display technology in
entertainment and in medical and scientific imaging, high quality binocular vision
including stereopsis may become a key capability for success in modern society. [32]
Nonetheless, there are indications that the lack of stereo vision may lead persons to
compensate by other means: in particular, stereo blindness may give people an
advantage when depicting a scene using monocular depth cues of all kinds, and among
artists there appear to be a disproportionately high number of persons lacking
stereopsis.[33] In particular, a case has been made that Rembrandt may have been
stereoblind.

History of investigations into stereopsis[edit]

Wheatstone's mirror stereoscope

Stereopsis was first explained by Charles Wheatstone in 1838: “… the mind perceives
an object of three dimensions by means of the two dissimilar pictures projected by it on
the two retinæ …”.[34] He recognized that because each eye views the visual world from
slightly different horizontal positions, each eye's image differs from the other. Objects at
different distances from the eyes project images in the two eyes that differ in their
horizontal positions, giving the depth cue of horizontal disparity, also known as retinal
disparity and as binocular disparity. Wheatstone showed that this was an effective depth
cue by creating the illusion of depth from flat pictures that differed only in horizontal
disparity. To display his pictures separately to the two eyes, Wheatstone invented
the stereoscope.
Leonardo da Vinci had also realized that objects at different distances from the eyes
project images in the two eyes that differ in their horizontal positions, but had concluded
only that this made it impossible for a painter to portray a realistic depiction of the depth
in a scene from a single canvas.[35] Leonardo chose for his near object a column with a
circular cross section and for his far object a flat wall. Had he chosen any other near
object, he might have discovered horizontal disparity of its features.[36] His column was
one of the few objects that projects identical images of itself in the two eyes.
Stereoscopy became popular during Victorian times with the invention of the prism
stereoscope by David Brewster. This, combined with photography, meant that tens of
thousands of stereograms were produced.
Until about the 1960s, research into stereopsis was dedicated to exploring its limits and
its relationship to singleness of vision. Researchers included Peter Ludvig
Panum, Ewald Hering, Adelbert Ames Jr., and Kenneth N. Ogle.
In the 1960s, Bela Julesz invented random-dot stereograms.[37] Unlike previous
stereograms, in which each half image showed recognizable objects, each half image of
the first random-dot stereograms showed a square matrix of about 10,000 small dots,
with each dot having a 50% probability of being black or white. No recognizable objects
could be seen in either half image. The two half images of a random-dot stereogram
were essentially identical, except that one had a square area of dots shifted horizontally
by one or two dot diameters, giving horizontal disparity. The gap left by the shifting was
filled in with new random dots, hiding the shifted square. Nevertheless, when the two
half images were viewed one to each eye, the square area was almost immediately
visible by being closer or farther than the background. Julesz whimsically called the
square a Cyclopean image after the mythical Cyclops who had only one eye. This was
because it was as though we have a cyclopean eye inside our brains that can see
cyclopean stimuli hidden to each of our actual eyes. Random-dot stereograms
highlighted a problem for stereopsis, the correspondence problem. This is that any dot
in one half image can realistically be paired with many same-coloured dots in the other
half image. Our visual systems clearly solve the correspondence problem, in that we
see the intended depth instead of a fog of false matches. Research began to
understand how.
Also in the 1960s, Horace Barlow, Colin Blakemore, and Jack
Pettigrew found neurons in the cat visual cortex that had their receptive fields in
different horizontal positions in the two eyes.[38] This established the neural basis for
stereopsis. Their findings were disputed by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel, although
they eventually conceded when they found similar neurons in the monkey visual
cortex.[39] In the 1980s, Gian Poggio and others found neurons in V2 of the monkey brain
that responded to the depth of random-dot stereograms.[40]
In the 1970s, Christopher Tyler invented autostereograms, random-dot stereograms
that can be viewed without a stereoscope.[41] This led to the popular Magic Eye pictures.
In 1989 Antonio Medina Puerta demonstrated with photographs that retinal images with
no parallax disparity but with different shadows are fused stereoscopically, imparting
depth perception to the imaged scene. He named the phenomenon "shadow
stereopsis". Shadows are therefore an important, stereoscopic cue for depth perception.
He showed how effective the phenomenon is by taking two photographs of the Moon at
different times, and therefore with different shadows, making the Moon to appear in 3D
stereoscopically, despite the absence of any other stereoscopic cue.[42]

Human stereopsis in popular culture[edit]

A stereoscope is a device by which each eye can be presented with different images,
allowing stereopsis to be stimulated with two pictures, one for each eye. This has led to
various crazes for stereopsis, usually prompted by new sorts of stereoscopes.
In Victorian times it was the prism stereoscope (allowing stereo photographs to be
viewed), while in the 1920s it was red-green glasses (allowing stereo movies to be
viewed). In 1939 the concept of the prism stereoscope was reworked into the
technologically more complex View-Master, which remains in production today. In the
1950s polarizing glasses allowed stereopsis of coloured movies. In the 1990s Magic
Eye pictures (autostereograms) - which did not require a stereoscope, but relied on
viewers using a form of free fusion so that each eye views different images - were
introduced.

Geometrical basis[edit]
Stereopsis appears to be processed in the visual cortex of mammals in binocular
cells having receptive fields in different horizontal positions in the two eyes. Such a cell
is active only when its preferred stimulus is in the correct position in the left eye and in
the correct position in the right eye, making it a disparity detector.
When a person stares at an object, the two eyes converge so that the object appears at
the center of the retina in both eyes. Other objects around the main object appear
shifted in relation to the main object. In the following example, whereas the main object
(dolphin) remains in the center of the two images in the two eyes, the cube is shifted to
the right in the left eye's image and is shifted to the left when in the right eye's image.

The cube is shifted to the right in left The cube is shifted to the left in the
The two eyes converge on the object of
eye's image. right eye's image.
attention.

The brain gives each point in the

We see a single, Cyclopean, image from Cyclopean image a depth value,
the two eyes' images. represented here by a grayscale depth
map.
Because each eye is in a different horizontal position, each has a slightly different
perspective on a scene yielding different retinal images. Normally two images are not
observed, but rather a single view of the scene, a phenomenon known as singleness of
vision. Nevertheless, stereopsis is possible with double vision. This form of stereopsis
was called qualitative stereopsis by Kenneth Ogle.[43]
If the images are very different (such as by going cross-eyed, or by presenting different
images in a stereoscope) then one image at a time may be seen, a phenomenon known
as binocular rivalry.
There is a hysteresis effect associated with stereopsis.[44] Once fusion and stereopsis
have stabilized, fusion and stereopsis can be maintained even if the two images are
pulled apart slowly and symmetrically to a certain extent in the horizontal direction. In
the vertical direction, there is a similar but smaller effect. This effect, first demonstrated
on a random dot stereogram, was initially interpreted as an extension of Panum's
fusional area.[45] Later it was shown that the hysteresis effect reaches far beyond
Panum's fusional area,[46] and that stereoscopic depth can be perceived in random-line
stereograms despite the presence of cyclodisparities of about 15 deg, and this has been
interpreted as stereopsis with diplopia.[47]

Interaction of stereopsis with other depth cues[edit]

Under normal circumstances, the depth specified by stereopsis agrees with other depth
cues, such as motion parallax (when an observer moves while looking at one point in a
scene, the fixation point, points nearer and farther than the fixation point appear to
move against or with the movement, respectively, at velocities proportional to the
distance from the fixation point), and pictorial cues such as superimposition (nearer
objects cover up farther objects) and familiar size (nearer objects appear bigger than
farther objects). However, by using a stereoscope, researchers have been able to
oppose various depth cues including stereopsis. The most drastic version of this
is pseudoscopy, in which the half-images of stereograms are swapped between the
eyes, reversing the binocular disparity. Wheatstone (1838) found that observers could
still appreciate the overall depth of a scene, consistent with the pictorial cues. The
stereoscopic information went along with the overall depth.[34]

Computer stereo vision[edit]

Main article: Computer stereo vision
Computer stereo vision is a part of the field of computer vision. It is sometimes used
in mobile robotics to detect obstacles. Example applications include the ExoMars Rover
and surgical robotics.[48]
Two cameras take pictures of the same scene, but they are separated by a distance –
exactly like our eyes. A computer compares the images while shifting the two images
together over top of each other to find the parts that match. The shifted amount is called
the disparity. The disparity at which objects in the image best match is used by the
computer to calculate their distance.
For a human, the eyes change their angle according to the distance to the observed
object. To a computer this represents significant extra complexity in the geometrical
calculations (epipolar geometry). In fact the simplest geometrical case is when the
camera image planes are on the same plane. The images may alternatively be
converted by reprojection through a linear transformation to be on the same image
plane. This is called image rectification.
Computer stereo vision with many cameras under fixed lighting is called structure from
motion. Techniques using a fixed camera and known lighting are called photometric
stereo techniques, or "shape from shading".

Computer stereo display[edit]

Many attempts have been made to reproduce human stereo vision on rapidly changing
computer displays, and toward this end numerous patents relating to 3D
television and cinema have been filed in the USPTO. At least in the US, commercial
activity involving those patents has been confined exclusively to the grantees and
licensees of the patent holders, whose interests tend to last for twenty years from the
time of filing.
Discounting 3D television and cinema (which generally require more than one digital
projector whose moving images are mechanically coupled, in the case of IMAX 3D
cinema), several stereoscopic LCDs are going to be offered by Sharp, which has
already started shipping a notebook with a built in stereoscopic LCD. Although older
technology required the user to don goggles or visors for viewing computer-generated
images, or CGI, newer technology tends to employ Fresnel lenses or plates over the
liquid crystal displays, freeing the user from the need to put on special glasses
or goggles.

Stereopsis tests[edit]
In stereopsis tests (short: stereotests), slightly different images are shown to each eye,
such that a 3D image is perceived in case stereovision is present. This can be achieved
by means of vectographs (visible with polarized glasses), anaglyphs (visible with red-
green glasses), lenticular lenses (visible with the naked eye), or head-mounted
display technology. The type of changes from one eye to the other may differ depending
on which level of stereoacuity is to be detected. A series of stereotests for selected
levels thus constitutes a test of stereoacuity.
There are two types of common clinical tests for stereopsis and stereoacuity: random
dot stereotests and contour stereotests. Random-dot stereopsis tests use pictures of
stereo figures that are embedded in a background of random dots. Contour stereotests
use pictures in which the targets presented to each eye are separated horizontally. [49]
Random dot stereotests[edit]
Main article: Random dot stereogram § Random dot stereotests
The ability of stereopsis can be tested by, for example, the Lang stereotest, which
consists of a random-dot stereogram upon which a series of parallel strips of cylindrical
lenses are imprinted in certain shapes, which separate the views seen by each eye in
these areas,[50] similarly to a hologram. Without stereopsis, the image looks only like a
field of random dots, but the shapes become discernible with increasing stereopsis, and
generally consists of a cat (indicating that there is ability of stereopsis of 1200 seconds
of arc of retinal disparity), a star (600 seconds of arc) and a car (550 seconds of
arc).[50] To standardize the results, the image should be viewed at a distance from the
eye of 40 cm and exactly in the frontoparallel plane.[50] There is no need to use special
spectacles for such tests, thereby facilitating use in young children.[50]
Contour stereotests[edit]
Examples of contour stereotests are the Titmus stereotests, the most well-known
example being the Titmus Fly Stereotest, where a picture of a fly is displayed with
disparities on the edges. The patient uses a 3-D glasses to look at the picture and
determine whether a 3-D figure can be seen. The amount of disparity in images vary,
such as 400-100 sec of arc, and 800-40 sec arc.[51]

Deficiency and treatment[edit]

Main articles: Stereoblindness and Stereopsis recovery
Deficiency in stereopsis can be complete (then called stereoblindness) or more or less
impaired. Causes include blindness in one eye, amblyopia and strabismus.
Vision therapy is one of the treatments for people lacking in stereopsis. Vision therapy
will allow individuals to enhance their vision through several exercises such as by
strengthening and improving eye movement.[52] There is recent evidence
that stereoacuity may be improved in persons with amblyopia by means of perceptual
learning (see also: treatment of amblyopia).[53][54]

In animals[edit]
There is good evidence for stereopsis throughout the animal kingdom. It occurs in many
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibia, fish, crustaceans, spiders, and insects. [1]

See also[edit]
 Binocular vision
 Stereoscopy
 Computer stereo vision
 Horopter
 Orthoptics
 Vectograph
 Correspondence problem
 Cyclopean image
 Epipolar geometry
 Stereoblindness
 Pupillary distance
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Bibliography[edit]
 Julesz, B. (1971). Foundations of cyclopean perception. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press
 Steinman, Scott B. & Steinman, Barbara A. & Garzia, Ralph Philip
(2000). Foundations of Binocular Vision: A Clinical perspective. McGraw-Hill
Medical. ISBN 0-8385-2670-5.
 Howard, I. P., & Rogers, B. J. (2012). Perceiving in depth. Volume 2, Stereoscopic
vision. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976415-0
 Cabani, I. (2007). Segmentation et mise en correspondance couleur – Application:
étude et conception d'un système de stéréovision couleur pour l'aide à la conduite
automobile. ISBN 978-613-1-52103-4

External links[edit]
 Middlebury Stereo Vision Page
 VIP Laparoscopic / Endoscopic Video Dataset (stereo medical images)
 What is Stereo Vision?
 Learn about Stereograms then make your own Magic Eye
 International Orthoptic Association