Reciprocating compressors are typically used where high compression ratios (ratio of discharge to suction pressures) are required

per stage without high flow rates, and the process fluid is relatively dry. Wet gas compressors tend to be centrifugal types. High
flow, low compression ratio applications are best served by axial flow compressors. Rotary types are primarily specified in
compressed air applications, though other types of compressors are also found in air service.

Basic Design
The primary components of a typical reciprocating compressor system can be seen in Figures 1 and 2 below. It should be noted that
the author has never seen a "typical" compressor installation, and acknowledges the existence of many exceptions.

The compression cylinders (Figure 1), also known as stages, of which a particular design may have from one to six or more, provide
confinement for the process gas during compression. A piston is driven in a reciprocating action to compress the gas. Arrangements
may be of single-or dual-acting design. (In the dual-acting design, compression occurs on both sides of the piston during both the
advancing and retreating stroke.) Some dual-acting cylinders in high-pressure applications will have a piston rod on both sides of
the piston to provide equal surface area and balance loads. Tandem cylinder arrangements help minimize dynamic loads by locating
cylinders in pairs, connected to a common crankshaft, so that the movements of the pistons oppose each other. Gas pressure is
sealed and wear of expensive components is minimized through the use of disposable piston rings and rider bands respectively.
These are formed from comparatively soft metals relative to piston and cylinder/liner metallurgy or materials such as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).

Figure 1. Reciprocating Compressor Cylinder Assembly

Figure 2 A. Two-throw HSE Frame and Running Gear

Figure 2 B. Two-throw HSE Frame and Running Gear

Most equipment designs incorporate block-type, force-feed lubrication systems; however when there is zero process tolerance for
oil carryover, nonlubricated designs are employed. Cylinders for larger applications (typical cutoff is 300 hp) are equipped with
coolant passages for thermosyphon or circulating liquid coolant-type systems, whereas some smaller home and shop compressors
are typically air-cooled. Large application cylinders are generally fitted with replaceable liners that are press-fitted into the bore,
and may include an antirotation pin.

Process gas is drawn into the cylinder, squeezed, contained and then released by mechanical valves that typically operate
automatically by differential pressures. Depending on system design, cylinders may have one or multiple suction and discharge
valves. Unloaders and clearance pockets are special valves that control the percent of full load carried by the compressor at a given
rotational speed of its driver. Unloaders manipulate the suction valves’ action to allow the gas to recycle. Clearance pocket valves
alter the cylinder head space (clearance volume). They may be fixed or variable volume. These devices are beyond the scope of this
article.

The distance piece (sometimes called the doghouse) is a structural member connecting the compressor frame to the cylinder.
Intermixing of fluids between the cylinder and the distance piece must be avoided. Packing rings contain gas pressure within the
cylinder, and they keep oil from entering the cylinder by wiping oil from the piston rod along its travel. The distance piece is
typically vented according to the most hazardous material in the system, which is often the gas compressed in the cylinder. The
packing rings are designed to contain the gas within the cylinder, but with the high pressure it is possible that some of the
compressed gas will leak past the packing rings.

The running gear, housed within the compressor frame (Figure 2), consists of the crosshead and connecting rod which connect the
piston rod to the crankshaft, converting its rotary motion into a reciprocating linear motion. The crankshaft is fitted with
counterweights to balance dynamic forces created by the movement of the heavy pistons. It is supported within the frame of the
compressor by plain bearings at several journals. A flywheel is also provided to store rotational inertia and provide mechanical
advantage for manual rotation of the assembly.

Some compressors will lubricate their frame running gear with an integral, shaft-driven oil pump, while others are provided with
more extensive, skid-mounted lubrication systems. All properly designed systems will provide not only for oil circulation to the
critical tribo-surfaces of the equipment, but also for lubricant temperature control, filtration and some measure of instrumentation
and redundancy.

Suction gases are generally passed through suction strainers and separators to remove entrained particulates, moisture and liquid
phase process fluid that could cause severe damage to the compressor valves and other critical components, and even threaten
cylinder integrity with disastrous consequences. Gas may also be preheated to coax liquid process gas into the vapor phase.
Intercoolers provide an opportunity for heat removal from the process gas between compression stages. (See the following section:
The Thermodynamic Cycle.) These heat exchangers may be part of the compressor’s oil and/or cylinder cooling system(s), or they
may be connected to the plant’s cooling water system. On the discharge side, pressure vessels serve as pulsation dampeners,
providing system capacitance to equalize the flow and pressure pulsations corresponding to the piston’s compression strokes.

Typically, reciprocating compressors are relatively low-speed devices, and are direct- or belt-driven by an electric motor, either with
or without a variable speed drive controller. Often the motor is manufactured to be integral to the compressor, and the motor shaft
and compressor crankshaft are one-piece, eliminating the need for a coupling. Gearbox-type speed reducers are used in various
installations. Sometimes, though less commonly, they are driven by steam turbines or other sources of power such as natural gas
or diesel engines. The overall design of the system and the type of driver selected will influence lubrication of these peripheral
systems.

The Thermodynamic Cycle

An explanation of a few basic thermodynamic principles is necessary to understand the science of reciprocating compressors.
Compression occurs within the cylinder as a four-part cycle that occurs with each advance and retreat of the piston (two strokes per
cycle). The four parts of the cycle are compression, discharge, expansion and intake. They are shown graphically with pressure vs.
volume plotted in what is known as a P-V diagram (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Intake

At the conclusion of a prior cycle, the piston is fully retreated within the cylinder at V1, the volume of which is filled with process
gas at suction conditions (pressure, P1 and temperature, T1), and the suction and discharge valves are all closed. This is
represented by point 1 (zero) in the P-V diagram. As the piston advances, the volume within the cylinder is reduced. This causes
the pressure and temperature of the gas to rise until the pressure within the cylinder reaches the pressure of the discharge header.
At this time, the discharge valves begin to open, noted on the diagram by point 2.

With the discharge valves opening, pressure remains fixed at P2 for the remainder of the advancing stroke as volume continues to
decrease for the discharge portion of the cycle. The piston comes to a momentary stop at V2 before reversing direction. Note that
some minimal volume remains, known as the clearance volume. It is the space remaining within the cylinder when the piston is at
the most advanced position in its travel. Some minimum clearance volume is necessary to prevent piston/head contact, and the
manipulation of this volume is a major compressor performance parameter. The cycle is now at point 3.

Expansion occurs next as the small volume of gas in the clearance pocket is expanded to slightly below suction pressure, facilitated
by the closing of the discharge valves and the retreat of the piston. This is point 4.

When P1 is reached, the intake valves open allowing fresh charge to enter the cylinder for the intake and last stage of the cycle.
Once again, pressure is held constant as the volume is changed. This marks the return to point 1.

Comprehending this cycle is key to diagnosing compressor problems, and to understanding compressor efficiency, power
requirements, valve operation, etc. This knowledge can be gained by trending process information and monitoring the effect these
items have on the cycle.

Compressor

The compressor funcitons to increase the pressure of the air to provide conditions favorable for
combustion and expansion of the hot gases through the turbine. At first glance, one may wonder why an
engine needs a compressor at all. However, without a compressor, the engine could never develop static
thrust. Engines which don't employ compressors (or turbines) are called ramjet engines; these devices
must rely on compression of the air from the inlet alone and cannot be started until they reach transonic
speeds. For this reason, a compressor-driven engine is useable over a much wider range of conditions.
Compressor efficiency is measured in terms of energy losses (due to friction and flow separations) which
occur during the air compression process.

A compressor ``stage'' is made up of a moving part (the impeller, or rotor) and a stationary part (the
diffuser, or stator). In most devices, pressure rises occur across both portions of the stage.

Compressors fall into two broad

categories. The first type of compressor is
the centrifugal or annular compressor. Its
impeller accelerates the flow by flinging it
outward. This also increases the pressure.
The pressure is increased further, and the
flow is slowed, when the flow meets the
diffusers that ring the impeller.

Advantages of the centrifugal

compressor are that it is easier to design
and manufacture, and it can often
increase the pressure enough for
efficient combustion with only one
stage. However, the airflow for a
centrifugal compressor is much lower
 than for an axial, and its pressure ratio
is generally lower, meaning it is much
less effective for creating thrust and less
fuel- efficient. Hence, it is more often
seen in small engines, where the the
manufacturung advantages outweigh the
performance disadvantages; in shaft
engines, where thrust is less of a
concern; and in industrial applications,
where thrust is no concern at all. (The
turbocharger in many sports cars is
composed of a centrifugal compressor
and turbine.)

The other type of compressor is the axial

flow compressor. While axial compressors
can accomodate more airflow than a
centrifugal design of the same size, a
rotor/stator stage generally does not
provide enough compression for most
applications. For this reason, multistage
devices are generally employed. Modern
engines can use 10-15 compressor stages.

Advantages of the axial compressor are

its higher flow rate and greater pressure
ratio, which results in higher thrust and
fuel efficiency. This makes it better
suited to applications where the thrust
of the engine itself is the motive force
for the aircraft.

What are the main differences between a centrifugal compressor and an

axial compressor?

*Axial compressors are rotating, aerofoil based compressors in which the working fluid principally flows
parallel to the axis of rotation. This is in contrast with centrifugal, axi-centrifugal and mixed-flow
compressors where the air may enter axially but will have a significant radial component on exit.
*Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas, and have the benefits of high
efficiencies and large mass flow capacity, particularly in relation to their cross-section. They do,
however, require several rows of aerofoils to achieve large pressure rises making them complex and
expensive relative to other designs (e.g. centrifugal compressor).

*Centrifugal fan/blowers are more suited to continuous-duty applications such as ventilation fans, air
movers, cooling units, and other uses that require high volume with little or no pressure increase. In
contrast, multi-stage reciprocating compressors often achieve discharge pressures of 8,000 to 10,000 psi
(59 MPa to 69MPa). One example of an application of centrifugal compressors is their use in re-injecting
natural gas back into oil fields to increase oil production.

Centrifugal compressors are often used in small gas turbine engines like APUs (auxiliary power units) and
smaller aircraft gas turbines.

A significant reason for this is that with current technology, the equivalent flow axial compressor will be
less efficient due primarily to a combination of rotor and variable stator tip-clearance losses.

There are few single stage centrifugal compressors capable of pressure-ratios over 10:1, due to stress
considerations which severely limit the compressor's safety, durability and life expectancy.

*Compressor section location depends on the type of compressor. In the centrifugal-flow engine the
compressor is between the accessory section and the combustion section; in the axial-flow engine the
compressor is between the air inlet duct and the combustion section.

*Centrifugal-flow compressors have the following advantages:

* High pressure rise per stage.

* Efficiency over wide rotational speed range.
* Simplicity of manufacture with resulting low cost.
* Low weight.
* Low starting power requirements.

They have the following disadvantages:

* Large frontal area for given airflow.

* Impracticality if more than two stages because of losses in turns between stages.

**Axial-flow compressors have the following advantages:

* High peak efficiency.
* Small frontal area forgiven airflow.
* Straight-through flow, allowing high ram efficiency. * Increased pressure rise due to increased number
of stages with negligible losses.

They have the following disadvantages:

* Good efficiency over narrow rotational speed range.

* Difficulty of manufacture and high cost.
* Relatively high weight.
* High starting power requirements (this has been partially overcome by split compressors).