What is earthquake engineering?

Earthquake Engineering definitions ranged from the perspective in socioeconomic effects to

development as a branch of engineering with the estimation of earthquake consequences and the
mitigation of these consequences (Elnashai and Sarno, 2015). Bozorgnia and Bertero (2006) define
earthquake engineering (EE) as an integration of multidisciplinary knowledge in several areas of
basic sciences and science-based engineering with the ultimate goal of reducing the seismic risks to
socioeconomically acceptable levels. In earthquake engineering a wide range of knowledge that
includes geophysics, geology, seismology, vibration theory, structural dynamics, materials dynamics,
structural engineering, and construction techniques are necessary. More specifically, earthquake
engineering is the application of this knowledge to the single objective of building structures that are
safe against earthquakes (Okamoto, 1973). Earthquake engineering broadly encompasses all non-
technical, as well as technical efforts directed toward minimizing the harmful effects of earthquakes
(Housner, 1984).

Casualties of earthquakes
Figure 1-1 depicts the loss of lives caused by earthquakes averaging 10,000 people each year from
1900 to 1980. Effects on socioeconomic impacts in a UNESCO study that reported damage losses
amounting to $10,000,000,000 from 1926 to 1950 from earthquakes.

The motivation for the Scientific Study of Earthquakes

The motivation for the scientific study of earthquakes came from the extensive fieldwork of the Irish
engineer, Robert Mallett. He set out to explain how the mass of stone and mortar was dislocated in
terms of mechanical principles and establishes basic vocabulary such as seismology, hypocenter,
and isoseismal. From then on seismology and engineering close links have continued ever
since. Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes.

Earthquake Prediction
Prediction of the strong motion earthquake is expected for the large amplitude-long duration shaking
observed in damaging earthquakes. The great seismological advances occurred in studying waves
from distant earthquakes using very sensitive seismographs but not much fundamental work was
done by seismologists on the rarer large earthquakes of engineering importance because of the
deficiency of the usual seismograph before.
After the 1971 San Fernando earthquake several factors emerged such as topographic amplification
and the construction of realistic models of fault-rupture and travel-path that could explain the strong
motion patterns, variation in ground motions, a harvest of strong-motion recordings were obtained in
the latter earthquake and availability of digital recorders and fast computers that both seismologists
and engineers can tackle more fundamental and realistic problems of earthquake generation and
ground shaking.

Advancement in earthquake engineering

Strategic location for sited strong-motion accelerographs in seismic areas of the world enabled
knowledge of strong ground shaking. Seismic records had been digitized and were available for use
in research or practice, use of appropriate analysis such as quantitative dynamic analysis for the
structural design of structures in earthquake-prone regions, the requirement for seismic intensity and
input motions, or spectra of defining parameters. Predicted seismograms (time-histories) for dynamic
modeling in structural design or vulnerability assessments are often needed.

Seismicity of the World

Seismicity is a description of the relationship of time, space, strength, and frequency of earthquake
occurrences within a certain region, and its understanding is the foundation of earthquake
study. Since there is still no practical way to control earthquakes, one can only try to understand and
follow their nature wisely to prepare for possible strong earthquakes through prediction, earthquake
engineering, and society or governmental efforts of disaster reduction (Bangash, 2011). Dowrick (2009)
defined seismicity as the frequency of occurrence of earthquakes per unit area in a given region and is
illustrated in non-numerical terms by the seismicity map of the world shown below in Fig 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Seismicity of the world (courtesy of Cartographic Data Atlas version 1.02, British Geological Survey
Worldwide Earthquake Database)

Earthquake focus is the point from which the waves first emanate. The point on the ground surface
directly above the focus is called the earthquake epicenter.
Foci are classified into two namely shallow and deep focus. earthquakes with foci from 70 to 300
kilometers deep are called intermediate
focus and those below this depth are termed deep focus. Some intermediate and deep focus
earthquakes are located away from the Pacific
region, in the Hindu Kush, in Romania, in the Aegean Sea, and under Spain. The shallow-focus
earthquakes (< 70 Kms depth) is the most deadly and contribute about three-quarters of the total
energy released in earthquakes throughout the world.
Aftershocks are numerous earthquakes, usually smaller that follow most moderate to large shallow
earthquakes in the ensuing hours and even in the next several months. Aftershocks are sometimes
energetic enough to cause additional damage to already weakened structures. A few earthquakes are
preceded by smaller foreshocks from the source area, and it has been suggested that these can be
used to predict the main shock.
Causes of Earthquakes and Faulting
Seismology
The cause and nature of earthquakes is the subject of study of the science of seismology, and further
background may be obtained from the books by Richter, Bolt and Lay and Wallace (Dowrick, 2009).
Bangash (2011) defines Seismology as the study of earthquakes and the structure of the Earth by
both naturally and artificially generated seismic waves (Manohar and Madhekar, 2015). Bozorgnia
and Bertero (2006) recounted that In fact, Robert Mallet invented the word seismology, which is
derived from Greek words meaning shake-knowledge; he also coined the term epicenter (Housner,
1984). According to Housner (1984), “Robert Mallet can be called the primeval earthquake engineer.”

Seismicity
Seismicity is the distribution and frequency of earthquake events. Seismic is relating to or caused by
an earthquake or earth tremor (Microsoft Encarta, 2009). Whether we are designing a structure or
predicting the magnitude of the earthquake event, knowledge of seismicity is imperative.
Understanding of seismicity depends heavily on aspects of geology, which is the science of the
earth’s crust, and also calls upon knowledge of the physics of the earth as a whole (Dowrick, 2009) .
Seismicity is defined as the frequency of occurrence of earthquakes per unit area in a given region,
and is illustrated in non-numerical terms by the seismicity map of the world presented in the figure
below (Dowrick, 2009). The first seismicity map of the world was published by Mallet in 1860, and in
1872 Gilbert reported (Otani 2003) that earthquakes are usually centered on a fault line (Manohar
and Madhekar, 2015). The seismicity factor Z relates to severity of the ground motion at the site of
the structure (NAVFAC, 1982, Julio, 2008) and for an effective seismic-resistant design it is important
to know the seismicity of the area under study (Khan, 2013).

Causes of earthquakes
Plate Tectonic Theory
Understanding the tectonic causes of earthquakes and identifying the seismogenic geological
features in a region, enable the formulation of distribution patterns of potential sources (Dowrick,
2009). Bangash (2011) discussed the development of plate tectonics on the hypothesis of sea-floor
spreading during the past few decades. According to this concept, the rigid lithosphere, consisting of
six major plates, drifts on the rheological asthenosphere, like a ship on the ocean, but with a very
slow speed. The six plates are the Eurasian, Pacific, American, African, Indian and Antarctic. Each
plate may then be subdivided into smaller plates. The relative movements of the plates are roughly
few centimeters per year and has continued for at least 200 million years. The theory can be
described as follows: (1) Material flows out from the upper mantel through the lithosphere at ocean
ridges where the crust is thin and pushes the lithosphere, whose thickness is a few kilometers, (2)
drifting horizontally on the asthenosphere, which shows rheological properties under high
temperature, high pressure and permanent horizontal pushing. When two tectonic plates collide, one
thrusts under the other and comes back to the lithosphere, which forms a deep ocean trench and
subduction zone at the junction of two plates and volcanoes and mountains on the plate which
remains on the Earth’s surface. A reference is made to the basics given in the figure below.

Earthquake Fault Sources

When two earth's masses move with respect to one another, elastic strain energy due to tectonic processes is
stored and then released through the rupture of the interface zone. The distorted blocks snap back towards
equilibrium and an earthquake ground motion is produced. This process is referred to as ‘elastic rebound’. The
resulting fracture in the Earth’s crust is termed a ‘fault’. During the sudden rupture of the brittle crustal
rock seismic waves are generated. These waves travel away from the source of the earthquake along with the
Earth’s outer layers. Their velocity depends on the characteristics of the material through which they travel
(Elnashai and Sarno, 2015 ).

Faults - offsets of geological structure; may range in length from a few meters to many kilometers and
are drawn on a geological map as continuous or broken line
1.Movement of faults

• Slow slip - produces no ground shaking

• Sudden rupture - due to earthquake, most famous is the San Andreas fault Shallow focus
earthquakes - much shorter and shows much less offset.
• Fault rupture - majority of earthquakes does not reach the surface
• Geological mappings and geophysical work - show that faults seen at the
• surface sometimes extend to depths of tens of kilometers in the Earth’s crust

2. Inactive faults

• Most plotted on geological maps are now inactive faults

• New discovery are also discovered from fresh ground breakage during an earthquake
• Thus, Delineated by a line of cracks

3. Active faults

• Primary interest in seismology and earthquake engineering

• Rock displacement - expected to occur
• Exists in a well defined plate-edge regions of the earth
• Sudden fault displacement

4. Fault displacement

• almost entirely horizontal – San Francisco earthquake along the San Andreas fault
• Large vertical motion occurrence as shown in the figure.

Seismic Waves
Fault ruptures cause brittle fractures of the Earth’s crust and dissipate up to 10% of the total plate‐
tectonic energy in the form of seismic waves. Earthquake shaking is generated by two types of elastic
seismic waves: body and surface waves. The shaking felt is generally a combination of these waves,
especially at small distances from the source or ‘near‐field’ (Elnashai and Sarno, 2015 ).
Bolt (2008) on the other hand discussed three basic types of elastic waves that make up the shaking
that is felt and causes damage in an earthquake.
Primary or P wave – the faster body wave. Its motion is the same as that of a sound wave, in that, as
it spreads out, it alternately pushes (compresses) and pulls (dilates) the rock (see Figure 1-11).
These P waves, just like sound waves, are able to travel through both solid rock, such as granite
mountains, and liquid material, such as volcanic magma or the water of the oceans.

Secondary wave – the slower body wave. As an S wave propagates, it shears the rocks sideways at right
angles to the direction of travel (see Figure 1-12). Thus, at the ground surface S waves can produce both
vertical and horizontal motions. The S waves cannot propagate in the liquid parts of the Earth, such as the
oceans and their amplitude is significantly reduced in liquefied soil.

Surface wave - third general type of earthquake wave. Such waves correspond to ripples of water
that travel across a lake. Most of the wave motion is located at the outside surface itself, and as the
depth below this surface increases, wave displacements become less and less.
Surface waves in earthquakes can be divided into two types.

1. Love wave - Its motion is essentially the same as that of S waves that have no vertical
displacement; it moves the ground side to side in a horizontal plane parallel to the Earth’s surface,
but at right angles to the direction of propagation, as can be seen from the illustration in Figure 1-
13.
2. The second type of surface wave is known as a Rayleigh wave. Like rolling ocean waves, the
pieces of rock disturbed by a Rayleigh wave move both vertically and horizontally in a vertical
plane pointed in the direction in which the waves are travelling.

Ways Earthquakes can Damage Structures

1. by inertial forces generated by severe ground shaking.
2. by earthquake induced fires.
3. by changes in the physical properties of the foundation soils (e.g. consolidation, settling, and
liquefaction).
4. by direct fault displacement at the site of a structure.
5. by landslides, or other surficial movements.
6. by seismically induced water waves such as seismic sea waves (tsunamis) or fluid motions in
reservoirs and lakes (seiches).
7. by large-scale tectonic changes in ground elevation.
Earthquake Intensity
The oldest useful yardstick of the “strength” of an earthquake is earthquake intensity(1-1). Intensity is
the measure of damage to works of man, to the ground surface, and of human reaction to the
shaking. Because earthquake intensity assessments do not depend on instruments, but on the actual
observation of effects in the meizoseismal zone, intensities can be assigned even to historical
earthquakes. In this way, the historical record becomes of utmost importance in modern estimates of
seismological risk (Bolt, 2008) .

The word ‘‘intensity’’ may be defined qualitatively as ‘‘the quality or condition of being intense’’ or
quantitatively as ‘‘magnitude, as of energy or a force per unit of area or time’’. The term earthquake
intensity was introduced to be a physical quantity, but through qualitative or fuzzy definitions. In the
earthquake engineering field, some consider it a qualitative rating through the intensity scale, but
many engineers consider it an equivalent of ground peak acceleration intensity (Bangash, 2011).
The subject of source models is an area of study for seismologists, the results of which are
fundamental to our understanding of the nature of ground motion. From amidst the complexities of
this major study area a number of key parameters are evident as being of interest to earthquake
engineers, some of which have already been introduced, such as fault length, fault width, fault
displacement (or slip), stress drop on a fault, and, of course, earthquake magnitude. Some regional
differences in fault length have been noted in Section 1.8 (Bolt, 2008) . A few further features of
source models are briefly described below, and for further reading specialist textbooks should be
consulte, d, such as Kasahara (1981) (Dowrick, 2009).

Make an inference on the different source models discussed by Bolt (2008). There are
several models ranging from displacement of the adjacent points, triangulation surveys, fault
ruptures, effect of the moving source, etc.
Because of the difficulties involved in seismic hazard evaluation, earthquake design criteria in
different areas of the world vary, from well codified to inadequate or non-existent. Hence, depending
on the location and nature of the project concerned, seismic risk evaluation ranging from none
through arbitrary to thoroughgoing may be required (Dowrick, 2009).
Regional seismicity or risk maps recommended by seismic design codes usually do not attempt to
reflect geological conditions nor to take into account variations due to soil properties. It is necessary,
therefore, for critical construction in populated regions to make special geological-engineering studies
for each site, the detail, and level of concern which is used depending on the density of occupancy as
well as the proposed structural type. In inhabited areas, more casualties are likely to result from a
failed dam or a damaged nuclear reactor, for example, than from a
damaged oil pipeline (Bolt, 2008).
Bolt (2008) reported three factors which must be considered in assessment of seismic risk of a site
have been well-defined in recent times. Here a brief summary of these factors is listed

1. Geological Input - Provision of a structural geologic map, Compilation of active faults in the region and the
type of displacement (e.g., left-lateral, strike-slip, etc.).
2. Seismological Input - Procedures for the estimation of ground shaking parameters for optimum engineering
design are still in the early stages and many are untested.
3. Soils Engineering Input - When there is geological indication of the presence of structurally poor foundation
material (such as in flood plains and filled tidelands), a field report on the surficial strata underlying the site
is advisable.

The most important seismological aspect of hazard mitigation is the prediction of the strong ground motion
likely at a particular site (see Reiter 1990; Bolt 1996). Nevertheless, the aspects of earthquake prediction that
still receive the most publicity are the prediction of the place, size and time of the earthquake. Of course,
prediction of the region where earthquakes are likely to occur has long been achieved by seismicity studies
using earthquake observatories. In addition, useful probability estimates of long-term hazard can be inferred
from geological measurements of the slip rate of faults (see, e.g., Sieh 1978), regional strain changes, and so
on.
accelerometer—a seismograph for measuring ground acceleration as a function of time.
active fault—a fault along which slip has occurred, either in historical or Holocene or
Quaternary time, or earthquake foci are located.
asperities (fault)—roughness on the fault surface subject to slip.
blind thrust—a thrust-fault deep in the crust with no or only indirect surface expression such
as a fold structure.
body-wave magnitude—magnitude of an earthquake as estimated from the amplitude of
body wave.
digital recording—a series of discrete numerical digits.
duration (of strong shaking)—the time Interval between the first and last peaks of strong
ground motion above a specified amplitude.
epicenter—the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus (or hypocenter) of an
earthquake.
fault—a fracture or zone of fractures in rock along which the two sides have been displaced
relative to each other parallel to the fracture. The total fault off-set may range from centimeters
to kilometers.
focal depth (of earthquakes)—the depth of the focus below the surface of the Earth.
intensity (of earthquakes)—a measure of ground shaking obtained from the damage done to
structures built by humans, changes in the Earth’s surface, and felt reports.
isoseismal—contour lines drawn to separate one level of seismic intensity from another.
liquefaction (of soil)—process of soil and sand behaving like a dense fluid rather than a wet
solid mass during an earthquake.
Love waves—seismic surface waves with only horizontal shear motion transverse to the
direction of propagation.
magnitude (of earthquakes)—a measure of earthquake size, determined by taking
the common logarithm (base 10) of the largest ground motion recorded during the arrival of a
seismic wave type and applying a standard correction for distance to the epicenter.
moment (of earthquakes)—a measure of earthquake size related to the leverage of the
forces (couples) across the area of the fault slip, equal to the rigidity of the rock times the area
of faulting times the amount of slip. Dimensions are dyne-cm (or Newton-meters).
moment magnitude—magnitude MW of an earthquake estimated from the seismic moment.
plate (tectonic)—a large, relatively rigid segment of the Earth’s lithosphere that moves in
relation to other plates over the deeper interior. Plates meet in convergence zones and
separate at divergence zones.
plate tectonics—a geological model in which the Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle (the
lithosphere) are divided into a number of more-or-less rigid segments (plates).
prediction (of earthquakes)—the forecasting in time, place, and magnitude of an earthquake;
the forecasting of strong ground motions.
P wave—the primary or fastest wave traveling away from a seismic event through the rock and
consisting of a train of compressions and dilatations of the material.
Rayleigh waves—seismic surface waves with ground motion only in a vertical plane
containing the direction of propagation of the waves.
risk (seismic)—the probability of life and property loss from an earthquake hazard within a
given time interval and region.
scarp (fault)—a cliff or steep slope formed by displacement of the ground surface.
seismicity—the occurrence of earthquakes in space and time.
seismology—the study of earthquakes, seismic sources, and wave propagation through the
Earth.
strong ground motion—the shaking of the ground near an earthquake source made up of
large amplitude seismic waves of various types.
S wave—the secondary seismic wave, traveling more slowly than the P wave and consisting
of elastic vibrations transverse to the direction of travel. It cannot propagate in a liquid.