CADD-Computer Aided Designing and Drafting

CADD is an electronic tool that enables us to make quick and accurate drawings.
CADD has number of advantages over drawings created on a drawing board. Electronic
drawings can be modified quite easily and can be represented in a variety of formats.
CADD extends its power to yet another branch of engineering called computer aided
manufacturing (CAM).CADD and manufacturing program are often integrated into one system
called CAD-CAM. This system import CADD drawings into CAM program to automate the
manufacturing process. When the design is finalized, the drawings are brought into a CAD-
CAM system that uses numerical data from the CADD drawing for actual manufacturing.
There is separate category of programs called Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) that
can use CADD drawing for engineering analysis. The CAE programs have a number of
applications in Structural Design, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Electrical
Engineering. The Mechanical engineer can test a machine assembly and also a prototype
electronic model and test it without building a physical model.
Expectations form CADD
We can do amazing things with CADD that we never thought possible while creating
drawings with pen or pencil. The following are some of the important capabilities that make
CADD a powerful tool.
Presentations
Flexibility in editing
Unit and accuracy levels
Storage and access for drawings
Sharing CADD drawings

Presentations
There are a number of ready-made presentations symbols available in CADD that
can be used to enhance the look of drawings. In addition to prepare impressive presentations
on paper, we can use CADD to make an on-screen presentations. Advanced CADD
programs ever allow us to create an animated image.

Flexibility in editing
CADD allows us to work with great accuracy. If we need to create highly accuracy
geometric shapes, CADD is the answer. It can help avoid time-consuming mathematical
calculations.
Unit and accuracy level
th
We can work with as high precession as 1/1000 of an inch.
Storage and access of drawing

A computer electronic filing system has the following advantages over the traditional
filing
system.
It is quick and convenient to organize CADD drawing in a computer.
It enables us to create a highly organized environment.
An electronic drawing never gets old and faded.

Sharing CADD Drawing

The electronic drawing can be shared by a number of users, allowing them to Co-
ordinate projects and work as a team. This is accomplished by connecting different computer
via a network.
About AutoCAD
AutoCAD is a Computer Aided Design (CAD) program used by just about every
Engineering and Design office in the world. Although there are alternative CAD packages,
AutoCAD is by far the most widely used system. Autodesk's AutoCAD is the industry leader in
CAD packages. Used by Civil Engineers, Architects, Mechanical and Electrical Engineers,
Aeronautical Engineers plus many other disciplines.
There have been several versions of AutoCAD over the years, with each new
version introducing new and more powerful features than its predecessor. The latest version
of AutoCAD (at the time of writing) is AutoCAD 2011. Any courses, whether through
community colleges or online universities, that are related to Engineering or Architecture
should be considered incomplete if they do not introduce students to AutoCAD.
Accurate, scale drawings can be created and published using AutoCAD powerful
features. 3D 'models' can also be created giving the designer absolute control over the design
from start to finish. The computerised model can be viewed through a 360º angle, and even
'rendered' with a texture on screen to give an idea of the finished product.
The X,Y co-ordinate system
Everything that we draw in AutoCAD is exact. It will be more accurate than we will
ever need it to be. We're talking 14 decimal points accurate. All objects drawn on the screen
are placed there based on a simple X,Y co-ordinate system. In AutoCAD this is known as the
World Co-ordinate System (WCS).

AutoCAD uses points to determine where an object is located. There is an origin

where it begins counting from. This point is (0,0). Every object is located in relation to the
origin. If we were to draw a line straight out to the right from the origin, this would be
considered the positive X-axis. If we were to draw a line straight up, this would be the positive
Y-axis. The picture above shows a point located at (9, 6). This means that the point is 9 units
over in the X-axis and 6 units up in the Y-axis. When we are working with points, X always
comes first. The other point shown is (-10,-4). This means that the point is 10 units in the
negative X-axis (left) and 4 units in the negative Y-axis (down).
A line has two points, a start point and an end point. AutoCAD works with the points
to display the line on the screen. Most of the time we will not have an indication of where the
origin is.We may need to draw a line from the endpoint of an existing line. To do this we use
relative points. These work the same way, but we have to add the @ symbol (shift+2) to tell
AutoCAD that this next point is relative from the last point entered.
i.e.
ABSOLUTE POINTS are exact points on the drawing space.
RELATIVE POINTS are relative to an OBJECT on the drawing space.
Angular Measurement
AutoCAD measures angles in a particular way also.

When drawing lines at an angle, we have to begin measuring the angle from 0
degrees, which is at the 3 o'clock position. If we drew a line at 90 degrees, it would go straight
up. The example shows a line drawn at +300 degrees (270+30), or -60 degrees.

Entering Points in AutoCAD

We can enter points directly on the command line using three different systems. The
one we use will depend on which is more applicable for the situation. The three systems are
as follows:

ABSOLUTE CO-ORDINATES
Using this method, we enter the points as they relate to the origin of the WCS. To enter
a point just enters in the exact point as X, Y.

RELATIVE CO-ORDINATES –
This allows us to enter points in relation to the first point we have entered. After we've
entered one point, the next would be entered as @X, Y. This means that AutoCAD will draw a
line from the first point to another point X units over and Y units up relative to the previous
point.

POLAR CO-ORDINATES
We would use this system if we know that we want to draw a line a certain distance at
a particular angle. We would enter this as @D<A. In this case, D is the distance and A is the
angle. Example: @10<90 will draw a line 10 units straight up from the first point.
The three ways of entering co-ordinates shown above are the ONLY way AutoCAD
accepts input. First decide which style we need to use, and then enter as shown. Remember
that X is always before Y (alphabetical). Don't forget the '@' symbol when we are entering
relative points.

More AutoCAD Basics

Application Button
This button displays commands for printing, saving, drawing utilities and other
non-drawing tool.
Quick Access Toolbar
This is for quick access to common commands like New, Open, Save, Plot
Filename - The name of the current file we are working on.
Search Bar
Search for text in were drawing or search the help files.
Ribbon
The Ribbon has most of the commands/tools that we will use while we are working.

Tabs
A series of Tabs make up the Ribbon (Home, Insert, Manage, etc) and organize the
Tools into common groups.

Panels
Contain a group of tools

Tools
These are the icon that starts the commands we use to draw, modify, etc.

Tool Tip
If wehoverwer mouse over a tool, a tool tip will appear to give were more information.
Hold it longer for more info.

Drawing Space
These is where we draw were designs.

Command line
When we type a command, we will see it here. AutoCAD uses this space to 'prompt' us
for information. It will give us a lot of information and tell us where we are in the command.

Status bar
This allows seeing and changing different modes of drawing such as Ortho, Osnaps,
Grid, Otrack, etc. We can right click this area to toggle between icons and text for this area.
Icons, Keystrokes and Menus
There are many ways to do things in most Windows programs. AutoCAD is no
exception. Everyone will develop a way that works best for him or her. In this course, we will
primarily be working with the keystroke commands. The reason for this is because they will
work in most AutoCAD versions (including DOS versions), and in some other CAD programs.
The icons work well, but as we will see, icons can be placed anywhere on the screen and can
be difficult to find quickly. We may be working on another employee's computer that is set up
differently than what we're used to. The pull-down menus will access almost all commands,
but are a slower way of doing things.

Example:
If we want to draw a line, we can do it a few ways:
At the command line type: LINE (or) L and press the ENTER key.
Select the line icon from the DRAW Panel...
All three approaches will do the same thing: prepare AutoCAD to draw a line where we tell
it.
AutoCAD is a popular program because it can be customized to suit an individual's
needs. The toolbars are a good example of this. We can have the toolbars we use most often
on the screen all the time. We can easily make them go away so that we have more drawing
space. We can also customize them so we have the most common commands on one
toolbar. For example, the dimensioning toolbar is one that we will not want taking up space on
were screen while drawing, but is very handy when we're dimensioning the drawing.
Basic AutoCAD Terminology

Absolute co-ordinates
A way of inputting points based on AutoCAD's origin.

Acad.dwt
This is the default template that automatically loads whenever we start a drawing
session. It can be customized to suit were needs.

Associated Dimensioning
Dimensions that are associated with specific points will update as that point is moved.

Backup file
AutoCAD can be set to automatically backup were drawing and save it. This is a
safeguard in case were file gets corrupted. It is saved with a .BAK extension

Block
Pre-drawn images we can insert in were drawing to save time and make were file size
smaller.

Clean Screen
A display setting that gives us maximum drawing space.

Crosshairs
This is where cursor when it is in the drawing space.

Cursor
Were cursor will change depending on what function it is performing in the program.

Database
An AutoCAD drawing file is actually one large database containing all the
information needed to reproduce the objects when the file is opened. Info for layers and line
types, etc is stored in this manner.

Dialog box
AutoCAD uses a large number of dialog boxes to get information from us. We must
know how input the information that it asks for.

Drawing template file

This is a file that contains preset values for frequently used settings. AKA a
prototype drawing. The file extension is DWT.

Extents
The outer boundaries of the objects we have drawn.

Grid
This is pattern of dots displayed on the screen to guide us. It can be toggled on and off
by pressing the F7 key.

Grips
Small 'handles' on objects that allow for quick editing.

Layer
All objects are drawn on a layer. We can group objects (such as electrical) on a
single layer and organize were drawing.
Lowest Tabs
A space used for plotting the drawings (formerly called Paper Space).

Limits (Grid)
A setting to impose an 'artificial' boundary on were drawing that sets the area of the
grid, and when turned on, limits we to drawing in the grid area.

Line type
All objects are drawn with a particular line type. Examples would be solid, centre,
dashed, etc.

Model space
The drawing space where we 'model' the objects.

Modify
A generic term used for changing were objects

Object
Any item that is in the AutoCAD database.Also known as an entity.

Origin
The (0,0) point of were current co-ordinate system.

Ortho mode
This is a drawing mode that allows we to draw only perpendicular lines. It is toggled on
and off by pressing the F8 key.

Osnap - Object Snap

This is a method of 'snapping' to certain, precise points on an object.

Pan
To move around drawing by dragging the drawing area around wer screen.

Panel
A grouping of commands on the ribbon

Path
The specific folder where AutoCAD looks for, or saves files.

Pick
To select an object by 'left-clicking' on it.

Plot
Also known as print.To makes a hard copy of wer drawing.

Polar co-ordinates
A way of inputting points based on distance and angle.

Property
Any specific characteristic of an object such as layer, scale, linetype, start point, etc.
Ribbon
The Ribbon runs across the top of the drawing space and contains panel - each
panel has a group of associated tool. Switch to different panels by clicking on the tabs at the
top of the ribbon.

Relative co-ordinates
A way of inputting points based on a starting point.

Selection set
The current group of objects selected for modifying.

Snap
This is a drawing mode that allows we to snap wer cursor to precise points laid out in a
grid pattern. Toggle with the F9 key.

Styles
Formatting that defines the look of text, dimensions, etc.

Units
The basic drawing unit set for we drawing. For example, we can use inches or
millimetres depending on wer needs. We can also set the precision we want displayed, such
nearest 1/4", 1/2" 1/64", etc.

User co-ordinate system (UCS)

Modifications made to the World Co-ordinate System (WCS) results in a User Co-
ordinate System (UCS)

View
A particular area of wer drawing.

Viewport
A separate 'window' on wer drawing. We may have more than one viewport visible to
see different areas of wer drawing at the same time.

Wizard
An easy step-by-step instruction set to help we set-up certain aspects of wer drawing.

World Co-ordinate System (WCS)

This is the common X-Y co-ordinate system that is the default. If it is modified, it
becomes a User co-ordinate System (UCS) Zoom. To view either a smaller section of wer
drawing (zoom in) or a larger section (zoom out
 BASIC DRAWING COMMANDS FOR AUTOCAD

Measuring Commands

GRID (F7):
Displays a grid of dots at a desired spacing on the screen.
Command: GRID (enter)
On/Off/Tick spacing(x)/Aspect: (enter value) (enter)

SNAP (F9):
Specifies a "round off" interval so that points entered with the mouse
can be locked into alignment with the grid spacing.
Command: SNAP (enter)
On/Off/Value/Aspect/Rotate/Style: (enter value) (enter)

Basic Draw Commands

CIRCLE (C):
Draws circles of any size.
Command: Circle (enter)
3P/2P/TTR/<center point>: (pick a center point)
Diameter or <Radius>: (Pick a point on the circle)

LINE (L):
Draws straight lines between two points
Command: LINE (enter)
From Point: (pick a point using the mouse)
To Point: (Pick a point using the mouse)
To Point: (Press return to end the command)

ARC (A):
Draws an arc (any part of a circle or curve) through three known points.
Command: ARC (enter)
Center/ < Start point > : (pick the first point on the arc)
Center/End/ < Second point > :C
Center: (pick the arc's center point)
Angle/Length of chord/ <End point > : (pick the arc endpoint)
 Display Commands

LIMITS:
Sets the size of the drawing paper. For size "A" drawing paper the limits
should be set for 10.5 x 8.
Command: LIMITS (enter)
On/Off/Lower left corner <0.0000> (enter)
Upper right corner: 10.5,8 (enter)

ZOOM (Z):
Enlarges or reduces the display of a drawing.
Command: ZOOM (enter)
All/Center/Dynamic/Extents/Left/Previous/Vmax/Window/<Scale(x/XP)>:
(pick a point to define one corner of a rectangular viewing window then pick
a point to define the second point to define the opposite diagonal corner of
the viewing window).
.

PAN:
Allows we to move were view point around the drawing without changing the
magnification factor.
Command: PAN (enter)

Editing Commands

CHANGE: Alters properties of selected objects

Command: CHANGE (enter)
Select objects or window or Last (select objects to be changed)
Properties/<Change point>: (type P)
Change what property (Color/Elev/ Layer/L Type/Thickness)? (Type
Layer)
New Layer: (enter new layer name and press enter)
ERASE (E):
Erases entities from the drawing.
Command: ERASE (enter)
Select objects or Window or Last: (Select objects to be erased and
press enter when finished)

EXTEND (EXT):
Lengthens a line to end precisely at a boundary edge.
Command: Extend (enter)
Select boundary edge(s)...Select Objects (pick the line which
represents the boundary edge which lines will be extended to)(press
enter when finished selecting cutting edges)<Select object to
extend>/Undo: (pick the line(s) that need to be extended.

TRIM (TR):
Trims a line to end precisely at a cutting edge.
Command: Trim (enter)
Select cutting edge(s)... Select Objects (pick the line which represents
the cutting edge of line in which objects will be trimmed to)(press enter
when finished selecting cutting edges)<Select object to trim>/Undo:
(pick the line(s) that need to be trimmed).
GRIPS
We can edit selected objects by manipulating grips that appear at
defining points on the object. Grips is not a command. To activate grips
simply pick the object. Small squares will appear at various entity-
specific positions. By selecting an end grip we can stretch the entity to
change its size. By selecting the center grip we can move the entity to a
new location. To remove grips press CTL-C twice. We can perform the
following using grips: Copy, Multiple Copy, Stretch, Move, Rotate, Scale,
and Mirror.

Creating Layers

LAYER:
Creates named drawing layers and assigns color and line type
properties to those layers.
Command: LAYER (enter)
A Layer & Line type Properties dialog box will be
displayed. To add a new layer, pick the new button. A new layer listing
appears, using a default name of Layer1. The layer name can be
changed by highlighting the layer name. Colors and Line types can be
assigned to each new layer by picking the color box to assign a color
and picking the line type box to assign a line type.

Standard AutoCAD colors

1 = Red 2 = Yellow 3 = Green 4 = Cyan 5 = Blue 6 = Magenta 7 = White

Standard AutoCAD line types

Hidden2 = hidden lines
Center2 = center lines
Phantom2 = phantom or cutting-plane lines

Construction Commands

ARRAY (AR):
Makes multiple copies of selected objects in a rectangular or circular
pattern Command: ARRAY (enter)
Select objects or Window or Last: (select object to array)
Rectangular or Polar array (R/P) <current>: (P)
Center point of array: (pick the point around which to form the array)
Angle to fill (+=CCW, -=Cw) <360>: (enter)

COPY (CO):
Draws a copy of selected objects.
Command: COPY (enter)
Select objects or Window or Last: (select objects to be copied)
Base point or displacement: (pick a point on the object to be use as a
reference point)
Second point of displacement: (pick a point which represents the new
location of the copied object)
MIRROR (MI):
Makes mirror images of existing objects.
Command: MIRROR (enter)
Select objects or Window or Last: (select objects to be mirrored)
First point of mirror line: (pick a point on top of the mirror line)
Second point: (pick a point on the bottom of the mirror line)
Delete old objects? <N> y or n (enter)

MOVE (M):
Moves designated entities to another location.
Command: MOVE (enter)
Select objects or Window or Last: (select objects to move)
Base point or displacement: (pick a point on the object to be use as a
reference point)
Second point of displacement: (pick a point which represents the new
location of the object)

OFFSET (O):
Constructs an entity parallel to another entity at a specified distance.
Offset can be used with lines, circles, arcs, and polylines.
Command: OFFSET (enter)
Offset distance or Through<last>: (enter a distance value)
Select object to offset: (select object to offset)
Side to offset: (Pick any point on the side of the object we wish to offset)

FILLET (FI):
Changes any corner to a rounded corner.
Command: FILLET
Polyline/Radius/Angle/Trim/Method/ <Select first line > : (pick the
first line)
Select second line: (pick the second line)

CHAMFER (CHA):
Changes any corner to an angled corner.
Command: CHAMFER
Polyline/Distance/Angle/Trim/Method/ < Select first line > : (pick
the first
line)Select second line: (pick the second line)

OSNAP (F3)
Instantly locates exact points relative to existing objects (points).

Object Snap Modes:

Endpoint, Midpoint, Center, Quadrant, Intersection, Insertion,
Perpendicular, Tangent, Nearest, Node, and None.
 Placing lettering on a drawing

TEXT (M TEXT):Draws text characters of any size.

Command: TEXT (enter)
Justify/Style/<Start point>: (pick a starting point or enter a justification
letter)
Height (0) (enter the height of the lettering)
Rotation Angle (0) (enter)
Text: (enter the desired lettering) (enter)
Summary of
Options
<Start Point> Left-Justifies text along its baseline
Justify Justifies text according to the alignment options
Styl
e Enters a new text style
Null reply Enters a new line of text below the previous text.
(space or Enter key will give a Null reply)
Orientatio
Alignment Abbreviation n
Aligned A Aligns text between two points. Text height will adjust automatically
Fit F Fits text between two points. Text height will not change
Centered C Centers text at the baseline of a specified point
Centers text horizontally and vertically at the baseline of a specified
Middle M point.
Right R Justify text at the baseline of a specified point
Top Left TL Left Justifies text at the top of text
Top Center TC Centers text at the top of text
Top Right TR Right justifies text at the top to text
Middle Left ML Left justifies text at the middle of text
Middle Center MC Centers text both horizontally and vertically at the middle of the text
Middle Right MR Right justifies text at the middle of text
Bottom Left BL Left justifies text at the bottom of text
Bottom
Center BC Centers text a the bottom of text
Bottom Right BR Right justifies text at the bottom of text

The SPELL command will check the spelling of a group of text.

Crosshatching a drawing

BHATCH:
Allows the user to crosshatch areas of a section view.
Command: BHATCH (enter)
The Boundary Hatch dialogue Box will be displayed. Select the Hatch
Options box.
The Hatch Options box will be displayed. Select the Patterns box.
The Choose Hatch Pattern box will be displayed. Select the desired
hatch pattern.
The Hatch Options box will be displayed again. We can select a scale
and rotation angle for the crosshatch pattern. Select the OK box when
finished.
The Boundary Hatch dialogue box will be displayed again. Select the
Pick Points box. When prompted select the internal point of the are to
be crosshatched. Press the enter key when finished.
The Boundary Hatch dialog box will be displayed again. Select the
Apply box to add the crosshatching to the drawing.

LIMITS:

Limits are the extreme permissible dimension of any part. There are two extreme
permissible sizes for a dimension. The largest permissible size is called upper or higher
limits where as the smaller size is known as lower limits.

FIT:
The term fit is used to signify the range tightness or looseness which may result from
the application of combination of allowances and tolerance on the basic dimension of two
mating parts.

ALLOWANCES:
An allowance may be either positive (+) or negative (-) according to the type of fit
required. If the condition is such that the shaft is smaller than the hole that there is positive
allowance, but if the shaft is larger than the hole, we save that there is negative allowance

TOLERANCE:
Definition
The difference between the upper limit dimension and lower limit dimension on basic
size of a component is term as tolerance.
Usually it is expressed in microns (1micron =.001mm)
Eg; dimension 20±.02
Here 20mm is the basic size
20+.02=20.02mm is the maximum limit of the size
20 -.02=19.98mm is the minimum limit of the size
20.02 -19.98= .04mm is the tolerance .the tolerance is provided to indicate any one
of the following
1. The permissible variation in the size of a component
2. The permissible variation in the surface or form of a component
3. The permissible variation in the position of a point, line or plane on the component.
According to above concept the tolerance or of following three types
a. size tolerance
b. form tolerance
 c. position tolerance

SIZE TOLERANCE:
Size tolerance is the permissible variation made in the basic size of a component on
one or both side of its basic dimension.
There are two types of size tolerances
1. uni lateral tolerance
` 2. bi lateral tolerance

UNI LATERAL TOLERANCE:

` In this type, tolerance is given on only one side of the nominal size of the component
Eg +.000 +.02
30 50
-.25 +.00

BI LATERAL TOLERANCES:
In this type tolerance is given on both side of the nominal size of the component
Eg +.02 +.02
50 50
-.03 -.02

FORM TOLERANCE:
The common surfaces which various components have in practice are of flat, circular,
or other geometric profiled shapes. Due to manufacturing in accuracies, these forms of
surfaces may not be provided in perfect shaped, therefore a certain amount of tolerances is
to be allowed so that these surfaces may be produced within certain limits of design
specifications. The symbols to indicate various surfaces on a drawing in limits system are
shown in fig
In the figure a, b, c the form tolerance are identified for a flat, a circular and a curvy
surface respectively .As indicated in the fig. the flat surface to be provided at the boundary of
the component has a form tolerance of .2mm . Similarly these circular surfaces have form
tolerance of .01mm in fig. and the curvy surface a form tolerance of .04mm in fig.

Form Symbol

Straightness, Flatness

Circularity

Accuracy of any profile

POSITION TOLERANCE:
A position tolerance indicates the deviation allowed in location of a point, line or plane
on a component with respect to a reference line , which also lies on the component. As the
location of centers for holes, line and planes are to be marked parallel to at right angle or at
any other angle with respect to a reference line , a set of symbols are used to indicate
parallelism , perpendicularity and angularity etc. such symbols are given in fig.

Form Symbols
Parallelism

Perpendicularity

Angularity

Position

Concentricity

Symmetry

The necessary indications are written in a rectangular frame which is divided into two
and sometimes into three compartments. These sections are filled in fore left to right in the
following order.

1. Tolerance symbols.
2. Tolerance value in the unit used for length dimension.
3. If necessary the letters defining the datum feature of features.

A few examples of showing position tolerances are shown in fig

The fig (a) it shows that two parallel surfaces are located within a tolerance of 0.1º.
In fig (b) shows the perpendicular surface is to be positioned with a tolerance of 0.1º
with the horizontal surface. In fig (c) shows an inclined surface is making 40º with surface. A
and the inclined line has a tolerance of 0.01º.
TOLERANCE SYSTEM:
Where ever two parts are fitted together we have to provide either clearance or
interference between them depending on the type of fit required. This can be easily obtained
by keeping the dimension of the part constant and varying the dimension of the other by a
trial a and error method when the part are manufactured in large scale, but in large scale
production, we have to use a standard tolerance system. Two standard tolerance systems
are adopted in engineering industries. They are,
1. Whole basis system.
2. Shaft basis system.

HOLE BASIS SYSTEM:

In this system the whole diameter is taken as standard and diameter of shaft varies to
alter the fit. They lower deviation of the hole is zero ie. The basic size of the hole is the
minimum size of the hole. Fig. explains as to how the shaft is varied to alter the fit, keeping
the hole constant.

SHAFT BASIS SYSTEM:

In this system, the diameter of the shaft is taken as standard and the diameter of the
hole varied to alter the fit. Here the upper deviation of the shaft is zero. Fig explains as to
how the hole is varied to alter the fit, keeping the shaft constant.

HOLE BASIS SYSTEM IS GENERALLY PREFERRED:

In the hole basis system only one reamer and one plug gauge are required for
finishing and measuring a hole of definite nominal size for any fit for a specified grade of
accuracy. But the shaft basis system will required a separate reamer for each fit in each
grade. It involves additional expenditures on this comparatively expensive tool. It is not
economical on production considerations. It is more widely used than the shaft basis system.

TYPES OF FITS:
There are three basic types of fit or engagements which are possible to achieve by
varying the amount of two mating parts on hole basis system. These three fits are known as
1. Clearence fit
2. Interface fit
3. Transition fit

CLEARENCE FIT:
A fit established when a positive clearance exists between the hole and the shaft is
called clearance fit.
It is obtained by selecting maximum and minimum limits of the shaft and hole, so that
the difference between the dimension of the smallest possible hole and largest possible
shaft this always positive. There are different classes in this type of fitting depending upon
the amount of clearance

Eg. Sliding fit, running fit, loose running fit.

INTERFERENCE FIT:
A fit is established when a negative clearance exists between size of the hole and the
shaft is called interference fit. It is obtained by selecting the maximum and minimum limits of
the shaft and hole so that the difference between the dimension of largest possible hole and
the smallest possible shaft is always negative .There are difference classes in this type of fit,
depending upon the amount of interference .

Eg. Tight fit, drive fit, heavy duty fit, medium force fit, shrink fit, etc.

TRANSITION FIT:
A fit which may provide either clearance or an interference is called transition fit .

Eg. Push fit, force fit, tight fit.

FASTENERS:
Different parts of structures, machine or other engineering products are jointed
together by means of fastening.
Fasteners are classified as
1. Temporary fasteners
2. Permanent fasteners

1. Temporary fasteners:
Temporary fasteners are used to connect or disconnect the parts without damage the
parts.

2. Permanent fasteners:
Permanent fasteners are used to connect the parts which are not likely to be
separated. The joint can be dissembled without destruction of the joining elements.

THREADED FASTERS:

Screw thread:

A screw thread is an operating element of temporary fastening. A screw thread

is a continuous helical grove formed on a cylindrical surface.Bolts, nut, studs and
screws are threaded fasteners. They are frequently used in machine parts. The
threaded portion of screw is engaged with the corresponding threaded hole in a nut.
Thread is usually cut a lathe or by any suitable operation. Such as tapping, rolling,
etc.

1. Pitch:
It is the distance between the corresponding points on the consecutive threads
parallel to the axis of the screw. In order words it is the distance from root to root, crest to
crest. If P is the pitch and n is the no of thread per unit length, then P=1/n

2. Lead:
It is the axial distance moved by a screw thread in one complete revolution.
L=Lead and P=Pitch then
L=2p for double start thread
L=3p for triple start thread
In general L=S*P where S= no. of starts
3. Crest:
The crest is the top or outer most part of a thread.

4. Root:
It is the inner portion of thread. It is the bottom surface joining the side of two adjacent
threads.

5. Flank:
It flank of the thread is the surface between the crest and the root of a thread.

6. Depth of thread:
It is defined as the distance measured perpendicular to the axis of the screw between
crest and root.

7. Major diameter:
Major diameter or root diameter is the smallest diameter or outside diameter of the
screw thread (external or internal). The screw thread is specified by the nominal diameter
only. For example, if the bolt size is specified as M12.
It means the nominal diameter of the bolt is 12mm

8. Minor diameter:
Minor diameter or root diameter is the smallest diameter of the screw thread. It is the
diameter of the core or root of the thread.
Core diameter = Major diameter – (2xdepth of thread)

9. Slope:
The slope equals half the lead on any thread
For single start, slope = half pitch
For multi start, slop = half lead

10. Angle of thread:

It is the angle between the flanks measured in an axial plane.
 V THREADS FORMS OF SCREW THREADS

The following are the different forms of screw threads.

ISO Metric screw thread

The ISO metric thread is shown in fig. it has an inclined angle of 60 0 between the
flanks. The crest and root are made flat in this type of thread. Many countries have adopted
this thread. BIS (Bureau of Indian Standard) have also recommended this type of thread in
our country.

NUT
A nut is a device internal thread to engage the threaded ends of bolt on stands.
Nuts are usually made in the following form.
1. Hexagonal 2.Square

Hexagonal nut
The usual proportions for hexagonal nuts are as follows.
1. Size across flats : 1.25D+6mm for bolt less then 12mm dia
1.5D+3mm for bolt more than 12mm dia
2. Size across corners : 1.155*size across flats
3. Height of the nut H : .9D to D
4. Radius of the front chamfer R: 1.2D
5. Chamfer at the top :300 to the base of the nut.

DRAWING THE HEXAGONAL NUT

Draw three views of hexagonal nuts of diameter 24mm.
1. Work out the required dimensions
1. D=24mm
2. Nut height H=D=24mm
3. Size across flat A/F=1.25D+6=36mm
4. Radius of the front chamfer R=1.2D=28.8mm say 29mm
2. Draw the center lines to locate center of circle in top view.
3. Commence drawing from top view as it contains circles. Draw a broken circle of dia 24mm and
other circle of dia (D-P). These two circles represent thread of conventional method.
4. Draw a three circle of dia 36mm. This circle is known as chamfering circle.
5. Circumseribe a regular hexagon about the chamfering circle of dia 36mm using 30 0-600 set
square or by setting the minute of at 600. This complete top view.
6. By projecting the corners of hexagon, construct the front view and side view by taking height =
24mm.
7. In the front view, draw an are ABC of radius 29mm radius of front chamfer. It cuts the vertical at
A and C.
8. Mark off points D, A, C, E, F, G, and H in a straight line.
9. Draw acres passing through DKA, CLE, FMG and GNH by finding center as shown for example
to find the center of arc DAK, draw perpendicular bisector of DA and DK. The point is intersection
of these two bisectors will be the center of the arc DKA.
10. Similarly draw arc FMG and GNH in the side view.
11. Chamfer the top corners of the front view by drawing lines at 300 tangential to the arcs.
12. Finish the view by thick object lines.
SQUARE NUT
Recommended dimensions of a square nut are termed on its nominal dia D are.
Height H = D
Size across flat A/F = 1.5D+3mm
Size across corners, A/C = √ 2* size across flats.
Radius of chamfer = 1.75 D
Angle of chamfer = 300

BOLTS
A bolt is a cylindrical piece with a head at one end and the threaded potion to a specified
length at the other end. It is used with a nut to hole the parts together temporarily. Though bolts
with heads of different shape are available. The hexagonal headed and square headed bolts are
widely used. The standard proportions for hexagonal and screw bolts are illustrated in figure. The
length of the thread potion is taken as 2D + 6mm.

RIVETS
The rivet is a short round rod with a head at the head at one end and a tail at the other
end. The tail end is slightly tapered as shown in figure for its easy entry into the holes of the plats
to be jointed. A head is also formed in the tail and during riveting; rivets are made from ductile
materials like mild steel, copper, aluminum etc.

Types of Rivets
The types of rivets form depending upon the use of rivets. The types of rivet heads
specified by BIS are shown in figure
1. Snap head Boiler work
2. Pan Head General work
3. Counter sunken head Ship building
4. Rounded Counter sunk head Railway carriage works
5. Ellipsoidal head Boiler work
6. Conical head Boiler work

KEYS
A key is metal pieces inserted in an axial direction between a shaft and hub to
prevent relative rotation keys mainly used to hold pulley gears wheels etc. on rotating shaft
keys are temporary fasteners and are always made of steel.
A key way or key seats in a groove is cut in the shaft or hub to accommodate a key.
TYPES OF KEY
Keys are classified into the following main types
1. Sunk key
2. Saddle key
3. Round or pin key
EX.NO:2 BASIC 2D DRAWING – Auto CAD

DATE:

AIM:

1. To understand drawing standards

2. Draw basic sketches and constraint them using Geometrical and Dimensional
constraints

PROCEDURE:

1. Open Auto CAD; Draw the Shape given in the Fig.1.

2. Add relations and Smart dimensions and make sure that the Sketch is Fully
constraint

3. Change the dimensions according to Fig.1

4. Repeat the same for Fig.2 to Fig.5

Commands used:

Line, Circle, Arc, Fillet, Trim, Smart Dimension, Relations, Show, View

RESULT:

The basic sketches were drawn using AUTOCAD as shown in Figures and
the required parameters were added to modify the dimensions at later stage if
necessary.
EX.NO:3 ASSEMBLY OF SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT

DATE:

AIM:

1. To create 3D models of Sleeve and Cotter Joint parts using Auto CAD.

2. To Create the Assembly of Sleeve and Cotter Joint using Auto CAD.

3. To understand the type of fits and tolerances used in Assembly.

PROCEDURE:

1. The modeling concepts – Solid modeling, Surface modeling were trailed in Auto
CAD/CATIA by creating 3D model of Sleeve and cotter Joint-connecting rod, sleeve,
cotter.

2. The options available in each Feature command are tried to understand the
capabilities of each command.

3. Design Methods: Bottom-up Design, Top down Design are discussed.

4. Assembly of Sleeve and Cotter Joint was created using Bottom-up design approach.

COMMANDS USED:

Sketcher Commands: Line, Circle, Arc, Fillet, Trim, Smart Dimension, Relations, Show,
and View

Features Commands: Extrude (pad) and Cut, Revolve (shaft), Sweep, and Loft,
Fillet/Round, Chamfer, and Draft, Hole - Simple and Hole Wizard, Hole Series, Scale,
Shell, Rib, Dome, Freeform, Shape, Deform, Indent,

Flex, Pattern and Mirror, Curves, Fastening Features

Assembly Commands: Insert, Component, Existing Part/Assembly

Mating Commands: Angle, Coincident, Concentric, Distance, Parallel, Perpendicular,

Tangent
RESULT:

The 2D models of Sleeve and Cotter Joint parts are created using Auto
CAD The type of fits and tolerances used in Assembly are studied.
EX.NO:4 ASSEMBLY OF SPIGOT AND COTTER JOINT

DATE:

AIM:

1. To create 3D models of Spigot and Cotter Joint parts using Auto CAD.

2. To Create the Assembly of Spigot and Cotter Joint using Auto CAD.

3. To understand the type of fits and tolerances used in Assembly.

PROCEDURE:

1. The modeling concepts – Solid modeling, Surface modeling were trailed in Auto
CAD/CATIA by creating 3D model of Sleeve and cotter Joint-connecting rod, sleeve,
cotter.

2. The options available in each Feature command are tried to understand the
capabilities of each command.

3. Design Methods: Bottom-up Design, Top down Design are discussed.

4. Assembly of Sleeve and Cotter Joint was created using Bottom-up design approach.

COMMANDS USED:

Sketcher Commands: Line, Circle, Arc, Fillet, Trim, Smart Dimension, Relations, Show,
and View

Features Commands: Extrude (pad) and Cut, Revolve (shaft), Sweep, and Loft,
Fillet/Round, Chamfer, and Draft, Hole - Simple and Hole Wizard, Hole Series, Scale,
Shell, Rib, Dome, Freeform, Shape, Deform, Indent,

Flex, Pattern and Mirror, Curves, Fastening Features

Assembly Commands: Insert, Component, Existing Part/Assembly

Mating Commands: Angle, Coincident, Concentric, Distance, Parallel, Perpendicular,

Tangent
RESULT:

The 2D models of Spigot and Cotter Joint parts are created using Auto
CAD. The type of fits and tolerances used in Assembly are studied.
EX.NO:5 ASSEMBLY OF SIMPLE ECCENTRIC

DATE:

AIM:

1. To create 3D models of SIMPLE ECCENTRIC parts using Auto CAD.

2. To Create the Assembly of Simple Eccentric using Auto CAD.

3. To understand the type of fits and tolerances used in Assembly.

PROCEDURE:

1. The drawings of Simple Eccentric parts (straps, sheave, shim, cheese headed bolt,
M12 nut, M12 lock nut) are studied.

2. 3D models of all the parts are created using Auto CAD.

3. The Assembly of Simple Eccentric was created as per the drawing specification.

COMMANDS USED:

Sketcher Commands: Line, Circle, Arc, Fillet, Trim, Smart Dimension, Relations, Show,
and View.

Features Commands: Extrude (pad) and Cut, Revolve (shaft), Fillet/Round, Chamfer,
Hole - Simple, Pattern,

Fastening Features.

Assembly Commands: Insert, Component, Existing Part/Assembly.

Mating Commands: Coincident, Concentric, Distance.

RESULT:

The 2D models of Simple Eccentric parts (straps, sheave, shim, cheese headed bolt,
M12 nut, M12 lock nut) are created using Auto CAD/CATIA. The type of fits and
tolerances used in Assembly are studied
EX.NO:6 ASSEMBLY OF SCREW JACK

DATE:

AIM:

1. To create 2D models of SCREW JACK parts using Auto CAD.

2. To Create the Assembly of Screw Jack using Auto CAD.

PROCEDURE:

1. The drawings of Body, Nut, Screw Spindle, Cup, Washer Special, CSK Screw, and
Tommy Bar are studied.

2. 3D models of Body, Nut, Screw Spindle, Cup, Washer Special, CSK Screw, and
Tommy Bar are created using Auto CAD.

3. The Assembly of Screw Jack was created as per the drawing specification.

COMMANDS USED:

Sketcher Commands: Line, Circle, Arc, Fillet, Trim, Smart Dimension, Relations,
Show,and View

Features Commands: Extrude (pad) and Cut, Revolve (shaft), Fillet/Round, Chamfer,
Hole - Simple, Pattern,

Fastening Features

Assembly Commands: Insert, Component, Existing Part/Assembly

Mating Commands: Coincident, Concentric, Distance

RESULT:

The 2D models of Screw Jack parts (Casting, Nut, Cup, Tommy bar, Setscrew, Screw,
washer) are created using Auto CAD.
EX.NO:7 ASSEMBLY OF CONNECTING ROD

DATE:

AIM:

1. To create 2D models of Connecting Rod parts using Auto CAD.

2. To Create the Assembly of Connecting Rod using Auto CAD.

3. To understand the type of fits and tolerances used in Assembly.

PROCEDURE:

1. The drawings of Connecting Rod, Bush, Stud, Pin, Bearing Brasses, Distance

Piece, Cover, Washer, Nut, and Split pin are studied.

2. 2D models of all the parts are created using Auto CAD.

3. The Assembly of Connecting Rod was created as per the drawing specification.

COMMANDS USED:

Sketcher Commands: Line, Circle, Arc, Fillet, Trim, Smart Dimension, Relations, Show,
and View.

Features Commands: Extrude (pad) and Cut, Revolve (shaft), Fillet/Round, Chamfer,
Hole - Simple, Pattern,

Fastening Features.

Assembly Commands: Insert, Component, Existing Part/Assembly.

Mating Commands: Coincident, Concentric, Distance.

RESULT:

The 2D models of Connecting Rod parts (Connecting Rod, Bush, Stud, Pin, Bearing
Brasses, Distance Piece, Cover, Washer, Nut, and Split pin) are created using Auto
CAD. The type of fits and tolerances used in Assembly are studied.
EX.NO:8 ASSEMBLY OF PISTON

DATE:

AIM:

1. To create 2D models of Piston parts using Auto CAD.

2. To Create the Assembly of Piston using Auto CAD.

3. To understand the type of fits and tolerances used in Assembly.

PROCEDURE:

1. The drawings of Piston, Piston Pin,skirt and crown are studied.

2. 2D models of all the parts are created using Auto CAD.

3. The Assembly of piston was created as per the drawing specification.

COMMANDS USED:

Sketcher Commands: Line, Circle, Arc, Fillet, Trim, Smart Dimension, Relations, Show, and
View.

Features Commands: Extrude (pad) and Cut, Revolve (shaft), Fillet/Round, Chamfer, Hole -
Simple, Pattern,

Fastening Features.

Assembly Commands: Insert, Component, Existing Part/Assembly.

Mating Commands: Coincident, Concentric, Distance.

RESULT:

The 2D models of piston parts are created using Auto CAD. The type of fits and tolerances
used in Assembly are studied.
EX.NO: 9 CREATION OF TITLE BLOCK

Aim :
To draw the following title block with necessary text and projection
symbol using Auto CAD Software.

Command: limits
Reset Model space limits:
Specify lower left corner or [ON/OFF] <0.0000,0.0000>: 0,0
Specify upper right corner <12.0000,9.0000>: 500,500

Command: zoom
[All/Center/Dynamic/Extents/Previous/Scale/Window] <real time>:
all
Regenerating model

Command: LINE
Specify first point: 100,150
Specify next point or [Undo]: @230,0
Specify next point or [Undo]: @0,130
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @-230,0
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: close

Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through] <25.0000>: 25
Select object to offset or <exit>: LINE 1
Specify point on side to offset: ↑ UPSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: ENTER

Command: LINE
Specify first point: 190,125
Specify next point or [Undo]: @0,45
Specify next point or [Undo]: @140,0 ENTER

Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through] <25.0000>: 15
Select object to offset or <exit>: LINE 2
Specify point on side to offset: ↑ UPSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: LINE 3
Specify point on side to offset: ↑ UPSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: LINE 3
Specify point on side to offset: ↑ UPSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: LAST CRAEATED LINE ENTER
Command: LINE
Specify first point: 190,170
Specify next point or [Undo]: @0,60 ENTER

Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through] <25.0000>: 15
Select object to offset or <exit>: LINE A
Specify point on side to offset: ↑ UPSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: LAST CREATED LINE
Specify point on side to offset: ↑ UPSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: LAST CREATED LINE
Specify point on side to offset: ↑ UPSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: ENTER

Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through] <25.0000>: 20
Select object to offset or <exit>: LINE B
Specify point on side to offset: →RIGHT PSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: ENTER

Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through] <25.0000>: 50
Select object to offset or <exit>: LAST CREATED LINE
Specify point on side to offset: →RIGHT PSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: ENTER

Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through] <25.0000>: 35
Select object to offset or <exit>: LAST CREATED LINE
Specify point on side to offset: →RIGHT SIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: LAST CREATED LINE
Specify point on side to offset: →RIGHT SIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: ENTER

CREATING THE TEXT

Command: Text
Current text style: "Standard" Text height: 0.2000
Specify start point of text or [Justify/Style]: 105,118
Specify height <0.2000>: 3.5
Specify rotation angle of text <0>: 0
Enter text: TITLE
Command: Text
Current text style: "Standard” Text height: 0.2000
Specify start point of text or [Justify/Style]: 115,105
Specify height <0.2000>: 7.5
Specify rotation angle of text <0>: 0
Enter text: LAYOUT

Command: Text
Current text style: "Standard” Text height: 0.2000
Specify start point of text or [Justify/Style]: 225,105
Specify height <0.2000>: 7.5
Specify rotation angle of text <0>: 0
Enter text: NAME

CREATING THE PROJECTION SYMBOL

Command: circle
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: 235,147.5
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter] <25.0000>: D
Specify diameter of circle <50.0000>: 30

Command: circle
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: 235,147.5
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter] <15.0000>: D
Specify diameter of circle <30.0000>: 15 ENTER

Command: LINE
Specify first point: 260,162.5
Specify next point or [Undo]: @0,-30
Specify next point or [Undo]: @40,7.5
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @0,15
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @-40,7.54
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: Close

RESULT:
Thus the following title block drawing was created successfully
using Auto Cad Software.
EX.NO:10 CREATION OF 3D MODEL OF V BLOCK

AIM:
To draw the 3d view of v block using Auto CAD Software

Command: vpoint
Specify a view point or [Rotate] <display compass and
tripod>: 1,-1,1 Regenerating model.

Command: shademode
Enter option [2D wireframe/3D
wireframe/Hidden/Flat/Gouraud/fLat+edges/gOuraud+edges] <Flat+Edges>: 3d

Command: line
Specify first point :pick any point
Specify next point or [Undo]: @30,0,0
Specify next point or [Undo]: @0,0,20
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @-5,0,0
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @-10,0,-10
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @-10,0,10
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @-5,0,0
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: c

Command: region
Select objects: Specify opposite corner: 6 found
Select objects:
1 loop extracted.
1 Region created.

Command: ext
EXTRUDE
Select objects: select object
Specify height of extrusion or [Path]: 30
Specify angle of taper for extrusion <0>: 0 ENTER

RESULT:
Thus the 3D view of V block drawing was successfully created using
Auto CAD Software
EX.NO: 11 ISOMETRIC DRAWING

AIM:
To Draw the Isometric Drawing Using Auto CAD Software

Command: snap
Specify snap spacing or [ON/OFF/Aspect/Rotate/Style/Type] <0.5000>: style
Enter snap grid style [Standard/Isometric] <S>: isometric
Specify vertical spacing <0.5000>: ENTER

Command: line
Specify first point:
Specify next point or [Undo]: 90
Specify next point or [Undo]: 120
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 70
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 20
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 90
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 120
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: 70
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: close

Command: line
Specify first point: pick any point
Specify next point or [Undo]: 60

Command: copy
Select the object: select the line
Specify base of displacement: pick the point ENTER

RESULT:
Thus the isometric object drawing was successfully created using
Auto CAD Software
 EX.NO: 12 2D VIEW OF V BLOCK

AIM:
To draw the 2d view of following v block (front view, top view and side
view) using Auto CAD Software

Command: limits
Reset Model space limits:
Specify lower left corner or [ON/OFF] <0.0000,0.0000>: 0,0
Specify upper right corner <12.0000,9.0000>: 300,300

Command: zoom
[All/Center/Dynamic/Extents/Previous/Scale/Window] <real time>: all
Regenerating model.

FRONT VIEW
Command: Line
Specify first point: pick any point
Specify next point or [Undo]: @5<180
Specify next point or [Undo]: @20< 270
Specify next point or [Undo]: @30<0
Specify next point or [Undo]: @20<90
Specify next point or [Undo]: @5<180
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: Close

Command: Line
Specify first point: (SELECT END 1)
Specify next point or [Undo]: @14.1<315 ENTER

Command: Line
Specify first point: (SELECT END 2)
Specify next point or [Undo]: @14.1<225 ENTER

TOP VIEW
Command: Line
Specify first point: pick any point with reference to front view
Specify next point or [Undo]: @30<0
Specify next point or [Undo]: @30<270
Specify next point or [Undo]: close
Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through] <25.0000>:5
Select object to offset or <exit>: LINE 1
Specify point on side to offset: ↑ UPSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: ENTER
Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through] <25.0000>:10
Select object to offset or <exit>: LINE 2
Specify point on side to offset: → RIGHT SIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: ENTER
SIDE VIEW
Command: Line
Specify first point: pick any point with reference to front view
Specify next point or [Undo]: @30<0
Specify next point or [Undo]: @20<90
Specify next point or [Undo]: @30<180
Specify next point or [Undo]: close

Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through] : 10
Select object to offset or <exit>: SELECT LINE
Specify point on side to offset: ↑ UPSIDE
Select object to offset or <exit>: ENTER

Command: Text
Specify starting point: pick any point
Specify the height: 5
Type the text: front view, top view, side view

RESULT:
Thus the 2D view of V block drawing was successfully created using
Auto CAD Software