UNIT 2

CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Learning Objectives:

 Characterize the phases in a typical cycle that normal cells undergo

 Illustrate the events of mitosis/meiosis given a cell with a specific number of chro-
mosomes (e.g. 2n=4)
 Compare and contrast each phase
 Explain why mitosis/meiosis is crucial in maintenance of chromosomal integrity of
the organism
 Describe crossing over and recombination in meiosis and their effects
 Explain the events occurring in prokaryotic cell division and its role in prokaryotes
 List control points in the cell cycle; and
 Describe how cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell growth

LET’S TEST YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE:

Use the following words to complete the concept map below.

G1 - 1st gap period Anaphase Telophase Interphase
G2 - 2nd gap period Prophase Metaphase Mitosis
Cell Cycle S-synthesis

Has 2 major stages

Consisting of 3 substages

Consist of 4 phases
LESSON 1
CELL CYCLE

Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms. During the division of a
cell, DNA replication and cell growth also take place. All these processes, i.e., cell division,
DNA replication, and cell growth, hence, have to take place in a coordinated way to ensure
correct division and formation of progeny cells containing intact genomes.

The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes the other
constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle. Alt-
hough cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a continuous process, DNA synthesis
occurs only during one specific stage in the cell cycle. The replicated chromosomes (DNA)
are then distributed to daughter nuclei by a complex series of events during cell division.
These events are themselves under genetic control.

Phases of Cell Cycle

A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is illustrated
by human cells in culture. These cells divide
once in approximately every 24 hours However,
this duration of cell cycle can vary from organism
to organism and also from cell type to cell type.
Yeast for example, can progress through the cell
cycle in only about 90 minutes.

The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:

- Interphase
- M Phase (Mitosis phase)
The M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs and
the interphase represents the phase between two successive M phases. It is significant to
note that in the 24 hour average duration of cell cycle of a human cell, cell division proper
lasts for only about an hour. The interphase lasts more than 95% of the duration of cell cy-
cle.
The M Phase starts with the nuclear division, corresponding to the separation of
daughter chromosomes (karyokinesis) and usually ends with division of cytoplasm
(cytokinesis). The interphase, though called the resting phase, is the time during which the
cell is preparing for division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication in an order-
ly manner.

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The interphase is divided into three further phases:

G1 phase (Gap 1)

S phase (Synthesis)

G2 phase (Gap 2)

G1 phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
During G1 phase the cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but does not replicate
its DNA. S or synthesis phase marks the period during which DNA synthesis or replication
takes place. During this time the amount of DNA per cell doubles. If the initial amount of DNA
is denoted as 2C then it increases to 4C. However, there is no increase in the chromosome
number; if the cell had diploid or 2n number of chromosomes at G1, even after S phase the
number of chromosomes remains the same, i.e., 2n.

In animal cells, during the S phase, DNA replication begins in the nucleus, and the cen-
triole duplicates in the cytoplasm. During the G2 phase, proteins are synthesized in prepara-
tion for mitosis while cell growth continues.

The M Phase

This is the most dramatic period of the cell cycle, involving a major reorganization of vir-
tually all components of the cell. Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and proge-
ny cells is the same, it is also called as equational division.

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Cytokinesis

Mitosis accomplishes not only the segregation of duplicated chromosomes into daughter
nuclei (karyokinesis), but the cell itself is divided into two daughter cells by a separate process
called cytokinesis at the end of which cell division is complete.

Significance of Mitosis

Mitosis or the equational division is usually restricted to the diploid cells only. However,
in some lower plants and in some social insects haploid cells also divide by mitosis. It is very
essential to understand the significance of this division in the life of an organism.

The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis. Cell growth results in disturbing
the ratio between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. It therefore becomes essential for the cell to
divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell
repair. The cells of the upper layer of the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut, and blood
cells are being constantly replaced. Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues – the apical
and the lateral cambium, result in a continuous growth of plants throughout their life.

Meiosis

The production of offspring by sexual reproduction includes the fusion of two gametes,
each with a complete haploid set of chromosomes. Gametes are formed from specialized dip-
loid cells. This specialized kind of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half
results in the production of haploid daughter cells.

This kind of division is called meiosis. Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase
in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms whereas fertilization restores the diploid
phase. We come across meiosis during gametogenesis in plants and animals. This leads to
the formation of haploid gametes. The key features of meiosis are as follows:

• Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis I and
meiosis II but only a single cycle of DNA replication.

• Meiosis I is initiated after the parental chromosomes have replicated to produce identical
sister chromatids at the S phase.

• Meiosis involves pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination between

them.

• Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.

Source: Belardo, G.M, 2016. General Biology, Vibal Group

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Significance of Meiosis

Meiosis is the mechanism by which conservation of specific chromosome number of

each species is achieved across generations in sexually reproducing organisms, even though
the process, per se, paradoxically, results in reduction of chromosome number by half. It also
increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms from one generation to the
next. Variations are very important for the process of evolution.

ACTIVITY 1

Matching: match the term to the description

A. Prophase B. Interphase C. Telophase D. Metaphase E. Anaphase

___ 1. The sister chromatids are moving apart.

___ 2. The nucleolus begins to fade from view.

___ 3. A new nuclear membrane is forming around the chromosomes.

___ 4. The cytoplasm of the cell is being divided.

___ 5. The chromosomes become invisible.

___ 6. The chromosomes are located at the equator of the cell.

___ 7. The nuclear membrane begins to fade from view.

___ 8. The division (cleavage) furrow appears.

___ 9. The chromosomes are moving towards the poles of the cell.

___ 10. Chromatids line up along the equator.

___ 11. The spindle is formed.

___ 12. Chromosomes are not visible.

___ 13. Cytokinesis is completed (as next cycle begins).

___ 14. The cell plate is completed.

___ 15. Chromosomes are replicated.

___ 16. The reverse of prophase.

___ 17. The organization phase

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Fill in the blank: Some will be used more than once.

A. Prophase D. Metaphase G. Chromatid J. Spindle fiber

B. Interphase E. Anaphase H. Cytokinesis K. Cell plate
C. Telophase F. Centromere I. Mitosis

______________18. What phase are daughter cells in as a result of mitosis?

______________19. During what phase of mitosis do centromeres divide and the chromo-
somes move toward their respective poles?

______________20. What is the phase where chromatin condenses to form chromosomes?

______________21. What is the name of the structure that connects the two chromatids?

______________22. In a chromosome pair connected by a centromere, what is each individ-

ual chromosome called?
______________23. What are the two parts of cell division?

______________24. What structure forms in prophase along which the chromosomes move?

______________25. Which phase of mitosis is the last phase that chromatids are together?

______________26. Which phase of the cell cycle is characterized by a non-dividing cell?

______________27. What structure is produced when protein fibers radiate from centrioles?

______________28. What forms across the center of a cell near the end of telophase?

______________29. The period of cell growth and development between mitotic divisions?

______________30. What is the phase where cytokinesis occurs?

The diagram below shows six cells in various phases of the cell cycle. Note the cells are not

arranged in the order in which the cell cycle occurs. Use the diagram to answer questions 1-7.
_________ 1. Cells A & F show an early and a late stage of the same phase of the cell
cycle. What phase is it?
__________ 2. Which cell is in metaphase?
__________ 3. Which cell is in the first phase of M phase (mitosis)?

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__________ 4. In cell A, what structure is labeled X?
__________ 5. List the diagrams in order from first to last in the cell cycle.
__________ 6. Are the cells depicted plant or animal cells?
A. Explain your answer.

B. If it were the other type of cell what would be different in the diagrams?

__________ 7. What is the longest phase of the cell cycle?

__________ 8. Why is mitosis important?
__________ 9. Predict what would happen if an individual had faulty spindle fibers.
__________ 10. Predict what would happen if cytokinesis was skipped.