Discrete Mathematics

Propositional Logic is concerned with statements to which the truth values, “true” and “false”, can be
assigned. The purpose is to analyze these statements either individually or in a composite manner.
Prepositional Logic – Definition
A proposition is a collection of declarative statements that has either a truth value "true” or a truth value
"false". A propositional consists of propositional variables and connectives. We denote the propositional
variables by capital letters (A, B, etc). The connectives connect the propositional variables.
Some examples of Propositions are given below −

 "Man is Mortal", it returns truth value= “TRUE”

 "12 + 9 = 3 – 2", it returns truth value= “FALSE”
The following is not a Proposition −
 "A is less than 2". It is because unless we give a specific value of A, we cannot say whether the
statement is true or false.
Connectives
In propositional logic generally we use five connectives which are −
 OR (∨)
 AND (∧)
 Negation/ NOT (¬)
 Implication / if-then (→)
 If and only if (⇔).
OR (∨) − The OR operation of two propositions A and B (written as A∨BA∨B) is true if at least any of
the propositional variable A or B is true.
The truth table is as follows −

A B A∨B

True True True

True False True

False True True

False False False

AND (∧) − The AND operation of two propositions A and B (written as A∧) is true if both the
propositional variable A and B is true.
The truth table is as follows −

A B A∧B

True True True

True False False

 False True False

False False False

Negation (¬) − The negation of a proposition A (written as ¬A) is false when A is true and is true when
A is false.
The truth table is as follows −

A ¬A

True False

False True
Implication / if-then (→) An implication A→B is the proposition “if A, then B”. It is false if A is true
and B is false. The rest cases are true.
The truth table is as follows −

A B A→B

True True True

True False False

False True True

False False True

If and only if (⇔) A⇔B is bi-conditional logical connective which is true when p and q are same, i.e.
both are false or both are true.
The truth table is as follows −

A B A⇔B

True True True

True False False

False True False

False False True

Tautologies
A Tautology is a formula which is always true for every value of its propositional variables.
Example − Prove [(A→B)∧A]→B is a tautology
The truth table is as follows −

A B A→B (A → B) ∧ A [( A → B ) ∧ A] → B

True True True True True

 True False False False True

False True True False True

False False True False True

As we can see every value of [(A→B)∧A]→B is "True", it is a tautology.

Contradictions
A Contradiction is a formula which is always false for every value of its propositional variables.
Example − Prove (A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)](A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)] is a contradiction
The truth table is as follows −

A B A∨B ¬A ¬B (¬ A) ∧ ( ¬ B) (A ∨ B) ∧ [( ¬ A) ∧ (¬ B)]

True True True False False False False

True False True False True False False

False True True True False False False

False False False True True True False

As we can see every value of (A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)](A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)] is “False”, it is a contradiction.

Contingency
A Contingency is a formula which has both some true and some false values for every value of its
propositional variables.
Example − Prove (A∨B)∧(¬A) a contingency
The truth table is as follows −

A B A∨B ¬A (A ∨ B) ∧ (¬ A)

True True True False False

True False True False False

False True True True True

False False False True False

As we can see every value of (A∨B)∧(¬A) has both “True” and “False”, it is a contingency.

Propositional Equivalences

Two statements X and Y are logically equivalent if any of the following two conditions hold −
 The truth tables of each statement have the same truth values.
The bi-conditional statement X⇔YX⇔Y is a tautology.

Example − Prove ¬(A∨B)and[(¬A)∧(¬B)] are equivalent

Testing by 1st method (Matching truth table)

A B A∨B ¬ (A ∨ B) ¬A ¬B [(¬ A) ∧ (¬ B)]

True True True False False False False

True False True False False True False

False True True False True False False

False False False True True True True

Here, we can see the truth values of ¬(A∨B)and[(¬A)∧(¬B)] are same, hence the statements are
equivalent.

Testing by 2nd method (Bi-conditionality)

A B ¬ (A ∨ B ) [(¬ A) ∧ (¬ B)] [¬ (A ∨ B)] ⇔ [(¬ A ) ∧ (¬ B)]

True True False False True

True False False False True

False True False False True

False False True True True

As [¬(A∨B)]⇔[(¬A)∧(¬B)] is a tautology, the statements are equivalent.

Inverse, Converse, and Contra-positive

Implication / if-then (→) is also called a conditional statement. It has two parts −
  Hypothesis, p
 Conclusion, q
As mentioned earlier, it is denoted as p→q.
Example of Conditional Statement − “If you do your homework, you will not be punished.” Here,
"you do your homework" is the hypothesis, p, and "you will not be punished" is the conclusion, q.
Inverse − An inverse of the conditional statement is the negation of both the hypothesis and the
conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the inverse will be “If not p, then not q”. Thus the inverse
of p→q is ¬p→¬q.
Example − The inverse of “If you do your homework, you will not be punished” is “If you do not do
your homework, you will be punished.”
Converse − The converse of the conditional statement is computed by interchanging the hypothesis and
the conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the converse will be “If q, then p”. The converse
of p→q is q→p.
Example − The converse of "If you do your homework, you will not be punished" is "If you will not be
punished, you do your homework”.
Contra-positive − The contra-positive of the conditional is computed by interchanging the hypothesis
and the conclusion of the inverse statement. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the contra-positive will be
“If not q, then not p”. The contra-positive of p→q is ¬q→¬p.
Example − The Contra-positive of " If you do your homework, you will not be punished” is "If you are
punished, you did not do your homework”.

Duality Principle

Duality principle states that for any true statement, the dual statement obtained by interchanging unions
into intersections (and vice versa) and interchanging Universal set into Null set (and vice versa) is also
true. If dual of any statement is the statement itself, it is said self-dual statement.
Example − The dual of (A∩B)∪C(A∩B)∪C is (A∪B)∩C(A∪B)∩C

Normal Forms

We can convert any proposition in two normal forms −

 Conjunctive normal form

 Disjunctive normal form

Conjunctive Normal Form

A compound statement is in conjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating AND among

variables (negation of variables included) connected with ORs. In terms of set operations, it is a
compound statement obtained by Intersection among variables connected with Unions.
Examples
 (A∨B)∧(A∨C)∧(B∨C∨D)(A∨B)∧(A∨C)∧(B∨C∨D)
 (P∪Q)∩(Q∪R)(P∪Q)∩(Q∪R)
Disjunctive Normal Form

A compound statement is in disjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating OR among variables

(negation of variables included) connected with ANDs. In terms of set operations, it is a compound
statement obtained by Union among variables connected with Intersections.
Examples
 (A∧B)∨(A∧C)∨(B∧C∧D)(A∧B)∨(A∧C)∨(B∧C∧D)
 (P∩Q)∪(Q∩R)