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SLIDES FOR

CHAPTER 3
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
(continued)

This chapter in the book includes:

Objectives
Study Guide
3.1 Multiplying Out and Factoring Expressions
3.2 Exclusive-OR and Equivalence Operations
3.3 The Consensus Theorem
3.4 Algebraic Simplification of Switching Expressions
3.5 Proving the Validity of an Equation
Programmed Exercises
Problems

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©2010 Cengage Learning

Distributive Laws
Given an expression in product-of-sums form, the
corresponding sum-of-products expression can be
obtained by multiplying out, using the two distributive laws:
X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ (3-1)
(X + Y)(X + Z) = X + YZ (3-2)

In addition, the following theorem is very useful for

factoring and multiplying out:
(X + Y)(X′ + Z) = XZ + X′Y (3-3)

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In the following example, if we were to multiply out by brute

force, we would generate 162 terms, and 158 of these
terms would then have to be eliminated to simplify the
expression. Instead, we will use the distributive laws to
simplify the process.

Example (3-4), p. 63
©2010 Cengage Learning

The same theorems that are useful for multiplying out

expressions are useful for factoring. By repeatedly
applying (3-1), (3-2), and (3-3), any expression can be
converted to a product-of-sums form.

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Exclusive-OR and Equivalence Operations

The exclusive-OR operation ( ) is defined as follows:

The equivalence operation ( ) is defined by:

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We will use the following

symbol for an
exclusive-OR gate:

Section 3.2, p. 64
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The following theorems apply to exclusive OR:

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We will use the following

symbol for an
equivalence gate:

Section 3.2, p. 65
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Because equivalence is the complement of exclusive-OR,

an alternate symbol of the equivalence gate is an
exclusive-OR gate with a complemented output:

The equivalence gate is also called an

exclusive-NOR gate.

Section 3.2, p. 66
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Example 1:

By (3-6) and (3-17),

F = [(A′B)C + (A′B)′C′ ] + [B′(AC′) + B(AC′)′ ]
= A′BC + (A + B′)C′ + AB′C′ + B(A′ + C)
= B(A′C + A′ + C) + C′(A + B′ + AB′) = B(A′ + C) + C′(A + B′)

Example 2:

= (A′B′ + AB)C′ + (A′B′ + AB) ′C (by (3-6))

= (A′B′ + AB)C′ + (A′B + AB′)C (by (3-19))
= A′B′C′ + ABC′ + A′BC + AB′C
Section 3.2 (p. 66)
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The Consensus Theorem

The consensus theorem can be stated as follows:

XY + X'Z + YZ = XY + X'Z (3-20)

Dual Form:
(X + Y)(X’ + Z)(Y + Z) = (X + Y)(X’ + Z) (3-21)

Section 3.2 (p. 66-67)

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Consensus Theorem
Proof

XY + X'Z + YZ = XY + X'Z + (X + X')YZ

= (XY + XYZ) + (X'Z + X'YZ)
= XY(1 + Z) + X'Z(1 + Y) = XY + X'Z

Section 3.3 (p. 67)

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Basic methods for

simplifying functions

1. Combining terms. Use the theorem XY + XY′ = X to combine

two terms. For example,

abc′d′ + abcd′ = abd′ [X = abd′, Y = c] (3-24)

2. Eliminating terms. Use the theorem X + XY = X to eliminate

redundant terms if possible; then try to apply the consensus
theorem (XY + X′Z + YZ = XY + X′Z) to eliminate any consensus
terms. For example,
a′b + a′bc = a′b [X = a′b]
a′bc′ + bcd + a′bd = a′bc′ + bcd [X = c, Y = bd, Z = a′b] (3-24)

Section 3.4 (p. 68-69)

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3. Eliminating literals. Use the theorem X + X’Y = X + Y to

eliminate redundant literals. Simple factoring may be necessary
before the theorem is applied.

A′B + A′B′C′D′ + ABCD′ = A′(B + B′C′D′) + ABCD′

= A′(B + C′D′) + ABCD′
= B(A′ + ACD′) + A′C′D′
= B(A′ + CD′) + A′C′D′
= A′B + BCD′ + A′C′D′ (3-26)

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4. Adding redundant terms. Redundant terms can be

introduced in several ways such as adding xx′, multiplying
by (x + x′), adding yz to xy + x′z, or adding xy to x. When
possible, the added terms should be chosen so that they
will combine with or eliminate other terms.

WX + XY + X′Z′ + WY′Z′ (add WZ′ by consensus theorem)

= WX + XY + X′Z′ + WY′Z′ + WZ′ (eliminate WY′Z′)
= WX + XY + X′Z′ + WZ′ (eliminate WZ′)
= WX + XY + X′Z′ (3-27)

©2010 Cengage Learning

The following comprehensive example

illustrates use of all four methods:

Example (3-28), p 69-70

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Proving Validity of an Equation

Often we will need to determine if an equation is valid for all
combinations of values of the variables. Several methods can be
used to determine if an equation is valid:
1. Construct a truth table and evaluate both sides of the
equation for all combinations of values of the variables.
(This method is rather tedious if the number of variables is
large, and it certainly is not very elegant.)
2. Manipulate one side of the equation by applying various
theorems until it is identical with the other side.
3. Reduce both sides of the equation independently to the
same expression.

Section 3.5 (p 70)

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4. It is permissible to perform the same operation on both

sides of the equation provided that the operation is
reversible. For example, it is all right to complement both
sides of the equation, but it is not permissible to multiply
both sides of the equation by the same expression.
(Multiplication is not reversible because division is not
defined for Boolean algebra.) Similarly, it is not permissible
to add the same term to both sides of the equation because
subtraction is not defined for Boolean algebra.

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To prove that an equation is not valid, it is sufficient to show one

combination of values of the variables for which the two sides of the
equation have different values. When using method 2 or 3 above to
prove that an equation is valid, a useful strategy is to
1. First reduce both sides to a sum of products (or a product of sums).
2. Compare the two sides of the equation to see how they differ.
3. Then try to add terms to one side of the equation that are present on
the other side.
4. Finally try to eliminate terms from one side that are not present on the
other.

Whatever method is used, frequently compare both sides of the

equation and let the different between them serve as a guide for what
steps to take next.

©2010 Cengage Learning

Example: Show that

A'BD' + BCD + ABC' + AB'D = BC'D' + AD + A'BC

Solution: Starting with the left side,

Example 1 (p. 71) ©2010 Cengage Learning

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Differences between Boolean algebra and

ordinary algebra
As we have previously observed, some of the theorems of
Boolean algebra are not true for ordinary algebra.
Similarly, some of the theorems of ordinary algebra are not
true for Boolean algebra. Consider, for example, the
cancellation law for ordinary algebra:
If x + y = x + z, then y=z (3-31)
The cancellation law is not true for Boolean algebra. We
will demonstrate this by constructing a counterexample in
which x + y = x + z but y ≠ z. Let x = 1, y = 0, z = 1. Then,
1 + 0 = 1 + 1 but 0 ≠ 1

Section 3.5 (p 72)

©2010 Cengage Learning

In ordinary algebra, the cancellation law for multiplication

is
If xy = xz, then y=z (3-32)
This law is valid provided x ≠ 0.
In Boolean algebra, the cancellation law for multiplication
is also not valid when x = 0. (Let x = 0, y = 0, z = 1; then
0 • 0 = 0 • 1, but 0 ≠ 1). Because x = 0 about half the time
in switching algebra, the cancellation law for multiplication
cannot be used.

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Similarities between Boolean algebra and

ordinary algebra

Even though the statements in the previous 2 slides

(3-31 and 3-32) are generally false for Boolean algebra,
the converses are true:

If y = z, then x + y = x + z (3-33)
If y = z, then xy = xz (3-34)

Section 3.5 (p 72)

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