.

d'f
I
tion periodically,
Altrenating current:The electric current in the bulb of our houses revr~i"se its ec .
. . I .h . . . 11 ·,d . n alternating -current.
such a current who-se magnitude and direction varies penod1ca ly wit tune 1s ca "' a
b·1I 1· ht bulb ' Since .the
The electric current flows only in one direction through automo e ig
Direct current:
. . II d d. . . . . nt And a battery is
polarity emf of th e driving battery never changes such a current 1s ca e 1rect cur re ·
called DC source . h. ·1
f · · duced in t e co,
The sou rce of altl~rn ating voltage or current is an .ac generator or ac dynamo , The em 1s in
of ac generator at any instant of time 't' is
E=Eo sin OJt

E-lnstantaneous value of emf

E0 -maximum value or peak vaiue of emf
m-angular velocity of rotatio_n of the coil
T-period
f ~frequency
OJ =2rr /T=2rrf

The potential difference across the terminals of the generator is V= V0 sin OJ!
V-instantaneous value
V0 - maximum or peak value of potential difference
The variation of V during one complete rotatio·n of the coil is called a cycle of alternating voltage.
The number of cycles of alternating voltage produced in one second is equal to V and it is called frequency
of alternating voltage.
The alternating current.through the resistance R connected to the terminals of the ac generator is
1=1 0 sin OJI

Mean value or average value of alternating

. . .
current. .
~\ '

The instantaneous value of an atternating current or'voltage meas·ured over half cycle (T /2)
i.e - lav;::(2/rr) 10

Expression for mean value of alternating current.

Let us consider a alternating current can be represented by
1=1 0 sin wt
lo -peak value
If the current is constant for every small time interval dt .The small amount of charge sent in this timr~is
dq=ldt
. .

Let 'q' be the total charge sent by AC during the half cycle i.e Oto T/2 then
q= Jt 2
Idt
T /2 [ . ,
q= J.0 smwt dt
q=(-coswt/w)t2
q=-lo/ OJ {cos{2rr/T x r /2) - coso) TT/ T)

~
( .-. cv =
2
q=-.lo/ m{-1-1]
q=(2 10 / OJ)

1
/t;i~ ,,~:)T/~rt).
. :q ~··l_
o·t/~ . ·········••.•············································..... .. (1)
.. If .Im represents mean value alternating current over the first cycle
q= Im x T /2 . ······························ ········· ······ .............................. (2)
Compare equation 1 and 2 we get

.
: Im
..
xT/2. = 10 T/rt
,.

Im= (2/rt) lo =0.637 lo . . . . .

Thus themeari value of alternating current for half cycle 2/n times or 0.637.
Similarly emf Em =(2/rr)E0
Similarly voltage Vm== (2/rr)V0
Root mean square value or effective value of alternating current .
.-Therms value of alternating current is the square root of the mean square of instantaneous value of ac during one
com.plete cycle
Lef us qmsider alternating current 1=1 0 sin mtdt
. Letdq is the .amount of heat produced by the currentin a resistance Rina very small time interval then
dq=i2Rdt .
· the ·total quantity of he~t produced over one complet; rotation
T 2
J
Q= 0 l Rdt {T=time period)

Q=f: (I 0
si.n0Jt)
2
Rdt
. T
2
Q=I/RJ0 sin (!)(dt

But J; sin mt=I: (1 - cos2wt /2)dt

rT 1 rT
=Jo ~t-J 0 (cos2mt /2)dt

=1/2[t]0r -1/2[sin2 mt I 2m ]/
. =(T/2)-1/4W [sin2X Zn: x T - sinO]
T
=(T/2) :..{1/4 OJ )[0-0]
=T/2
. 2 T
· :. Q=l0 Rdtx (
2) ·······················(1)
. 2
If rms ,Q= I rms RT ............... .........(2)
Compare equation 1 and 2 we get
2
·. 1 nns RT= I/ R dtx (~)

1 2 rms .== 12· 0 /'2

Inns =1 0 ! ✓2
f rmr = 0.707 f 0
Erms = Eo / ✓2
Similarly
Vnns =Vo/ ✓2
Alte rnat ing volt age app lied to a resistor.

Curr ent Flow t. Volta ge

.AC Powe r · esisti ve

·rr/2
=..-.. ►
~--- ---3 t~-- -::- ::-- 7>" :rr; :. ..,,.4.

Sour ce
Load

sourc e whic h produ ces altern ating volta ge acros s it

Consider a circu it of pure resistance 'R' conn ected to a
terminals ,Let the alternat-mg- volta ge is given by
V=V0 sin{JJt -:......................... (1)
V -max imum value or peak value of altern ating volta ge
0
{JJ- angu lar frequ ency
nt of time 't' ,the poten tial differ ence acro ss
If I is the curre nt throu gh the resistance Rat any insta
resistance is VR =IR
iffere nce across the sourc e,
·The poten tial differ ence across R is equal to the pote ntiald
IR= V0 sin {J)f
Or I= (Vo /R) sin {J)f
l=lo sin {JJ/ ......... ......... ......... ..... (2) ( : . Vo /R=lo )
.max imum or minim um value at that time
From equa tion 1 and 2 found that V and I reach to zero
othe r.
The curre nt (I) and voJtage (v) are in phase with each
The phase differ ence betw een the V and I is zero.
{i}Power in pure ly resistive circu it:·
,ther e is a dissi patio n of elect rical ener gy and then
When an alter natin g curre nt passes throu gh a resis tor
pated in a resis tor is .
is a joule heati ng effec t .The insta ntane ous powe r dissi
P=VI=( V0 sin {JJ/)(1 0 sin {J)f)
2
=V0 10 sin {J)f ............................... (3)
nt is
~e average powe r over one cycle of altern ating curre

p = JT V 0
/
0
Sin 2mtdt f JT dt
2
But JT sin {J)fdt = JT
(l - cos 2mt I 2)dt
- o =T'2. ........................... (4)
P = (Vol o IT)(T 12) = Volo /2
P = (V0 I ✓2)(1 0 I ✓7-)
=vrms. .Imis
:iJr:p ·~ l2 rrmR
· · · 'since(V ~ R) . .. ....... ........ ;....... :..............(5}
. . . rrm . 1
rnlf

Phasors or phasor diagram:

and
The relatio n between voltage and current in alternating voltag e circuits·
n alternating _curren t vo~age
A phaso r diagram is a graphical r epresentation of phase relation betwee. · · ls Aphas or 1s a
. -· · .· · w
facilita te on easy way ofanal yzing a~~ern ating curren t ctrCUI ., . . ., ·
-curre nt phasor diagram
directi on ·with angular speed ·
·-•rotatin g vector ,The vect-0rs are assumed to be rotatin g fn. ariticlockwise
voltage or current .The angle
· The length of the vector gives a measure of peak value of the alternating
nce them. ·
between the vo~tage vector and the current vector gives the phase differe
aneous value of the that quant ity.
The projec tion of the phasor on to the vertical axis represents the instant

"" W~r -mo ~~~ ~~ r•C'54''S·t·•lltn

-w'lfS:¥ :..e. -ac ~~ , :.:_ i;;i;, __ ,. z,: ~:. l::: t~ l-,;y* ~,

. .
~~· :;
f
el:¥<:j!"- ""--~ --""~ - - ----J

~ ,.: f , ...
~ -~-
>,> "4,, - ,~ _ , .~ •- , -<a;, ."4:: ,.j£ ~ - " • • •·•• •r• • ' ' .h ; ;,,

;~H..
~~
¼
¥A'. -~
,_;,,
i!"

~ _:,·· :: .· ··" "···-·.·· · _... ··· . ,- - ,, .. , ,O·•' .

•·~·~,--·
~i''!~~;!:f•*"'

Alter natin g volta ge appli ed to an indu ctor. ·

(a) (b)

ac source of voltage
The circuits shows an induct or of self inductance 'L' conne cted to an
 LC t:lU I C" I ,u_
,I .. , .... a- ·

r'
·. . ·v=VoSin(JJt ......................... ........ .. (1)
v0-peak value for altern ating voltage
@- angular frequency of ac

The induced emf at the insta nt ti s given by

· . E=-L{dl/dt) ... ...... ........................ ... (2)
nt
Where dl/ dt -is rate of cha nge of current at that insta
Accronding-to kirchhoffs law
V+E=O
i.e Vo sin wt-L( dl/dt)=O
: . L(dl/d t)= V0 sin cut or
dl=(Vo/l) sin wtdt
Integrating on both sides
f di = (V IL ) fsin wtdt
0

d h th d·me 1
nsional
I =(Vo/L)[-cos w t/ m ]+constant an as e
tantis inde pend ent
Integration constant is zero . Because the integrating cons
· • d dent
cuHent. :. . . II b t o The·i r is no time in epen .
. . ou . zer · . • f . Hence the
sym1tnca Ya
(The current in the circuit in the circuit oscillates
. . f t d is inde pend ent o time .
. · ·
. . . tant has d1me ns1on o curre n an
. component .But the integ ratio n cons
integration constant is-zero.)
:. I= (V0 I L)[-cos cut I cu ] {·:-c os cut= sin(mt -TT/ 2)}
I = (V I Leu) sin[ cut - fl/ 2] ...... .......................(3)
0

al= Where I=( V I cul) is the peak value of current

Iosin(cut-TT/2)
0

4
{:. sin(cut- IT/2) = I}

"'T~~ ~ ~a ~iity @L ·;~--~ ~ ~ ;~~ ~ ~

~- ;~ ;~~;~-;~ ~~: ~
nd is cal Ied inductive re a eta n ce.
(i)I nductive reactance
of the indu ctan ce coil to AC and it is called the
The quantity cul= XL ,represents the effective opposition

II inductive reactan·ce .
:. XL= {J)L = 2TTJL =(Vo I IJ =(Vnns I lmJ
Where f-frequency of alter natin g current
. · (ii) Power in a purely inductive circuit
Th~ instantaneous powe r supplied to the inductor is
P=Vl=(Vo sinmt)[Jo sin(mt - TT/ 2)]
sin cut.cos mt
= - V0 f 0
= (-V l /2)sin 2mt
0 0

Average power over one cycle of alternating current is

- T
P=f0 [(-V0 I0 12) sin2 mtdt]! fr
0
dt
. T
=(-V) ) 2T) J sin 2{1)/dl = 0
0
lete cycle is zero .
~o average power suppli ed to an inductor over one comp
. . The average over a full cycle is zero.
~~~te:rnatingvoltage_applied to.a~apacitor.

·Volta.ie
C~rrent Flow 1

..
. .

.' ~ sin oot

The circuit shows a capacitor of capacitance 'C' connected to an AC source .The instantaneous .voltage is
given by 0

·. . V= V0 sin mt ··········:························(1.) .
Yo~peak acvoltage
.,· ·w...:.angular frequency. of alternating current
If 'q' be the change on the capacitor at an instant of time 't' then potential difference across capacitor is
V;::(q/c)
q=VC ... ................................... ........... (2)
·t is given by
-l=dq/dt=d(VC)/dt
. ;::;d(Vosinmi)C/dt
l=mCV0 cosmt
We can write
cos mt= sin(mt +IT/ 2)
. V0 IT ...................
. -........... (3)
.

:./= sin(mt+ -)
(II mC) 2

·_ l=Vo =Vo
Where
O
(II (JJ(;) X e .............................. (4)

. I .·
The quantity - = X c represents theeffective opposition of the capacitor to alternating current and is
(JJC

called capacitive reactance .

· ·V _ Vrms
X c-_ _£_ - -
lo Jnns
V . I I
Also /l e = {J)c = 2 IT JC ...........................(5)
f-frequency of alternatin g current
 ,Alternating voltage applied to series LCR circuit

R =l 2n L = 0,15H C = 100uF

·1 ~ ····H~ --- ~
. I V;,.. VL Ve
-
I
,
·--◄.-------{lfi;,r- _ __ __ _____.
~

Vs = 100V, SOH2
-Consider a series LCR circui t conne cted to an ac source . .
- Let the aitennating voltag e across the source be V = V0 sin wt .
..................... ........... (1)
· • I I
.
at any instan t trme, t
:

· tetq be the charge on the capac itor ,'I' be the curren t in the circuit
h: . . f: :d. d .- . h . d
.T_ · E- L{ di) . . (2)
_ e em _in uce in t e rn uctor rs -- dt ..........................................
······ · ·

where {dl/dt) is the rate of chang e of curren t"

Tt;ie voltage across resista nce is VR = JR ........... ~····· .................................
.......... (3)

Voltage across the capac itor Ve. = !1. ....... ;_.............. :.......................
.
...........
.
... (4)
. C . .
Apply Kirchhoff law
VR + Ve = V + E ........................................................ (5)
IR+( q }=V-L( di} ................................................ (6) or
C dt
di q
L-+J R+-= V ........................ .....................(7)
dt C
the secon d metho d is to solve the
This equation solve by two metho ds .one metho d is using p~asor 's and
equation analytically.
l phas.or diagram solution to series LCR circuit.
R =12.n L = O.15H C = 100u F

I
1---- - - ~ - - ---J~
eg)r- - -- - --~ ~ --1
V ,, = 10OV, 5OHz

Let alternating voltage , V =V

0
sin wt ................................... (1)
L,C,an d Rare conne cted in series
This is applied to series combi nation of LCR ,since the three eleme nts
with respect to ime t ,havin g same amplitu de and phase.
Then, l=l0 sin(wt +¢) ........................................................ (2)
¢-p_hase difference betwe en voltage a·nd curren t.

Let I be the phasor repres enting curren t voltage v v- v.-cand V be the phasors.
R' L.

VR, vl Ve .are peak values

' .

7
 ·.. ··i,·-r.hen
:·
.· v .· = 1 R
· · _ R _· 0.

· · The length of the phasor e , Vt. is V, . .:::: i X,.

0

XL -inductance reactance.
Ve== l o X c

.;r e -capacitive reactance

The length of the phasor V,is v~ ,
From previous solution we know that V- is parallel to l , Vl is a head of I- by -,r an d V,-c behind J by
R · 2
1f /2. Also we have VR +Ve +vl = V
Ve ➔ OB,VL ➔ OC,OD ➔ (Vc -VL )
2 2
OE =0A +00 2

I v/ =v/ +(Ve -Vl)2 =UoR)2 + (loXc -IOXL)2 .

=I/[R2 + (Xe -XL)2 ,.
Vo= 1o ✓R2 +{Xe -XL)2

:. I,= ,/R' + (;: c_ X,)' = ~

1vhereZ = ./R 2
+(Xe -XL) 2
Is called impedance of the ac circuit.

AE
¢ =_ = VC - V
L =I 0
(X - X )
e [ =(X _ X ) IR
OA V IR C L
from fig tan R o
¢ = tan-1[Xc - X L]
R
Analytical solution of series LCR ckt
- . - .

Let a resistor of resistance 'R', a coil of inductance Land a capacitor of capacitance 'C' be connected to an
AC source. let the voltage across the AC source is
V=V0Sinwt ............ ............................. (1)
q-charge on the capacitor and 'I' is the current, t-time, voltage across VR=IR.
Voltage across C is Vc=q/c and EMF is E=-L.dl/dt
Using Kirchhoff rule .
IR+q/c=\/0sin,wt-1.dl/dt or. ......................................... (2)
L.d I/d t+I R+q/c=V0si n wt
2 2
Since l=dq/dt and dl/dt=d q/dt
2
L.d q/dt+R.dq/dt+o,/c=Vosinwt.. .......... ... ................... (3)
This equation is for that of a forced, damped oscillator. Let us assume the solution of this. Solution of this
·equation to be q=qosin(wt+8)
Thus dq/dt=qowcos(wt+8)and

8
 iiiii iiiii iiiii ~~
- iiiii iiiii iiiii iiiii iiiii iiiii iiiii iiiii
---- ---- ---i iiiii iiiii iiiii iiiii iiiii . .

i/,; '<iidt' 2
=-qQw si n( wt+Bl
:; substituting in equation 3 we get
2 t+0
. ·. _q0~ · Lsin(wt+8}+qowRcos(wt+0)+qo/c.sinw

si nIwt+8 H=Vosinwt
q0 w[-wLsin{ wt+ll)+R .cos(wt+8)+ 1/cw:

Sfnce Xe=wl and Xc=liwc

wt+8) l~Vosinult · : .. ·. _
q0 wf-X,sin( wt+8 )+R.cos(wt+8)+ Xcsin(
nwt ............ ...•....:.... ,. :.... (4 l
.ifow{(XJ Xt)sin( wt+S J+Rc9s( wt+8) l=Vosi

Multiple and divide by Z

)=Vosinwt.. ..................... (5)

q wZ[R/2.cos(wt+0)+(Xc-Xt/Z)sin(wt+0
0

'Let COSq>=R/2 and sin<f>=(Xc-XJ2)

',

: ................................... · (6)
· So H1attan<f>~sin<f>/t:oscj>=Xc-XJR ......

· Substitute in equation 5 we get

q0 wZ[cos¢.cos( wt+0)+sin<l>:sin( wt+

0)J=Vosinwt

q0wZcos( wt+0-¢ }=Vosinwt

i.e q0 wZ.cos( wt+8~¢)=Voeos( wt-rc/2)

n
Comparing the two sides of this equatio
V0=q 0wZ=l 0Z when lo=qow (l=dq/dt=q 0 w.cos-( wt=0))

And 8-<P=n:/2 or 0=<P-rr/2

· Resonance:-
xim um value.
esLCR circuit is said to be in resonance when the current reaches ots ma
A seri
In genera/, the rms current is given by
lrms=Vrms/Z where Z is impedance
2
lrms=Vrms/R + (XL-Xc)2
to the capacitive
resonance thu s, in an ac ckt whe n the inductive reactance is equal
. The circuit said to be onance frequency
ce taken place, this takes pl_ac{! at a certain frequency f , kno wn as res
resireso
At reso
ce,ce
stannan nan
XL =Xe 0

2 2 /2.rr-/l1;
Lwo=1/Cwo=wo'=l/LC=4rr fO =1/LC=>fo=l
At resonanc~ l=V/R
 ·. I

___ .:..----

. Freq_uency

Below the resonance frequency Xc>Xi.. Hence the circuit is capacitive in its behavior the current
1
·1eads th e
. voltage by a phase angle ct>=tan- (XL-Xc/R};(q> is negative).
The current in the ckt is
l=dq/dt= q0 w.cos{wt+0)=1 0 cos{wt+8)
.. Where lo=V0 /2=V0 /R 2+(XcXL) 2
And q>=tan-l_(Xc-XJR) .
· Thµs the anaiytical solution for the amplitude and phase of the current in th~ ck~ agree with
that obtained
using phases.
Impedance diagram.
Impedan ce of an AC circuit is the effective operatio n offered by the ckt to alternating current
through
it .
.It is represen ted as Z
For series LCR circuit, the impedance ls given by
Z=✓ R2 + (XC - XL) 2
Where Xc=1/wc is the capacitance r~actance and XL=wl is the inductive resistance.
S.I units is ohm.
The reciproc al of impedance is called admittan ce while the reciprocal of reactance is called suscepta
i:-ice.
Both admittan ce and susceptance aremeas ured in mho or Siemen{S)

Power in AC ckt. ~~'- ----~ ----> ~-

Whe·n an alternati ng voltage V=V0sinwt is applied to a series LCR ckt the current is given by l=l
. . . -1 0 sin( wt+cp)
Where 10 =V 0 /Z and ct>=tan (Xc-XJR}
Z=✓ R 2 + (XC - Xl) 2 is the impedance of the ckt.
The instantaneous power supplied by source is,

10
~ l'=V\= (Vosinwt).{lo~in{wt+,t,)) . . . , ..·
· =Volosinwt{sinwt:c-9sq>+coswt..sin4>)

\1 l ..._. iwt· ces"'+Vo,fosi~wt.coswt.sin<I>

= ,v 0 0 sin · • "+'
I. . .
. . . . r is assumed to remain constant for a very small time . .
·1f the instaAtaneeus powe 'dt' then wo k d .
' r . one over .a
.complete cycle is given by
.
. W= J; '(Volo.sin2wt.coscp+Vofos'inwt.c~swtsin<P f .d t

·w~VoJo.cos<t>f: sin.2 (A)t.dt+Voiosin4>J2f!sinZeut. -dt

It can be.proved
f0T sin 2 eut. dt.T/2-. 10{T sm2(
•
A)t. dt. 0
Therefore W=Vol0.cos4>xT/2 "
The average power over a complete cycle ·.·
P=w/T=V01 ocoscp/2=Vo/-f2xlo/{2cos¢>
·. Therefore p::.v,m~•lrrns:coscp
This average power is also known as true power.
Vrms· lrms is called virtual power.
Power expressed in KW
Apparent power is expressed in KVA
coscp is called power factor.
Power factor is defined as the ratio of true po~ er
to apparent power, ·
Cosq>=R/2=R/JR 2 + (Xe -XL ) 2 •

Sharpness of resonance:-
The current in a LCR circuit is given by the formula,
l~V/✓R 2 +(X L-X c) 2

=V / JR + (wl - w~)'
2

lhe current is m·aximum when ·

or
W=Wo=l/..JIZ fo=1/2rr.fiZ
The maximum vatue of.current at resonatKe ~s
lmax=Vo/R
Graph shows variation of 10 with angular frequenc
y 'w' for various values of resistancE
Us efu l Fo rm ula e: -- - --
Op poei tion Phau w r<•lution Av('J r•r_. Pow ,,r f1rnto ,·
emf a n d bfltW('f'ln e mf pow ,; r
s~ AC .clnn dt
corr e•po ndin 1
offer ed
and ourr ,_,nt
No. cont aini n«
curr ent
I~ und I in phm:11• I, 1 H f '(J M q, a I
R
Reaietance only E = E,, sin ot
1. -
(R) I = 10 Rin ox
l log11 behin d g '/,t\ f(J f'J tH 11,i " /)

E = E 0 sin,~ X1. = wL
1. lnduc:tance only
CL) I = 10 sin ( o:t - 90°)

1
by 00"

I leads E by 90" Zero COM ~ • ()

-
s. Capacitance E "' E0 sin o:t Xe :.: wC
only CC) I= Io sin (at+ 90")
fl
E, l, COR 41 COH cl) ::- -
2 Curr ent lags emf
E=E0 sino: t z'- = JR 2
+ X r, / 1<1 , Xr i
Indu ctanc e and
"' remt aDce (LR) I = lo sin (o:t - ♦>
by angl e 4>-

tan ♦ = R
!J..
R
E,,I, COB ♦ COfl4' ::: ✓ . -x,
Zc= JR + Xc
2 2 Curr ent Jeads Hl -• I

6. c.p.r itenc ,e«n d E = E0 sin o:t

emf by angl e ♦-
J'Niatance (CR) I = 1«, ain (o:t + ♦)
Xe
tan~ = R

. lnduc:teoce, E = Ee, sin« <

I• 1v sin (o:t :t ♦)
Z=

JR2 +<XL-Xc)2
lf-"t_ > Xe, volta ge

leads current by
E), COB ♦ 008 4>

✓ j{ 2
=
R
+ex,. - X, .1· I

capacitance and
phaae angle ♦. If
-rirt enee XL < Xe, voltage
{LCR)
lags current by
phase angle ct,,
X~ - X~
tan ♦ =
R
_., or
,,,...:-;., .. .. r ~ i "; ,-~:_, ..,..
- . .} .

tan ♦ = Xe ;XL
"' '
-
-
:..<· .....
-
-;
, :- "'~-- ;;· : l
~
-- - - - --

• I= ER E = BSeu B-M agn etic ind uct ion , S-a rea

r/T
eut- of alt ern ate e.m .f or cur ren t, eu=2ny=2r
cycle.
• Average or me an val ue of a . c ove r hal f
-'lm-:
10 = 0.63710 = 63 . 7Io % +ve cyc le
, . Im~ -0.6 37I o = -63 . 7Io % -ve cycle
.f
• Average or me an val ue of alt ern ati ng e.m
2
Em= ;Eo =0 .63 7Eo +ve cycle
2
Em= - ;Eo = - 0 .63 7Eo -ve cycle
atin g cur ren t
• Root me an squ are or vir tua l val ue alt ern
lo
I V = .ff. = 0. 707 fo

fTyp e here]
:J N_ ~ ~W~<'!J klwill ~ ~ i
- v1., A_ ~B
1' (W-id}_,v\u u~ ~VWL o.Lt'w>fUW\ . 4) ~ - _ ~ ___
f-=J,W,YY\ ~Lt oc.<> ~ - d~ L = CJL' +c__g ?- . v1.,-'l 1 · ( Vi_ . vi
Fc/W,V\'.\ ~ . ~ Cl lll ~ ~~ .. p .J c
+(
V <--:; V R. 2 Vl-- V c,) 2- - Ve] '° --\' ~ la

0i) .,__=·U- Q. l 2--+ Ll XL-1hl 2._

Yc~)i-::: (J !( Q -z-+ QL-><c) '-JJ

l- = ✓ R. 2. -l- -CXL,- Xc,)L

~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -~
~
. L,-~
. . . \XN- U1llirl. ~ .. \; ~ . ~
:_'. ~ \I\)
.- \L T T..-, -:: K
~
V · ·
- ~~ .J:ttt t,L ~ ~
' . . . '·

l~ Y --- ~ ·vt J~ Lcet+cp)

-z_
. -r:: '. .
- .
.
T =,}L? lhlnLl0t (j))l ~ Lo ::- ~
z..
 l
I .
\ \. \' 1'·
l ,

·,
~ ., .'

• •· . ~-· ., " . . l
.
•. • .• • .. " " .. ..
• . .. ... j ... ....... ..
.

.
\\ :_ ,·7

'.. .• \.~: ~.:..[ ..' -~L ... .\

\ 1
\Lf \
'l . \
i ;J. ,l
. , ~; ..
:fr& .
Quality factor is th e
ra tio of th e resonant
frequency to the ba nd
· Baridwidth is th e di wi dt h.
ffe re nc e .be.t we en th
e half power frequen
H·alf power fre qu en cy
cy ar e th e frequency
at which the power is
ha lf of th e maximum
po we r at resonance
. At resonant fre qu en cy .
Wo,the po we r is t~e 2
circuit is Pmax =1 ~a x
At ha lf of po we r fre qu en cy ar
e

Po we r at half value
at resonance P=PmaJ
2
If 'I' is·the cu rre nt at
th es e frequency,

. P=lR
. Thus l2R=l 2maxR/2
or

l=lmaJ.J'z ······················;
···· ·················· ········ ·(1)

Then, ba nd wi dt h= wr
w1

=w0+Liw-wo+Liw

=2Liw

Quality factor=reson
ance fre qu en cy /b an
dw id th
j.e ·Q=WQ/2Aw

12
·.We hav~Q=f0/h-f1
+ (wl - -wLc
1
·A.'t:w2=wo+Llw, 'i 0=Y0/ R2 -)
.

=lmaxr/2
=Vo/R✓2
Therefore R2+(w 2L-1/wLc) 2= R..fi.
. 2
.,.e R +(wLL-l/wLc)2=2R2
W2L-l/wLc=R .
. I
Le(wo+Llw)L-1/C(wo+L\w)=R
Wol[l +Aw/wo]-1/woc( 1 +6w/w 0 )=R
s·ince Wo 2=1/LC, we have wol=l/wc
Therefore Wol[l +tiw/ Wo]-wol[l +i:1w/wor1=R
. ,Since 6.w/wo<<l; Wol[l+Llw/wo]-woL[l-llw/wo];::R
. ie ~ol2.6.w/w 0=R or · · ·
26.w=R/L "
!he quality'·factor is given by
Q=wo/26.w=w 0 L/R
Simce w0 L=l/w0 c we can write
Q=l/w0CR.

TRANSFORMERS:
A transformer is a device used to change alternating voltages to any-desired value OR
A tr_ansformer is a device to step-up or step down the ac voltage and its works on the principle of mutual
induction.
A transformer consists of two coils of insulated wire wound separately over a laminated iron core.
· The ac voltage to be altered is fed to the primary and the altered ac voltage is obtained across the
~econdary.s
. When an alternating current flows in prim~ry ,it sets up a changing magnetic flux which ,gets linked with
the secondary .Let N 5 and Np pe the number of turns in.the.secondary and the primary respectively .
· Then the induced secondary voltage V5 is related to the primary voltage Vp by the· refation, ·

. ·vs =:NS ......... ········ ············· ............... ......... ..................... (1)

VP Np
SECONDARY COIL PRIMARY COIL
10 TURNS 5 TURP~S

OUTPUT INPUT
VOLTAGE ' VOLTAGE
220 VAC 110 VAC

13
 .-Cerro
Core
'

_· ~ ►p·
,. \ ~,_ · !'\... transformer
\ !)f u l 8. .j,I ~

The ratio & == T is called turns ratio

-Np
For a ste·p~up transformer T> 1 as N5 >Np. Hence V5>Vp.
For a step-down transformer T<1 as N5 <Np. Hence V5 <Vp .
. At a power g~nerat;ng station ,the voltage is stepped-up using a step-up transformer ,while a step-down
Transformer is used when power is to be delivered to the consumer,
. . -I t . I V _, V Vs IP
. Out put power- npu power s s -"-•P P = - = - .
VP ls
Thus a voltage across the secondary•increases ,the current in falls proportionately.
·poweroutput ~\. ls
Efficiency == 7J ===
poweroutput V1J 1,

I.
l?oh-\'t V-:. lJ<J~-tc+-Q
w :=- ~ n b
 Xe= 17 fl
Given, vrm~= 120V, f = lO0Hz, cp = 35°, _R = 10 0, XL+
XL -XC
We have, tancp
R

XL - Xe = R x tan cp
X - Xe =. 10 · x tan 35°
L
XL -Xe = 7
We have, XL+ Xe= 17
XL -X· C =7
2XL = 24
Inductive reactance, XL= 12_0
We have, X. L =27tfL
12 = 2 x 3.14 x 100 x L
L= 0,019H
L= 19 mH

Ans: Give·ri:V·rms ·= 220V' ·L = SH'· C ~ 5 x 10- ·· '

6 F R = 40 n
. The reaso~ant frequency is .
f =· .. 1 .
o 21e ✓LC, ·l
-fo= 2x3,14 ~ ✓5x5xl0:-6 . .,.-

f0 = 31.85Hz ,
I
The curr ent through the circuit is
-V . 220 5 5A·
·Irms = -!lJIS
---: --= •
-

R 40

Inductive reactance is
XL= 2nfL = 2 x 3.14 x 31.8_5 x S = 1000 0

A~s: Given parameters: L = 3H, C =27 µF, R =

7.4 n
. 1
fr = 2nJ iE .
. 1 .- .
f =· · = 17.68Hz
r . 2x3 .14 2)3 x27 x10 -6 -
 Q == .ro 0L = 21tf-rL
R R
. ix3.142xl7.68x3
·Q== .
7.4

. Q=45,

Ans: L = 25 m:H = 25 x 10-3 H

V = 220 V, f = 50 Hz
Inductive rea~tance XL = 2nfL
X = 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 25 x 10-3
L
XL= 7.85fl
· V· 220 ·
I =~=--=28A
nns XL 7.850

!peak== Inns X ✓2 = 28 X ✓2=39.6A

"(Q~~ ,: . ': · -=:-:-~:-'.~' ,,n;• ;;r--.:,-·:,\ . ·~ •;. .-.: ,c:r.1
. !

.
.Ans: Given R =e. 3.Q, L =25.48 x 10-3 H, C =786 x 10-6 F
f ~ . SO Hz, Vpea k = 283V
We,know that Xr.; = ~nfL = 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 25.48 x 10-3 n

i.e. xL = 8.ooon::::: 8n
· ·1 1
and X =--·= - - - - - - - n
6
c. 2nfC 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 786x 10-

1 1
i.e. X = 3.14-2 . 2 =---
c X 7.86 -X 10- 0.24696
i.e. Xe = 4.049 ,{l ::::: 4!1
Hence XL - Xe = 8 - 4 = 4!1 .
(a) We know that impedance of the circuit,

. ·Z = ✓R 2 + (XL - Xe )2

i.e. Z= ✓3 2 +4 2 =50
(b) · X -X · 4
tan$= L c - = 1.3333
· -R : 3
 :. <p = 53.1° or 53°6'

(c) Power factor cos c.p = R =·i == 0_6

Hence reacta nee of the circuit = 4n, impedance
Z 5
of the ci rcu; t 5n, phase angle bet wee n V and ~
I is 5 3°6' ·

,;c; T\' c; :T
. .. er·....
·. pow
anq ,. .of .the. .circ
factor '" •·· . ,· .. •.. ·,• .. . . • ·. •• ,, ,• . ,cc.,:·:•· .~.,··. C.hf~
. .0.6.
. ' uit= .. ·•
Ctallce cciil oU; f o,S II il!ld;. Cap 11(1tor,.ar.e ,•. .ll ·
i'l\$l$tor Of 100 0, a pur. e. indu
' ., . ' . , . ,, .· ., •.
coil.ml I .. . .
, • II an-a.c. source sf · ·· , · ·
'
~ -vat e ' pd.tanc .............,.... ,
R C
Ans: R = lOOfl, L =O.SH, V =200 Volt, f =SO
Hz, 8 = 30°, C =?
X -X
.tan 0= c L
R

tan3O = Xe -XL
100
1 Xe-XL
✓3 = 100

XL= 21tfL = 15711

Xe - XL= 57.73
Xe= 57.73 + 157
Xe= 214.711
1 . ' 1
=-
Xe= 21tfC' . 21 tfC Xe

C= 1 _ 1. _ .
27tfXe - 67415~8 = 1~.8 x 10-6F = 14.BµE

- ~J IN•
tc
'
-~ ~~

- H, C = 2 7
Ans·. L-4 =27x10~6f,R=8.4.Q
Resonant frequency is
I r·
W r
=- --
·./Le -4-x-27_x_1_0__6
.wr:::: 0.0962 X 103 = 96. .22 ra d s~1
Q-factor is, Q= corL 96.22 x 4
Q = 45.8. R . 8.4 ·

..,.,., • .'' ;-,,. 1' 1-': '"'

. .' i\·. ·q·.1, .... / · ..

,
~ ,;.,,,,:.,_;,•··

z· . == -n radian z = 7.,
. ., 'f = SOH ,
Ans: Vrms = 220V Irms =.11A L =?
,t-
.
I 'I' 4 '
 The impedance in the cir .· •· y . , .
. CU1t lS Z :::: nns · 220 .
· ·X · · ~ === --:-- = 20.n
.. tan~= RL; cos~:::~ Inns . ll
. . s z
. . 7t
-xL =R tan4 == R
Z = \J/R2 - x2L == \If::'::7 . .
2R" :=:: .Ji R
Z 20- .
R= - = - == 14.140
✓2 ✓2 ,:
XL= 21rfL
. X
L=-L
._
. 21rf

R - ..
· L=-
• -=0.045H.
2rcf

Ans: V=220V, f = SO Hz, R = 200!1, L = 1001T}H c = 30 µF

xL = 2nfL = 2. x 3.14 x 50 x 100 x 10-3
: 3.14 X 100 X 100 X 10-3.
· xL =3.14 x 101 = 31.4 n
1 1
X=-=
C. 2nfC 2 X 3.14 x.50 X 30 X 10-6

1 1
X ' - - - - - -6
c 3.14 X 100 X 30 X 10- = 3.14 X 30 X 102 X 10-6

1 1 1
= - -
. 3,14 X 30
- -2 - -6= - - - - - = - - -
X 10 X 10- 3.14 X 30 X 10-4 94.2 X 10-4

Xe = 106.10 :

tancp ~ Xe - ~L 106.1-31.4 0.3734

R 200
1
<p =tan- 0.3734 cp = 20.5°
Since cp is positive, current leads the voltage.
 Given Vn ::: 285V; R= 5.0;
- - - - --
L:: 28.5 mH; (~ = 800 pF ,
Resomrnt frequencyl'0 :.: -::-r-;,
I -=
2;r v LC

Le, f = l - - - --= HZ
0
2 x 3. t42J 2R.5 x to•-.1 x soo x1o-li

i.e, f0 = 33.3 Hz
At resonance Xi. = Xeand impedance= Z
=R
(b)

Hence Z= r.,n· 'IQ = Vo

t ' z I

·. V0 285
i.e, Current I0 = - = -= 57A
5 5
45.W.
Power diss i ated =P = I V = 57 x 285 = 162
,...._ . ,.,~.

·· series LQl .
_ \l&IV ~C $• .
l) !!t 11~•ll ' . ona nce occurs.
: When the frequency of supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, res
~ns
:. Z= R= 20Q

I = Vm,s = 200 = lOA

1'11\S z 20
0
= 200 x 10 x 1 = 2, 000. W
Average pow er/ cycle= p =Vrms Irm Coso

·. ~ i~~tlie _·t -.

1ven R = 200, L = 1.SH, C= 35 x 10- F,,

6
Ans:
V,ms = 220v, f = 50Hz ·

w.k .t XL . = 2tr jL
. = 2 X 3.142 X 50 X 1.5
= 471 .30 ~ 910

= -= --2-- -- '-- -- -6
2 X 50 X 35 X J0- ·
X 3.14
= 471.3 - 91
= 380 .30
w.k .t

= ✓R + _(XL - Xc)2 = ✓400

2
Z
/Impedance, z = 381 0/
• J V,ms 220 ·
•· rms =- 2 · = -381 = 0.578A
/Inns - r.m. s value of current - 0.578A ~ 0.6A /