Steam Engineering Knowledge

MODULE STEAM ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE

1. MODULE DETAILS

MODULE NAME: Steam Engineering Knowledge

NOMINAL DURATION: 40 hours
MODULE CODE: SPC 115

2. MODULE PURPOSE To provide students with an understanding of the

construction, operating principles, and characteristics of
a steam ship's propulsion power plant, such as to enable
safe and efficient operation at Engineer Watchkeeper
level during steady state, transient, and fault conditions.

3. PRE-REQUISITES SPC Class 3 Engineer Certificate.

4. RELATIONSHIP TO This unit correlates with the relevant requirements of:

COMPETENCY STANDARDS
International Convention on the Standards of Training,
Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers
(Resolution 2, Annex 1, Part A, Chapter III, Standards
Regarding the Engine Department, Section AIII/1,
revised April 1995),

5. OUTLINE OF CONTENT 1. Thermodynamics of a Main Steam Plant

• Ideal thermodynamic cycle
• Practical steam cycle
• Losses
• Practical improvements in the cycle
• Heat/mass balance diagrams

2. Main Boilers
• Development of main propulsion boilers
• Typical main boilers
• Advantages of water tube boilers for main
propulsion service
• Steam to steam generation
• Typical main boiler construction
• Water and gas circulation
• Changing steam pressure and temperature
• Superheated steam
• Internal fittings of a main boiler
• Common main boiler defects

3. Combustion in Main Boilers

• Main boiler burner arrangements
• Main boiler fuel systems
• Combustion of modern fuels
• Purging and other safety precautions
• Forced draft and induced draft fans
• Automatic combustion control

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4. Main Boiler Fittings
• Boiler mountings
• Local and remote water level indication
• Main boiler safety valves
• Other main boiler fittings

5. Operation of Main Boilers

• Automatic water level control
• Main boiler flash up
• Main boiler shut down
• Laying up a main boiler
• Emergency situations
• Alarms and shut downs

6. Steam Distribution Systems

• Main and auxiliary superheated steam systems
• Desuperheated steam systems
• Exhaust steam systems
• Bled steam systems
• Pressure reducing and pressure control valves

7. Feed Systems
• Comparison of open and closed feed systems
• Closed feed systems
• Main and auxiliary condensers
• Condensate extraction pumps
• Air ejectors
• Feed heaters
• De-aerators
• Main feed pumps
• Other feed system components
• Defects in feed systems

8. Main and Auxiliary Turbine Concepts and

Construction
• Nozzles and blades
• Impulse and reaction turbines
• Compounding
• Construction of main and auxiliary steam turbines
• Expansion allowances
• Gland steam systems
• Turbine control.

9. Steam Turbine Lubrication

• Steam turbine and gearing lubrication requirements
• Distribution of lubricating oil
• Lubricating system for steam turbines
• Common lubrication problems

10. Steam Turbine Operation

• Warm through and shut down procedures
• Operational checks
• Emergency operation

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11. Auxiliary Diesel Engine Safety
• Identify need for and list safety features

12. Operation of Auxiliary Diesel Engines

• Uses of auxiliary diesel engines on steam ships
• Warm through, start, and shut down procedures of
auxiliary diesel engines
• Emergency operation of auxiliary diesel engines

6. ASSESSMENT STRATEGY

Assessment Method The assessment of this unit is holistic in nature and

requires assessing on the integration of skills and
knowledge. To be successful in this unit, the student
must show evidence of achievement of the unit purpose.
This approach enables the assessment to be carried out
by different means to achieve a holistic outcome.

The assessment scheme is generally designed to ensure

that critical knowledge and skills are assessed more than
once and in a variety of ways throughout the unit’s
assessment events. This provides a valid assessment of
the student’s abilities and avoids misrepresentation of
failures caused by single cases of poor performance.

Condition of assessment Assessment of skills is achieved in Laboratory work.

Assessment of knowledge is carried out by continuous
assessment.

Written short answer and/or essay type questions will be

used in assessment events. Sketches may be required to
answer questions, or the student may be required to
interpret given sketches and diagrams. Laboratory work
will be assessed through laboratory reports, successful
completion of laboratory exercises, and evaluation of the
student's attitude throughout the laboratory sessions.

Assignments will be completed outside College hours in

student's own study time and may require some research
work. Tests will take place according to Maritime
Institute examination and invigilation procedures

7. LEARNING OUTCOMES On completion of this module the learner will be able to:

LEARNING OUTCOME 1 The student should be able to discuss the

thermodynamic aspects of main steam plants.

Assessment criteria 1.1 Describe the thermodynamic cycle upon which the
operation of a main steam plant is based.
1.2 Explain why the practical cycle differs from the
ideal cycle, and describe the typical losses which
occur throughout a main steam plant, and state
their effects.
1.3 Explain the effects of air preheating, feed heating,
and economisation upon the energy balance of a

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typical main steam plant's thermodynamic cycle.

Conditions and methods of As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

assessment • Short answer written questions
• Essay type written questions
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

LEARNING OUTCOME 2 The student should be able to describe the types of main
boilers utilised at sea, and state typical operating
pressures and temperatures.

Assessment criteria 2.1 Identify the advantages of water tube boilers

compared to smoke tube boilers for main
propulsion purposes.
2.2 Describe the types of main boilers used at sea.
2.3 Describe the basic construction, and materials of
construction, of main boilers used at sea.
2.4 Explain, with sketches, steam, water and gas
circulation within a running main boiler, giving
typical operating parameters.
2.5 Explain how pressure and saturation temperature
can be altered to achieve wet, dry, or superheated
steam.
2.6 Discuss the advantages of using superheated steam
for main propulsion, describe the methods used to
create superheated steam.
2.7 Describe the internal fittings of water tube boilers,
illustrating their location within the boilers, and
explain the reasons they are fitted and how they
function and explain how final temperature is
controlled.
2.8 List the common defects of a main boiler and state
how these may be repaired, including any test
procedures after repair.

Conditions and methods of As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

assessment • Short answer written questions
• Essay type written questions
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

LEARNING OUTCOME 3 The student should be able to explain how combustion

occurs in a main boiler, and note safety precautions
which must be undertaken.

Assessment criteria 3.1 Discuss the different types of burner arrangements

for main boilers, giving their relative advantages
and disadvantages.
3.2 Describe a typical fuel system for a main boiler,
including all components and safety arrangements.
3.3 Discuss the problems that fuel combustion
products cause within the boiler and uptakes,
explaining how they may be catered for.

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Steam Engineering Knowledge
3.4 Identify the importance of purging a boiler, and
other safety precautions taken when firing a boiler.
3.5 Illustrate and describe the construction and
operation of forced draught and induced draught
fans.
3.6 Explain how automatic combustion control may be
achieved for a main boiler.

As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

Conditions and methods of • Short answer written questions
assessment • Essay type written questions
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

LEARNING OUTCOME 4 The student should be able to list and discuss the various
fittings mounted on main boilers.

Assessment criteria 4.1 List the mountings commonly found on main

boilers, including those required by Authorities.
4.2 Describe construction & operation of local water
level indicators for high pressure boilers.
4.3 Describe common operating routines of high
pressure local water level indicators, including,
clearing blockages, and overhaul of these devices.
4.4 Recognise the effects of blockages in the water,
steam, and drain cocks of water level indicators.
4.5 Discuss methods of remotely indicating boiler
water level.
4.6 Describe the types of safety valves found on high
pressure boilers, including how they operate, why
they are needed, their materials of construction,
how they are set, and how they are overhauled.
4.7 Describe other fittings of a high pressure boiler,
including main steam stop, feed check and feed
valves.

As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

Conditions and methods of
assessment • Short answer written questions
• Essay type written questions
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

LEARNING OUTCOME 5 The student should be able to describe the operation of a

main boiler in normal and emergency situations.

Assessment criteria 5.1 Describe how automatic water level control is

achieved.
5.2 Describe how a main boiler is flashed up from cold
and put on line.
5.3 Describe how a main boiler is taken off line and
shut down.
5.4 Describe the steps necessary for laying up a main
boiler for short or long periods, including full blow
down and shut down procedures, and explain the

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necessity and procedure for isolating the boiler
after shut down.
5.5 Discuss the symptoms, causes, effects, and actions
to be taken with a main boiler in emergency
situations, including loss of water, oil
contamination, and boiler fires/explosions on fire
or water side.
5.6 State the causes and mechanism of economiser
fires, and explain the actions to prevent and control
of such fires.
5.7 Describe the purpose of all alarms and shut downs
incorporated in a main boiler.

Conditions and methods of As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

assessment • Short answer written questions
• Essay type written questions
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

LEARNING OUTCOME 6 The student should be able to illustrate typical

configurations of, and describe the operating principles
applying to, the various steam distribution systems
found aboard a steam ship.

Assessment criteria 6.1 Illustrate and describe typical main superheated

steam ranges, indicating what services may
normally be provided from them.
6.2 Illustrate and describe typical auxiliary superheated
steam ranges, indicating what services may
normally be provided from them.
6.3 Illustrate and describe typical desuperheated steam
ranges, indicating what services may normally be
provided from them.
6.4 Illustrate and describe typical exhaust steam
ranges, indicating what services may normally be
provided from them.
6.5 Illustrate and describe typical bled steam ranges,
showing how they normally provide the services
which they are intended for.
6.6 Illustrate and describe typical pressure reducing
and pressure control valves suitable for steam
services.

Conditions and methods of As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

assessment • Short answer written questions
• Essay type written questions
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

LEARNING OUTCOME 7 The student should be able to describe typical feed

systems for main boilers, including all components
normally found in such systems.

Assessment criteria 7.1 Explain open and closed feed systems, and why the

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latter system is superior for higher pressure
installations.
7.2 Illustrate and describe a typical closed feed system,
showing any interconnections and control
functions.
7.3 Describe the purposes, construction, materials of
construction, and operation of typical main and
auxiliary condensers.
7.4 Describe the purposes, construction, materials of
construction, and operation of a typical main
condenser, condensate extraction pump and air
ejector.
7.5 Describe the purposes, construction, materials of
construction, and operation of feed heaters.
7.6 Describe the purposes, construction, materials of
construction, and operation of a typical de-aerator.
7.7 Describe the purposes, construction, materials of
construction, and operation of a typical main feed
pump.
7.8 Describe the purposes, construction, and operation
of other components used in feed systems,
including chemical injection equipment,
atmospheric drains tanks, and contaminated drains
tanks.
7.9 Describe the symptoms, causes, effects, and actions
to be taken of defects of the components in 7.3 to 8
above.

Conditions and methods of As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

assessment • Short answer written questions
• Essay type written questions
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

The student should be able to describe and illustrate the

LEARNING OUTCOME 8
construction and operation of main and auxiliary steam
turbines.

8.1 Describe the construction of typical steam turbines,

Assessment criteria including the materials used, blade design and
fixing techniques.
8.2 Describe the construction of turbine casings,
indicating materials used.
8.3 State material differences between high pressure
and low pressure turbine casings.
8.4 Describe how expansion is catered for between the
rotor and casing, and between the casing and the
ship's structure.
8.5 Explain why and how gland sealing is used.
8.6 Illustrate and describe a typical gland steam sealing
system.
8.7 Explain the action of nozzles in turbines.
8.8 Explain the concepts of impulse and reaction
turbines and how they differ.
8.9 Explain velocity and pressure compounding.

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8.10 Describe methods of turbine control, including
governing and safety devices.

As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

Conditions and methods of • Short answer written questions
assessment • Essay type written questions
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

The student should be able to describe and evaluate

LEARNING OUTCOME 9 methods of lubricating the principle components of a
marine steam turbine and its associated gearing, and
evaluate common faults.

9.1 Identify lubrication requirements pertaining to a

Assessment criteria marine steam turbine and its associated gearing.
9.2 Describe the distribution of lubricating oil to the
bearings and gearing of a steam turbine.
9.3 Describe a typical steam turbine lubrication system,
including all components normally found therein.
State normal operational pressures and
temperatures which should be expected.
9.4 Evaluate common lubrication faults, symptoms,
causes, and actions to be taken with such faults.

As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

Conditions and methods of • Short answer written questions
assessment • Essay type written questions
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

The student should be able to describe normal, transient,

and emergency operation of a steam turbine powered
LEARNING OUTCOME 10
ship.

10.1 Describe the warming through and shut procedures

for steam turbines, explaining why these
Assessment criteria procedures are necessary.
10.2 Describe the checks which should be made
regularly during routine turbine operation. State
normal operating parameters with the main turbine
shut down and running.
10.3 Describe the procedures for emergency operation
of a steam turbine.

As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

• Short answer written questions
Conditions and methods of • Essay type written questions
assessment
• Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

The student should be able to identify and list the safety

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Steam Engineering Knowledge
features of auxiliary diesel engines.
LEARNING OUTCOME 11
11.1 Identify the need for safety features in the design
and construction of auxiliary diesel engines and
Assessment criteria their systems.
11.2 List common safety features incorporated in the
design and construction of auxiliary diesel engines
and their systems.

As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

• Short answer written questions
Conditions and methods of • Essay type written questions
assessment • Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

The student should be able to describe the operation of

auxiliary diesel engines.
LEARNING OUTCOME 12
12.1 The uses of an auxiliary diesel engine aboard a
steam ship.
12.2 Describe the pre-start, start, and shut down
Assessment criteria
procedures and checks for an auxiliary diesel
engine.
12.3 Describe the operational procedures and checks for
a running auxiliary diesel engine and its systems.
12.4 Describe the procedures for emergency operation
of an auxiliary diesel engine.

As specified in (6) by an appropriate combination of:

• Short answer written questions
• Essay type written questions
Conditions and methods of
assessment • Practical exercises
• Oral questioning
• Interpretation of graphs or diagrams

8. DELIVERY OF THE MODULE

Delivery strategy Ship visits will be desirable to show students actual

systems and components, but this will depend on
availability of vessels.

Resource Requirements Standard class rooms with whiteboard/chalkboard, an

overhead projector, a VCR, and static displays.
Computer terminals in some class rooms will be
available for computer based teaching.

Laboratories with necessary machinery and equipment.

Occupational health and safety Students must comply with Maritime Institute safety
requirements requirements and code of practices for entrance to
laboratories, workshops, and classrooms.

8. ASSESSMENT

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Marking Results are reported as Competent (C) or Not Yet

Competent (Y).

C: 50% or more
Y: less than 50%

Events listing There are 4 assessment events tabled as follows:

Event Timing Percentage Must Pass

Examination 30 Yes
Examination 30 Yes
Examination 30 Yes
Assignment 10 Yes

In addition to an overall pass in the unit, students

must pass each assessment event where there is a
“yes” in the “must pass” column.

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 Engineer Watchkeeper

SPC 115
Steam Engineering Knowledge

Learner’s Guide

Regional Maritime Programme

Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji
Engineer Watchkeeper

SPC 115
Steam Engineering
Knowledge

Learner’s Guide

Regional Maritime Programme

Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

 ©
Copyright Secretariat of the Pacific Community 1999

All rights reserved. This work is copyright but permission is given to trainers and teachers to make copies by
photocopying or other duplicating processes, for use within their educational institution. This permission
does not extend to the making of copies for use outside the institution in which they are made, or to the
making of copies for hire or resale.

First printed, October 1999

Original text: English

‘Pacific Community’ is the new name of the South Pacific Commission (SPC). The new name became
official on 6 February 1998, in commemoration of the 51st anniversary of the 1947 Canberra Agreement,
which originally established the SPC.

The change of name does not alter all the established SPC acronyms, but their meanings are modified.

‘Pacific Community’ applies to the total organisation, i.e., the member governments, the Conference, the
CRGA and the Secretariat. ‘Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)’ refers to those who provide the
service to members of the Community.

Secretariat of the Pacific Community

Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji
Telephone: (679) 370 733
Facsimile: (679) 370 021
E:mail: [email protected]
Web site: http://www.spc.org.nc/

The resource and material were prepared by the Australian Maritime College Search Ltd
with financial assistance of the New Zealand Government.

Author: Stanoje Marriott, Clearl Pty. Ltd.

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Contents
Page No

Introduction 1
Introduction to Learner’s Guide 1
Nominal Duration 1
Prerequisites 1
Target Audience 1
Required Resources 2

Advice to Learner 3
What is a Learner’s Guide 3
How to Use the Learner’s Guide 3
Description of Icons 4

Module Objectives 5
Module Purpose 5
Learning Outcomes 5

Assessment 6
Assessment Criteria and Conditions 6
Assessment Methods 6

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) i

Section 1: Thermodynamics of Steam

Learning Outcome 1 9
Assessment Criteria 9
Conditions 9
Section Introduction 10
1. Steam Generation Basic Concepts 11
2. Uses of Steam on Ships 13
3. Basic Steam Thermodynamic Cycle 15
4. Losses in a Main Steam Plant 21
5. Improvements to the Steam System 24
Section Summary 28
Progress Check 1 28

Section 2: Main Boilers

Learning Outcome 2 32
Assessment Criteria 32
Conditions 32
Section Introduction 33
1. Why use Watertube Boilers? 34
2. What is a Watertube Boiler? 40
3. Steam & Water Circulation 42
4. Superheated Steam 46
5. Basic Boiler Construction 50
6. Boiler Types 65
7. Internal Fittings 72
8. Steam to Steam Generation 75
9. Common Boiler Defects & their Repair 77
Section Summary 83
Progress Check 2 83

ii SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Section 3: Boiler Combustion

Learning Outcome 3 87
Assessment Criteria 87
Conditions 87
Section Introduction 88
1. Combustion 89
2. Fuel Oil System 93
3. Burner Arrangements 97
4. Safety 104
5. Combustion Air 107
6. Products of Combustion & Their
Effects 111
7. Automatic Combustion Control 114
Section Summary 117
Progress Check 3 117

Section 4: Boiler External Mountings

Learning Outcome 4 120

Assessment Criteria 120
Conditions 120
Section Introduction 121
1. List of Mountings 122
2. Gauge Glasses 123
3. Remote Indication of Boiler Water
Level 135
4. Safety Valves 137
5. Other Boiler Mountings 148
Section Summary 151
Progress Check 4 151

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) iii

Section 5: Main Boiler Operation

Learning Outcome 5 154

Assessment Criteria 154
Conditions 154
Section Introduction 155
1. Boiler Water Level Control 156
2. Operating Principles 162
3. Raising Steam 162
4. Main Boiler Shut Down 170
5. Main Boiler Lay Up 172
6. Emergency Operation 173
7. Boiler Alarms & Trips 182
Section Summary 184
Progress Check 5 184

Section 6: Steam Distribution

Learning Outcome 6 187

Assessment Criteria 187
Conditions 187
Section Introduction 188
1. General Piping Concepts 189
2. Steam Piping 191
3. Steam Traps and Pressure Reducing
Valves 198
4. Symbols used in Pipeline Diagrams 204
Section Summary 205
Progress Check 6 205

iv SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Section 7: Condensate/Feed Systems

Learning Outcome 7 208

Assessment Criteria 208
Conditions 208
Section Introduction 209
1. Open and Closed Feed Systems 210
2. Condensers 216
3. Air Ejectors 224
4. Extraction Pumps 226
5. Feed Heaters 228
6. The Deaerator 229
7. Main Feed Pump 233
8. Defects 237
Section Summary 240
Progress Check 7 240

Section 8: Steam Turbines

Learning Outcome 8 244

Assessment Criteria 244
Conditions 244
Section Introduction 245
1. Steam Turbine Fundamentals 246
2. Compounding 253
3. Steam Turbine Construction 260
4. Expansion Arrangements 267
5. Gland Sealing 271
6. Turbine Control 274
Section Summary 279
Progress Check 8 279

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) v

Section 9: Lubrication of Steam Turbines

Learning Outcome 9 282

Assessment Criteria 282
Conditions 282
Section Introduction 282
1. Lubrication Requirements 283
2. Lubrication Oil Systems 285
3. Lubrication Faults 293
Section Summary 297
Progress Check 9 297

Section 10 Steam Turbine Operation

Learning Outcome 10 300

Assessment Criteria 300
Conditions 300
Section Introduction 301
1. General Principles 302
2. Emergency Operation 313
Section Summary 316
Progress Check 10 316

vi SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Section 11: Auxiliary Diesel Engines

Learning Outcomes 11 & 12 319

Assessment Criteria 319
Conditions 319
Section Introduction 320
1. Diesel Engine use aboard a Steam
Ship 321
2. Safety Features of Auxiliary Diesel
Engines 328
3. Operational Procedures and Checks 332
Section Summary 337
Progress Check 11 337

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) vii

Introduction

Introduction to Learner’s Guide

The information in the module will provide you with the knowledge and skills required to
safely operate and maintain the propulsion plant and other related equipment and systems
on a steam ship.

Your learner’s guide is structured to take you logically through each section. Read the
section ‘Advice to Learner’ to plan and direct your studies.

If you need more information on the topics covered in the learner’s guide, refer to the book
list under ‘References’ and ask your instructor for advice.

Nominal Duration
40 hours.

Prerequisites

SPC Class 3 Engineer Certificate

Target Audience
This module has been designed for mariners involved in the operation and maintenance of
marine machinery, who wish to attain competence in the operation, maintenance and
management of machinery of ocean going vessels. It details the construction, operation,
and maintenance procedures of steam plants and their systems.

The module forms part of the South Pacific Commission, Engineer Watchkeeper
(Steamship) Certificate.

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 1

Required Resources
Access to:

1. Appropriate vessels, or ship models

2. Appropriate marine machinery and structures, (or models)
3. Appropriate marine steam plant components and models
4. Tools and equipment.
5. Manuals and information in regard to machinery on board vessels.
6. Appropriate testing equipment.
7. Lifting equipment and machinery.
8. Ship plans and drawings.
9. Appropriate tools and safety equipment.
10. Statuary regulations for the South Pacific.

2 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Advice to Learner

What is a Learner’s Guide

The focus of the learner’s guide is to provide you with all the information and activities
required to achieve the competencies stated in the learning outcomes of the module.

The learner’s guide is comprehensive and is the main learning resource of the modularised
package. However, you may at times need to refer to other resources and get assistance
from your instructor.

How to Use the Learner’s Guide

We suggest that you follow these steps in studying the learner’s guide.

Step 1
Study the learning outcomes and assessment criteria. This will help you identify what
competencies are required and assess your current level of competence in each learning
outcome.

Step 2
Commencing from the first section, study the learner’s guide and complete each activity at
the appropriate time. Feedback on the activities are given at the end of the learner’s guide.

Step 3
Complete the “Progress Check” at the end of each section and check your answers against
the feedback given at the end of the learner’s guide. This will enable you to assess if you
have attained the competence stated for the learning outcome(s) of that section. If you do
not do well in the progress check, study the section again.

General
As an SPC Class 3 Engineer Certificate is a pre-requisite for this module, it is assumed that
you are familiar with the fundamental concepts dealt with in the modules of that course. If
you do have difficulty in dealing with the basic concepts, it is advisable for you to revise
them using the Learner’s Guides of that course.

Make sure you complete each of the activities at the appropriate time, as they will help you
achieve the required competence. If required, you should obtain assistance from your
instructor during the study period and while carrying out activities.

Wherever possible, use actual equipment or models to understand the machinery and the
relevant systems on board your vessel. Supplement such activities with relevant drawings
and pictures. When explaining machinery and relevant systems use sketches, where

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 3

appropriate, to clarify and describe them. Try to make your sketches as simple as possible,
but without neglecting the essential information that should be in each sketch.

Carry out the required operations and maintenance under supervision, and ensure all
occupational health and safety concerns are addressed. Take special care to ensure that the
vessel, its equipment and/or its crew, are not placed in danger due to your actions.

Learner’s with Advance Knowledge

If you think that you already posses some or all of the competencies of the module, you
can assess this in the following manner.

• Read the learning outcomes and assessment criteria in each section.

• Identify the learning outcomes and assessment criteria that reflect the competencies you
may already have.
• Identify the sections that consist of these learning outcomes and assessment criteria.
• Complete the ‘Progress Check’ in these relevant sections and check your answers
against those provided at the end of the learner’s guide.
• If you are successful, your have the competencies required for that section. You can
then go on to the next section.

Remember, this learner’s guide has been developed in a logical sequence. Therefore, you
may have difficulty in completing the later sections, if you do not have the competencies of
the previous sections.

Description of Icons
The icons shown below are located in the left margin of the learner’s guide. They advise
you on actions that are required and notices that you need to heed, during various stages of
your study.

Check your Progress icon Check Text icon

Caution/Beware icon Tips icon

Activity icon Key Point icon

4 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Module Objectives

Module Purpose
To provide students with an understanding of the construction, operating principles, and
characteristics of a steam ship's propulsion power plant, such as to enable safe and efficient
operation at Engineer Watchkeeper level during steady state, transient, and fault
conditions.

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this module the learner will be able to:

• Discuss the thermodynamic aspects of main steam plants;

• Describe the types of main boilers utilised at sea, and state typical operating pressures
and temperatures of these boilers;
• Explain how combustion occurs in a main boiler, and note safety precautions which
must be undertaken;
• List and discuss the various external fittings mounted on main boilers;
• Describe the operation of a main boiler in normal and emergency situations;
• Illustrate typical configurations of, and describe operating principles applying to,
various steam distribution systems found aboard a steam ship;
• Describe typical feed systems for main boilers, including all components found in such
systems;
• Illustrate and describe the principles and construction of main and auxiliary steam
turbines;
• Describe and evaluate methods of lubricating the principle components of a marine
steam turbine and its associated gearing, and evaluate common faults;
• Describe normal, transient, and emergency operation of a steam turbine powered ship;
• Describe the safety features of auxiliary diesel engines;
• Describe the operation of auxiliary diesel engines.

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 5

Assessment

Assessment Criteria and Conditions

Assessment criteria and conditions for each of the learning outcomes are given in the
relevant sections of this learner’s guide.

Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom, laboratories,

appropriate vessels, and other suitable study environments.

Assessment Methods
To successfully pass this module, you must complete all events so you can be assessed:

competent / not yet competent.

The learning outcomes may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment
• practical assessment

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Section 1

Thermodynamics of
Steam

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Section Contents Page

Section 1: Thermodynamics of Steam

Learning Outcome 1 9

Assessment Criteria 9

Conditions 9

Section Introduction 10

1. Steam Generation Basic Concepts 11

2. Uses of Steam on Ships 13

3. Basic Steam Thermodynamic Cycle 15

4. Losses in a Main Steam Plant 21

5. Improvements to the Steam System 24

Section Summary 28

Progress Check 1 28

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Learning Outcome 1
On completion of this section you will be able to discuss the thermodynamic
aspects of main steam plants.

Assessment Criteria
1.1. Basic concepts of steam generation are explained.
1.2. How pressure and saturation temperature affect the production of wet,
dry saturated, and superheated steam is explained.
1.3. Uses of steam on ships are identified.
1.4. The thermodynamic cycle upon which the operation of a main steam
plant is described.
1.5. Differences between the practical steam cycle and the theoretical steam
cycle are explained.
1.6. Typical losses that occur throughout a main steam plant, are identified,
and their effects are stated.
1.7. The advantages of using superheated steam for main propulsion are
discussed.
1.8. The effects of air preheating, feed heating, and economisation upon the
energy balance of the steam cycle are explained.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Section Introduction
In this section, you will learn to state the uses of steam on ships; identify the
basic theoretical steam cycle for a main steam plant; compare this cycle with
the basic practical cycle; and explain how the steam cycle is improved, from a
thermodynamic viewpoint.

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

1. Steam Generation Basic

Concepts
Heating water to its boiling temperature generates steam. As water is heated,
its temperature rises until boiling temperature is reached. This boiling
temperature is dependent on the density and pressure of the water. When
generated in a container open to the atmosphere, the steam has the same
temperature as the boiling temperature of the water, and its pressure is the
same as that of the surrounding atmosphere.

If the steam is generated in a closed container, like a boiler, its temperature and
pressure are relative to the amount of heat applied to the container. Thus we
can generate steam that has a much higher pressure than that of the
atmosphere; and the corresponding boiling temperature can be much higher
than the boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure.

When water has a temperature lower than the relevant boiling temperature, it is
defined as being sub-cooled or undercooled.

If there is water present with the steam, this mixture is called wet steam. The
temperature of this wet steam is related to the pressure of the water/steam
mixture, and so stays constant as long as the pressure remains constant.

Dry saturated steam is where all the water has changed phase and is present as
steam vapour. This steam has the same temperature as the boiling temperature
of the water from which it came. This boiling temperature is called saturation
temperature, and is again related to the pressure of the water and steam.

When all the water has evaporated into steam, and additional heat energy
transfer occurs, the steam becomes superheated. Steam can only be
superheated once all the water has evaporated. Superheated steam has a
greater temperature than the corresponding saturation temperature of water at
that pressure. For superheated steam, pressure and temperature are
independent of each other.

Dry saturated and superheated steam is invisible to the human eye. It is

actually minute water droplets which makes saturated steam visible. This
means that if there is a superheated steam, it will not be seen until is has
cooled and some of the steam has condensed (in other words, it has become
wet steam). This can cause a dangerous situation where a crew member
observes the wet steam from a leak and could walk through the superheated
portion of the leak. This is potentially lethal.

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

If any change is made in the steam temperature or pressure there will be a

corresponding change of the steam condition:
• If its pressure is increased or its temperature is decreased, some of the
steam will condense. The amount of steam condensed is proportional to
the change of pressure or temperature.
• If the temperature is increased or the pressure decreased, some of the water
present in wet steam will evaporate to steam. Again, the amount of steam
created is proportional to the change of pressure or temperature.

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

2. Uses of Steam on Ships

A boiler is used to heat water in order to generate steam. The energy released
by the burning fuel in the boiler furnace is stored (as pressure and temperature)
in the steam.

Thus, steam contains energy; this energy can be used for various purposes.
The simplest use of steam in engineering systems is to provide heating. When
steam flows through pipes or nozzles into areas of greater volume or lower
pressure, it expands. In doing so it increases in volume and velocity.
Engineers use this characteristic to obtain mechanical work.

Steam use on board a ship can be placed into three different categories:
1. Main steam;
2. Auxiliary steam;
3. Domestic steam.

Main steam is used for propulsion in a main propulsion engine such as a

turbine or expansion engine.

Auxiliary steam is not directly used for main propulsion purposes, but is used
in auxiliary services essential to the ship when at sea. These services include:
• Fuel oil heating;
• Steam pumps;
• Steam winches;
• Lubricating oil heating;
• Steering gear;
• Ship’s whistle; and
• Electrical generation (using a steam turbo-generator).

Domestic steam is used for non-propulsion and non-essential services. These

include steam used in air conditioning systems and steam used to heat water for
crew and passenger needs.

Steam system components are also placed in these categories. Thus a main
turbine uses to main steam for propulsion, while a domestic boiler is used to
generate steam for domestic services. A main boiler can be used to generate
auxiliary and domestic steam, but an auxiliary turbine can not be used for
propulsion.

The different uses of steam require different grades of steam. For example,
steam used in a main propulsion turbine is high energy, high pressure,
superheated steam, while steam used for fuel tank heating is relatively low
energy, low pressure saturated steam.

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

To summarise this sub-section, we can state the following.

Steam use on board a ship can be placed into three different categories:
1. Main steam Ö for propulsion purposes;
2. Auxiliary steam Ö for essential purposes;
3. Domestic steam Öfor non-propulsion and non-essential purposes.

Activity 1.1
State typical uses of steam aboard a modern steam ship. Categorise these uses,
and give typical steam pressures and temperatures for each use. State if the
steam is superheated, dry saturated, or wet for each use identified.

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

3. Basic Steam Thermodynamic

Cycle
The cycle drawn on any thermodynamic diagram is only a representation of the
actual process. It is an idealised interpretation of what is actually occurring
and so is an approximation. Therefore there are differences between the actual
steam cycle and its ideal representation. This does not mean that the
approximation has no value. It helps us to understand what happens in the
process, at least on a simple basis. Also, the differences between the ideal
steam cycle and the actual steam cycle can be estimated so that the
interpretations and calculations made can be quite accurate.

3.1 The Steam Pressure-Volume Diagram

We will use a pressure-volume diagram to investigate the thermodynamic
cycles of main steam plants. Before we begin, however, we will review the
steam pressure-volume diagram.

Figure 1-1 Steam Pressure-Volume Diagram

The three regions to this diagram are:
• A liquid region, where no steam is present;
• A mixed liquid/vapour region, where steam and water are both present;
and
• A vapour region, where no liquid is present. The steam, which is present
in this region, is superheated.

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Isotherms are lines of constant temperature. Examples of isotherms are shown

in the diagram. Notice that isotherms are horizontal in the mixed liquid/vapour
region.

The boundary between the liquid and mixed regions is called the saturated
liquid line. If the properties of a water sample are such that it is plotted on this
line, any addition of heat energy will generate some steam.

The boundary between the mixed and vapour regions is called the saturated
vapour line. If the properties of a steam sample are such that it is plotted on
the saturated vapour line, the steam is dry saturated. Any removal of heat
energy will cause some of the steam to condense into liquid water. Any
addition of heat energy to this dry saturated steam will cause it to move into
the vapour region and the steam will be superheated.

Activity 1.2
Draw a steam pressure-volume diagram, and indicate on the diagram the steam
generation process from undercooled liquid to superheated steam at constant
pressure.

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

3.2 Basic Main Steam Plant Components

The four basic components of main steam plant are:
• Boiler Ö steam is generated from water by the
heat energy from combustion of fuel.
• Turbine Ö steam is used in an application to
provide heating/electrical generation/main
propulsion.
• Condenser Ö waste steam is condensed back into
water.
• Feed Pump Ö Water is returned to the boiler.

A schematic diagram of this steam plant is shown in figure 1.2:

Figure 1-2 Main Steam Plant

3.3 The Rankine Cycle

The theoretical thermodynamic cycle which represents the main steam plant
cycle is called the Rankine Cycle. When plotted on a pressure-volume
diagram, the Rankine Cycle appears as shown in figure 1-3.

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Figure 1-3 Rankine Cycle

The processes with this cycle are:

1 Ö 2 Boiler Generation of steam, energy

input.
2 Ö 3 Turbine Mechanical work output,
expansion and pressure
reduction of steam.
3 Ö 4 Condenser Condensation of steam,
energy removed from
vapour.
4 Ö 1 Pump Mechanical work input,
water pressure is raised to
that of boiler pressure.

The thermal efficiency of the theoretical Rankine cycle depends upon the
actual pressures and temperatures involved but a typical range of efficiency for
the system is between 35 and 42%.

3.4 The Rankine Cycle with Superheat

If the steam is superheated at the boiler, the energy value of the steam at the
turbine inlet is much higher. This is achieved without increasing boiler
pressure and so the pressure resisting strength of the system does not need to
be increased.

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Superheating the steam has the following advantages:

1. The thermal efficiency of the system is increased, in the order of 3 to
5%.
2. The steam has a higher initial energy value. This means that for a
given power output, the superheated steam plant uses less steam
compared to a dry saturated plant. Alternatively, a superheated
steam plant provides more power than a similar dry saturated plant.
3. Since less mass of steam is needed, the condenser heat load will be less.
4. The onset of condensation is delayed.

Expanding point 4 above (the onset of condensation is delayed), consider the

expansion of the steam in the Rankine cycle of figure 1.3. As soon as steam is
admitted to the turbine and it releases energy, condensation begins. Thus the
steam passing through the turbine will be wet.

Wet steam reduces the efficiency of the turbine, as well as increasing the
occurrence of high velocity water damage to the turbine. To avoid
condensation, the steam must be superheated.

The Rankine cycle with superheat is shown in figure 1.4.

Figure 1-4 Rankine Cycle with Superheat

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

The processes within this cycle are:

1 Ö 2 Boiler Generation of steam, energy

input.
2 Ö 3 Superheater Further energy input by
superheating.
3 Ö 4 Turbine Mechanical work output,
expansion and pressure
reduction of steam.
4 Ö 5 Condenser Condensation of steam,
energy removed from
vapour.
5 Ö 1 Pump Mechanical work input,
water pressure is raised to
that of boiler pressure.

To superheat the steam, the dry saturated steam is allowed to flow out of the
steam/water space of the boiler and passed through a heat exchanger (naturally
called a superheater). The superheater is placed within the boiler such that hot
gases from the furnace provide this additional heat energy transfer.

Activity 1.3
Select an actual main steam plant. Identify main boiler pressure, temperature,
superheated steam temperature, and condenser pressure and temperature.

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

4. Losses in a Main Steam Plant

We will now investigate the thermodynamic energy losses of a real main steam
plant, and identify how the real cycle differs from the theoretical cycle.

Energy losses mean that the system is:

• less efficient, requiring more fuel and so increasing costs;
• less powerful, so less work is able to be obtained from the steam plant.

4.1 Losses Common to both Real and

Theoretical Cycles
The major energy loss common to both real and theoretical steam cycles is the
use of the condenser. It is a device which removes energy from the system.
Unfortunately, in order to make the system work, the condenser must be
present.

Another energy loss is the need to have a feed pump to raise the pressure of the
condensed water back to boiler pressure. This means that there must be energy
input to the system, which is a loss to the cycle.

4.2 Losses of a Real Cycle

The thermodynamic losses of a real main steam cycle make the cycle differ
from the theoretical Rankine cycle.

The losses of a real main steam cycle can be summarised as:

• Expansion of steam/heat energy transfer.
• Undercooling of condensed water.
• Pressure drops in the system.
• Efficiency of components.
• Additional complexity and energy demands of the real system.
• Sensible heating of boiler water.

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Expansion of steam/heat energy transfer

Ideally, the steam should expand isentropically, that is, without any heat
energy transfer. Since the steam is at a higher temperature than its
surroundings, however, heating its surroundings will lose some of the energy
in the steam.

Thus, there is less energy available for mechanical expansion work.

Wherever the system is at a higher temperature than its surroundings (which is

most of the system - from point 5 in figure 1.4 to point 4), heat energy transfer
will occur. This is a major energy loss and to some degree will be
unavoidable.

Undercooling of condensed water

If the condenser continues to cool the condensed water so that its temperature
falls below the boiling temperature, energy is taken away from the system
unnecessarily. The condenser should provide water which is just at boiling
point. This is difficult to achieve, but if undercooling does occur, the lost
energy must be replaced by burning more fuel.

Pressure drops in the system

As steam and water flow in pipelines and though pumps, turbines and other
such devices, pressure drops will occur. This is due to friction between the
flowing fluid and the internal surfaces of these components. These pressure
drops occur in real situations, and they cause a loss in the energy of the fluid.

Efficiency of components
Each of the components of the steam system has its own internal efficiency
losses, which add to the overall efficiency loss of the plant as a whole.

Additional complexity and energy demands of the real system

There are many more components of a real steam system, which include:
• Valves
• Other pumps
• Other steam services
• Fuel systems
• Lubricating oil systems
• Feed water systems (to replenish any water lost through leaks)
• Cooling water systems (for the condenser).

This increased complexity changes steam requirements and steam flows,

increases piping and requires additional energy demands. All of this reduces
the effective power output of the turbine and/or reduces the steam system
thermal efficiency.

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Also, for operational and safety reasons, the boiler always contains a reserve of
water. This means that at best, the steam leaving the boiler (before the
superheater) is dry saturated. This reserve of water in the boiler must be kept
at boiling point, which requires additional energy.

Water and steam loss requires the addition of make-up water to the system.
These losses can be due to leaks in the system, but there are also operational
requirements which call for the loss of steam from the system. If make-up
water is produced on board ship by a fresh water generation system, then there
will be an additional energy demand to produce this water. Also, the water and
steam lost from the system contain energy. This energy is lost with the fluid.

Sensible heating of boiler water

Consider figure 1-5:

Figure 1-5 Steam generation in boiler

The boiler is represented by the points a to d.

At point a, the water is at the boiler pressure but its temperature is less than the
boiling temperature at that pressure. Before steam generation can begin, the
water temperature must be increased. This is called sensible heating.

At point b, the water is at boiling temperature. Further heating generates steam

until point c is reached. At point c, the steam is drawn away from the boiler
and is superheated, until point d is reached. The steam is now in its desired
state and flows to the turbine.

For thermodynamic reasons, sensible heating of the boiler water between

points a and b in figure 1-5 gives a loss of efficiency. To maximise thermal
efficiency, we would prefer to have steam generation as soon as the water
enters the boiler, but this is not practically possible.

Some of the losses stated can be eliminated or reduced with correct design and
operation, but some losses will always be present. Thus a real main steam
system will always be less efficient and produce less power than the ideal
theoretical cycle.

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

5. Improvements to the Steam

System
There are a number of improvements which can be made to the main steam
system and its components.

Activity 1.4
One major improvement to the basic steam system has already been identified
in a previous sub-section. State this improvement.

The improvements of a real main steam cycle can be summarised as:

• Use superheated steam for power applications.
• Raise the boiler pressure.
• Lower the condenser pressure.
• Use a regenerative condenser.
• Use feed heating.
• Use an economiser.
• Improve the efficiency of steam system components.
• Correct operation and maintenance.

Using superheated steam for power applications

This improvement has already been mentioned in sub-section 3.4.

Not all steam applications require the use of superheated steam. For example,
a lubricating oil heater for use in cold climates does not need superheated
steam to adequately warm the lubricating oil. Additionally, the use of
superheated steam in such an application would call for the use of special high
temperature materials, as well as increasing the likelihood of overheating the
oil.

However, for use in turbines for power applications such as main propulsion
and electrical generation, the use of superheated steam is a major improvement
to the steam cycle.

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

An improvement to the Rankine cycle with Superheat is to provide reheating.

Reheating is where steam is drawn out of the turbine at some intermediate

stage, returned to the boiler, and is then superheated again in a superheating
device called a reheater. This arrangement is known as the Rankine cycle with
Superheat & Reheat. This system has been used on steam ships, but this
system has increased complexity and cost; as well as operational problems
during manoeuvring (when steam flows can dramatically change).

Activity 1.5
On a steam pressure-volume diagram, sketch the Rankine cycle with
Superheat and Reheat.

Raising boiler pressure and lowering condenser pressure

Increasing the pressure and therefore the energy difference between the boiler
and the condenser provides two improvements:
1. The turbine will produce more power.
2. It can be shown that as the difference between inlet and exhaust steam
energy levels increases, the thermal efficiency of the plant also increases.
Typical main boiler pressures are in the range of 50 to 65 bar (gauge), while
main condensers are designed to operate with a high vacuum (that is, the
condenser pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure).

Using a regenerative condenser

A regenerative condenser is specially designed to ensure that no or minimal
undercooling of the condensed water occurs.

Feed heating

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Sub-section 4.2 mentioned the fact that sensible heating of the water in the
boiler reduces the thermal efficiency of the boiler and the system as a whole.

To provide the heating of the feed water while maximising the efficiency of the
boiler, feed heating is used.

This is where, at certain points in the cycle between the condenser and the
boiler, the feed water is heated in feed heaters by steam bled from the turbine
or taken from auxiliary steam services. Even though energy is still being used
to heat the water, feed heating gives an improvement to the thermal efficiency
of the system. Feed heating is achieved in stages, since carefully designed
increments in the feed temperature provides greater efficiency that one large
temperature rise.

Using an economiser
An economiser is a special application of feed heating. This is a device,
situated in the system just before the feed inlet to the boiler, which heats the
boiler feed water using heat energy from the boiler furnace exhaust gas. This
improves the thermal efficiency of the system, and is achieved by using energy
which would otherwise have been lost to the atmosphere. Thus, the use of an
economiser gives a twofold improvement to the system.

Activity 1.6
Redraw figure 1.5, indicating where the economiser would provide heating to
the feed water.

Improving the efficiency of steam system components

Much research has been put into improving the design of individual
components of the main steam system. Some solutions directly improve the
thermal efficiency of the component and thus the system. Other solutions
improve certain aspects of components which provide an indirect improvement
in cycle efficiency.

An example of this indirect improvement is the preheating of air for

combustion in the boiler. Combustion is improved if the air to be burnt in the
boiler furnace is raised in temperature. The furnace flame does not need to
warm the air up itself, and the combustion process itself becomes more
efficient.

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Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Correct operation and maintenance

Careful monitoring and adjustment of the steam plant and its components
maximises the thermal efficiency of the system. The plant is designed to be
operated within specified parameters. If operation is allowed to fall outside
these parameters, efficiency will be impaired.

Activity 1.7
Explain two situations where incorrect monitoring and operation of a
regenerative condenser reduces steam plant performance and efficient.

Maintenance of the steam plant and its components is also very important in
maintaining cycle efficiency. Poorly functioning fuel burners, incorrect air
fuel ratios, malfunctioning steam traps, unattended steam leaks, among other
faults, all impair the performance of the steam plant.

Correct operation and maintenance of the steam plant and its components is
primarily the responsibility of the ship’s engineering department.

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 Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

Section Summary
In this Section you have had an introduction to the use of main steam on ships
and have learnt the fundamentals of main steam plant thermodynamics. A
knowledge of steam plant thermodynamics provides a sound basis for
understanding the design and functions of the main steam plant, as well as
assisting you in the operation and maintenance of the plant. You should now
refer to the learning outcome and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of
this section and ask yourself if you can:

• Explain the basic concepts of steam generation;

• Identify the uses of steam on ships;
• Describe the Rankine cycle and the Rankine cycle with superheat;
• Explain the differences between the practical and theoretical main steam
cycles;
• Identify typical losses which occur in a main steam plant, stating the effects
of these losses;
• Discuss the advantages of using superheated steam for main propulsion
purposes; and
• Identify improvements which can be applied to a main steam plant, and
explain the effects of these improvements upon the energy balance of the
main steam cycle.

If you have answered “no” to the above questions, you should read through this
Section again and work through the activities or approach your Supervisor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 1
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.

1. State the difference between wet steam, dry saturated steam, and
superheated steam.

2. State the three categories of steam use aboard ship, giving an example of
each.

3. Make a simple schematic sketch of a main turbine plant, and:

a) identify its major components,
b) show the direction of steam and water flow,
c) indicate where dry saturated steam, wet steam,
superheated steam, and liquid water are present in the
system.
4. Sketch the Rankine cycle with Superheat on a pressure-volume diagram,
and explain the processes which occur within the cycle.
28 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)
Section 1 Thermodynamics of Steam

5. List and explain three energy losses and four improvements of a real
main steam plant.

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 Section 2 Main Boilers

Section 2

Main Boilers

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Section 2 Main Boilers

Section Contents Page

Section 2: Main Boilers

Learning Outcome 2 32

Assessment Criteria 32

Conditions 32

Section Introduction 33

1. Why use Watertube Boilers? 34

2. What is a Watertube Boiler? 40

3. Steam & Water Circulation 42

4. Superheated Steam 46

5. Basic Boiler Construction 50

6. Boiler Types 65

7. Internal Fittings 72

8. Steam to Steam Generation 75

9. Common Boiler Defects & their Repair 77

Section Summary 83

Progress Check 2 83

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 Section 2 Main Boilers

Learning Outcome 2
On completion of this section you will be able to describe the types of main
boilers utilised at sea, and state typical operating pressures and temperatures of
these boilers.

Assessment Criteria
2.1. The advantages of watertube boilers compared to shell boilers for main
propulsion purposes are identified.
2.2. The basic arrangement of a watertube boiler is explained.
2.3. Steam, water, and gas circulation with a main boiler is explained, and
typical operating parameters are identified.
2.4. The creation of superheated steam is discussed.
2.5. The need for and methods of controlling superheated steam temperature
are explained.
2.6. Types of main boilers are described.
2.7. The basic construction, and materials of construction, of main boilers
are described.
2.8. The reasons for and operation of steam to steam generators are
explained.
2.9. The internal fittings of watertube boilers are described.
2.10. Common defects of a main boiler, and their repair methods, are stated.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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Section 2 Main Boilers

Section Introduction
The main boiler is a major component of the steam system. It is in fact a
system in itself.

This Section investigates the design, construction, and workings of main

boilers.

The function of a boiler is to generate steam. In the case of main propulsion

turbines units, turbine driven electrical generators, boiler feed pumps, and
cargo pumps associated with certain vessel types, the steam is at what is
considered to be a high pressure and high temperature.

Boilers are heat exchanger units which utilise the heat energy released by the
chemical action of a fuel combining with oxygen at high temperatures. This
heat energy is transferred to water within the boiler. This water is at a certain
pressure and, due to the heat energy transfer, boils.

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 Section 2 Main Boilers

1. Why use Watertube Boilers?

1.1 Early main boilers
The earliest marine boilers used for main propulsion had a working pressure of
about 0.7 bar, and were chiefly of the rectangular or haystack type.

Figure 2-1 Haystack Boiler

As technology advanced, the compound, triple, and quadruple expansion steam

engines were introduced which called for higher pressures and therefore boilers
which could generate these higher pressures were designed and built.

As well as being able to generate these pressures, the boilers also needed to
resist the forces and stresses of the higher operating pressures and
temperatures.

The classic main boiler, introduced in the late 19th Century was the Scotch or
Scotch type boiler. This type of boiler is defined as a horizontal wet back
shell boiler. Other names for this type of boiler include fire tube or smoke
tube boiler.

The Scotch boiler consists of a shell, within which are a furnace (in many
cases there are multiple furnaces), combustion chamber, and fire or smoke
tubes. These internal components constitute the heat generating section of the
boiler, with the flame positioned within the furnace. Combustion products then
flow through the combustion chamber and then pass into the fire tubes before
leaving the boiler. Other components within the boiler such as stay bars, scum
pans, and feed pipes are also fitted. The water and steam are contained within
the shell but outside the heat generating section.

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Section 2 Main Boilers

Figure 2-2 Scotch Type Boiler

The basic design of the Scotch type boiler has remained virtually unaltered up
to the present day; the major exception being that the boiler is no longer riveted
but is of all-welded construction. The longevity of the Scotch boiler design is
because this type of boiler is simple; robust; easy to operate; water treatment
needs only to be of medium quality; and the boiler requires a minimum of
maintenance.

As main propulsion engines developed further, Scotch boilers were built with
higher pressures and, to cater for the amount of steam needed by the engines,
large steam ships contained a large number of boilers. By the late 1930’s,
many crack passenger liners were steamed by Scotch boilers of the double
ended type.

However, the quest for increased overall efficiency and higher vessel speeds
led to the adoption of watertube boilers for main propulsion purposes, where
the main engine is a steam turbine.

The Scotch type shell boiler has been relegated to generating low pressure
auxiliary steam on diesel engine propelled ships.

1.2 Watertube boilers - advantages

The watertube boiler consists essentially of many small diameter tubes, with
the water and steam contained within these tubes. A drum, or drums,
distributes the feed water to the tubes and also acts as a collection space for the
generated steam. The furnace, much larger than Scotch boiler furnaces, is
surrounded by the watertubes.

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The advantages of a watertube boiler over a shell boiler for main

propulsion purposes are:
• Higher pressures and temperatures;
• Saving in weight and space;
• Higher evaporation rates;
• Greater mechanical flexibility;
• Rapid steam raising;
• Wider safety margin in event of rupture.

Higher pressures and temperatures

The advent of steam turbine propelling machinery called for higher pressures
and temperatures, which gives the advantages of:
• higher efficiencies; and
• higher output powers.

This also enabled machinery size and weight to be reduced for a given output.

The maximum practical pressure limit of shell boilers is approximately 21 bar.

Above this limit, the boiler shell thickness becomes excessive. This gives
difficulties in construction as well as increasing problems in thermal stress
during operation.

Watertube boilers, on the other hand, normally supply main steam at pressures
in the order of 50 to 60 bar. Some land installation boilers operate at pressures
in excess of 200 bar.

With higher steam pressures, the dry saturated steam temperature also
increases. Superheating this already high temperature steam increases the
steam plant efficiency even more.

Saving in weight and space

Watertube boilers give a relative saving in weight of 1:3 when compared with
shell boilers on a basis of equivalent heating surface. The relatively thin
walled tubes reduce the weight of metal used in the boiler. The relatively
small amount of water present in a watertube boiler also reduces its overall
weight.

Good circulation and the ability to withstand higher pressures have enabled
high outputs to be obtained from watertube boilers of very small dimensions
when compared to shell boilers, giving a physically smaller steam plant size in
comparison.
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Higher evaporation rates

Since the furnace is not contained within the shell of the boiler, the watertube
boiler provides a greater heat energy exchange surface. Also, the relatively
thin tube walls allow for better conduction of the heat energy evolved. This
enables the heat energy from the burning fuel to be more readily transmitted to
the boiler water and so allows high evaporation rates.

Greater mechanical flexibility

Watertube boilers are designed to provide very good natural circulation of
water and steam. The boiler structure is also comparatively flexible. This
means that the watertube boiler is not so sensitive to fluctuating pressures. The
shell boiler, on the other hand, has poor circulation - especially when raising
steam - and is prone to mechanical stress and strain.

Rapid steam raising

The flexibility of watertube boilers, together with their positive circulation
allows for relatively rapid steam raising. A normally specified time for raising
steam in a watertube boiler is three or four hours from start up to full pressure.
If the boiler is already hot, this time can be reduced (in emergency situations)
to 20 to 30 minutes.

A shell boiler requires a steam raising period in the order of 15 to 20 hours.

Wider safety margin in event of rupture

The possibility of a serious rupture is considered to be more remote with a
watertube boiler compared to an equivalent shell boiler. The watertube boiler
has smaller tube diameters and the drums are protected from direct radiation or
flame impingement at the furnace. Should a tube rupture, the contents of the
boiler (which as we have noted are relatively smaller) escape at a rate
determined by the tube bore.

A rupture of the overheated furnace of a shell boiler can almost

instantaneously release the total boiler contents into the engine room.

1.3 Watertube boilers - disadvantages

The watertube boiler does have disadvantages when compared to a shell boiler.
These disadvantages must be considered and catered for when selecting and
operating a steam plant.

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Disadvantages of a watertube boiler compared to a shell boiler for main

propulsion purposes are:
• Complex water level control system required;
• Complex combustion control system required;
• Better water quality and feed system required;
• Large furnace explosions can occur more readily and are more
dangerous.

Complex water level control system required

Compared to a shell boiler, a watertube boiler has:
• a smaller sized steam drum with a smaller water surface area and
• a larger rate of steam production.

Thus, changes in boiler water level will be rapid and must be controlled
effectively to prevent boiler damage. This means that a watertube boiler
requires a complex boiler water level control system.

Complex combustion control system required

The smaller sized steam drum also means that there is a smaller reserve of
water and steam in the boiler. Changes in steam pressure can be rapid and so
complex combustion control systems are necessary.

Better water quality and feed system required

Compared with a shell boiler, a watertube boiler requires:
• better quality feed/boiler water,
• a higher level of water monitoring and treatment, and
• an elaborate closed feed system supplying water to the boiler.

This is because:
• contaminants in the water cause greater problems at higher pressure,
• contaminants in the water can precipitate out more easily at the higher
temperatures and evaporation rates,
• the smaller tubes of a watertube boiler can become blocked or choked more
easily,
• it is more difficult to perform internal boiler examination, and
• there is little allowance for corrosion in the relatively thin tubes.

Large furnace explosions can occur more readily and are more dangerous
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Watertube boiler furnaces are relatively larger than those of shell boilers.
It is easier for explosive vapours to collect in these large furnaces. Since
the furnace is so large, a furnace explosion (if it occurs) will contain more
energy which will cause more damage and can be lethal. Thus extra care
must be taken with boiler combustion and operation, especially when
raising steam.

Thus the watertube boiler is a better choice of boiler for the production of
steam for power generation. However, disadvantages of the watertube boiler
must be taken in to account.

Activity 2.1
State the approximate time period when watertube boilers were first
introduced at sea as main boilers.
(This activity requires you to perform personal research.)

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2. What is a Watertube Boiler?

This sub-section is a simple introduction to the layout of a watertube boiler.
We will investigate the topics outlined with more detail in later sub-sections.

The basic components of a watertube boiler are:

• Fuel burning section;
• Steam generating section;
• Superheater section;
• Waste heat recovery section; and
• Additional fittings and mountings.

Fuel burning section

All boilers have a furnace where fuel is burnt to release its energy. A large
surface area between the combustion chamber and the water enables the energy
of combustion, in the form of heat energy, to be transferred to the water.

Steam generating section

The major components of a watertube boiler are the watertubes. These contain
circulating water, and as they are heated, steam is generated. There are
different types of watertubes within a boiler, each type having different
purposes.

Drums are provided where:

• Steam and water are separated;
• Feed water is introduced and distributed to the watertubes;
• The steam is collected and sent to the superheater section;
• Sludge collects to enable easy removal.

There is normally a steam drum and a water or mud drum. The steam drum is
the point where feed water enters the boiler for distribution to the rest of the
boiler. It is situated towards the top of the boiler to provide good circulation.
The steam drum also separates the generated steam and water returning from
the watertubes. The steam is led off to the superheater section while the water
re-circulates back through the tubes.

The water drum is situated towards the bottom of the boiler, and also acts as a
collection and distribution point for the water. Any sludge created will collect
in the water drum for removal.

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Headers are similar components to the drums, but they are smaller. They act
as collection and distribution points for the water and the steam in specific
areas of the boiler.

Superheater section
Dry saturated steam leaves the steam drum and enters the superheater section.
Here, the steam is superheated. Some of this superheated steam is then
desuperheated back to dry saturated steam to supply steam for auxiliary
purposes. Most of the superheated steam, however, is produced to supply the
main turbine.

Waste heat recovery section

Exhaust gas from the combustion process still contains heat energy. Some of
this energy is reclaimed in the economiser. This unit uses waste heat energy to
raise boiler feed water temperature up to or near the relevant saturation
temperature at boiler pressure.

Some watertube boilers also use waste heat energy to preheat combustion air.

Additional fittings, mountings, and controls

There must be fittings and controls to ensure that fuel oil, air, and feed water
are supplied and are matched to the steam demand. There must also be a
number of fittings or mountings which ensure the safe operation of the boiler.

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3. Steam & Water Circulation

3.1 Three Parts of Circulation
Circulation of steam and water within a watertube boiler consists of three
parts:
• Flow of water to heated areas;
• Flow of steam and heated water to steam drum;
• Collection and release of steam.

Activity 2.2
Circulation of steam and water within a watertube boiler is very important.
Briefly explain why this is so.

3.2 How Circulation occurs

Circulation of steam and water in a watertube boiler is due to the density
difference between steam and water.

This is called natural circulation.

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Figure 2-3 Natural Circulation Within A Simple Watertube Boiler

Consider the simple watertube boiler shown in figure 2-3. Relatively cold feed
water enters the steam drum. This water has a greater density, sinks
downwards, and flows into the downcomer tube.

The water in the riser tube is heated by the heat energy of combustion. The
density of this water becomes less than that of the water in the downcomer.
There is also generated steam present within the riser tube.

This means that the mass of heated water and steam in the riser tube is less
than the mass of the colder water in the downcomer tube. Gravity causes the
heavier water in the downcomer to flow into the riser tube and displace the hot
water and steam already present in this tube. The hot water and steam
displaced flows up into the steam drum.

As the hot water and steam enters the steam drum, the steam is separated from
the water and flows out of the drum (to the superheater). The water from the
riser tube is no longer being heated from the heat source, mixes with the
incoming feed water, and recirculates, flowing into the downcomer.

The water from the downcomer is exposed to heat energy, becomes less dense
and evolves into steam. Thus the process continues.

As the mixture of hot water and steam flows up the riser, it is exposed to more
heat energy and so more of the water evolves into steam.

The boiler is designed so that there should be a ratio between the amount of
steam leaving the risers and the amount of water entering the downcomers.
This is called the water/steam circulation ratio and should be in the order of
4:1, ie, there should be four times as much water entering than steam
generated.

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 Section 2 Main Boilers

It is very important that there is always more water than steam in the
riser. If the riser was completely full of steam, the tube would overheat
and burnout would occur. Burnout, as the term implies, is where the tube
metal overheats, can no longer resist the pressure force within the tube,
and ruptures.

Activity 2.3
A watertube boiler generates steam at a rate of 10 000 kg/hour. If the
water/steam circulation ratio is 4:1, how much water is circulating within the
boiler?

3.3 External Downcomers

As pressure increases, the density difference between water and steam
decreases. This means that in boilers at higher pressures, natural circulation
may be impaired.

To minimise this problem and improve circulation, marine watertube boilers

above 30 bar pressure are fitted with external, unheated downcomers.

These downcomers are large bore tubes connecting the steam drum to the
water drum. They are situated outside the boiler casing to ensure that they are
not heated. They are insulated to minimise unnecessary heat energy loss and to
protect personnel from injury.

With external downcomers, circulation of water from the steam drum to the
water drum is increased.

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Figure 2-4 External Downcomers

3.4 Circulation within a Practical Boiler

A practical watertube boiler has many rows and runs of tubes. The furnace is
also contained within the tubes. Due to fluctuations or changes of combustion
gas flow (and so changes in heat energy release rates), a particular tube may
function as a downcomer one minute and a riser the next. It is not easy to
predict which tubes are acting as risers or downcomers. What can be predicted
is that more tubes act as risers as steam flow rates increase. This means that
the external downcomers have even more importance at high steaming rates.
In a modern boiler, all tubes act as risers except the unheated downcomers.

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4. Superheated Steam
4.1 What is a Superheater?
Steam that has been heated above saturation temperature corresponding to its
pressure is superheated. This steam contains more energy than dry saturated
steam, with the advantages identified in Section 1 of these notes.

A superheater tube has steam on the inside and hot gases on the outside. The
tubes are therefore dry, since no liquid water is present.

Dry saturated steam is drawn out of the steam drum and is led to the
superheater tubes.

Superheaters are referred to as convection, radiant, or combination type.

The convection superheater is placed somewhere in the combustion gas stream,

where it receives most of its heat by convection. This type of superheater is
shielded from the radiant heat of the actual furnace flame by watertubes known
as screen tubes. With other factors being equal, the more rows of tubes
between the furnace and the superheater, the lower the superheated steam
temperature. A radiant superheater, on the other hand, is placed much nearer
to the furnace, and receives the majority of its energy by direction radiation
from the furnace flame.

The superheater itself, whatever its type, is normally a set or sets of U or W-

shaped tubes, connected to inlet and outlet headers. The superheater tubes may
be placed horizontally or vertically, depending on boiler design. Horizontally
placed superheater tubes are inclined slightly to provide drainage of condensed
water when the boiler is shut down. The headers have internal baffles, which
direct the steam so that all superheater tubes have the correct proportion of
steam flowing through them.

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Figure 2-5 Superheater Headers And Elements

The superheater is supported by heat resistant steel and/or by large bore

watertubes.

4.2 Temperature Control

As previously stated, superheater tubes are dry, that is, there is no liquid
present.

In a watertube, the temperature of the tube metal is closer to the water

temperature than the furnace/combustion gas temperature. This is because
water is a good conductor of heat.

Steam cannot conduct heat energy away as quickly as water. The steam can
actually act as an insulator. This means that the superheater tubes tend to work
at higher metal temperatures than water tubes, and are much closer to the metal
melting temperature.

Thus it is very important to control superheated steam temperature to

prevent overheating and failure of the superheater tubes.

Design of the superheater is such that there is sufficient steam flow to avoid
overheating the tubes.

There should always be steam flowing through the superheater tubes

while there is heat energy in the furnace and combustion gas path of the
boiler.

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When the operating superheated steam temperature is well below the

temperature limit for the metal, sufficient control can be achieved by the
position of the superheater within the boiler.

In many cases, this method of superheated steam temperature control is

inadequate, and other methods of control must be used. These include:
• Using dampers to control the flow of combustion gases over the
superheater.
• Designing the boiler with two separate furnaces so that changing the
amount of fuel burnt in each furnace controls the superheated steam
temperature.
• Using an attemperator to cool some or all of the superheated steam. The
attemperator can be air or water cooled, and is fitted in circuit between two
sets of superheaters.

Figure 2-6 Superheated Steam Temperature Control

All of these methods are used to protect the superheater, preventing the
tube metal temperature from reaching too high a level.

4.3 Desuperheating
Desuperheating is another form of steam temperature control. This provides
low temperature steam for use in auxiliary machinery and services, or where
limitations are imposed on the steam temperature for use in an astern turbine.

Two main forms of desuperheating are generally used:

• Surface desuperheating, and
• Spray desuperheating.
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Surface desuperheating is performed using a system similar to attemperation.

Superheated steam is led to an attemperator positioned in the steam or water
drum of the boiler. The superheated steam is cooled by the boiler water and
becomes dry saturated. To avoid confusion between the attemperator used to
control superheated steam temperature and the attemperator used to
desuperheat the steam, we will define the attemperator used for the latter
purpose as the desuperheater.

If the attemperator is positioned within the steam drum, the desuperheater will
be in the water drum, and vice versa.

It would be easier to draw off dry saturated steam straight from the steam drum
of the boiler. However, it is important to pass as much steam through the
superheater as possible in order to keep the superheater cool. To help achieve
this cooling of the superheater tubes, all the steam produced by the boiler is
superheated, and the saturated steam needed for auxiliary purposes is then
desuperheated.

Activity 2.4
Surface desuperheating is especially useful when the ship is in port and the
main turbine is shut down. Why?

Spray desuperheating is where the mixing of the steam and a water spray
cools the steam. The water spray is mounted in a special chamber or is
injected directly into the steam pipework. An example of spray desuperheating
is to cool steam passing into the astern turbine (in order not to overheat the
main condenser).

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5. Basic Boiler Construction

Early watertube boilers consisted of a single steam drum, watertubes, headers
and superheater tubes. Initially, they operated at a pressure of about 12 bar and
steam temperature of 221OC. Tubes were 100 mm in diameter and the
combustion gases had three passes over the tubes, gas flow being directed by
baffles. If a water drum was fitted, it was very small compared to the steam
drum and acted solely as a mud drum.

These boilers normally had a 15 degree inclination between the front and back
headers to assist in circulation. Due to this, they were called inclined header
boilers.

Later designs had working pressures up to 30 bar, steam temperatures up to

399OC, 21 mm diameter tubes and a single pass of combustion gases. These
designs also had the furnace surrounded by watertubes called waterwalls. This
reduced the amount of refractory insulation needed as well as increasing heat
energy input to the water.

Figure 2-7 Inclined Header Watertube Woiler

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Section 2 Main Boilers

Smaller tubes were possible due to the improvement in feed water quality, and
give a greater heat transfer area.

Superheaters in later inclined header boilers were positioned within the main
tube bank at right angles to the generating tubes of the boiler.

5.1 D-type or Bent Tube Boilers

The bent tube design of watertube boiler was a much later development. This
type of boiler has a steam drum, water drum, watertubes, and superheaters.
The furnace is said to be integral within the boiler. This means that the furnace
is totally surrounded by waterwalls, watertube floor and watertube roof.

This arrangement provides a distinctive shape to the boiler, giving the

appearance of a lower case letter d. Hence these boilers are often called D type
boilers.

5.2 Construction of components

We will now look at the construction of each of the major components of a
watertube boiler.

Drums
Early drums were riveted or forged from a single ingot of steel. Modern drums
are all welded.

Materials and construction procedures are laid down by Government

Authorities and Classification Societies, so the finished drums (and in fact, the
complete boiler) can properly withstand the forces set up by internal pressure
and thermal effects. The required thickness of metal is calculated, including
any necessary allowances for loss of strength due to holes cut and also
allowances for corrosion.

Each drum consists of four main parts:

• Tube plate,
• Wrapper plate, and
• 2 end plates.

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Figure 2-8 Steam Drum

The tube plate in large drums is thicker than the wrapper plate to compensate
for the large number of holes needed to accommodate the tubes. The tube plate
edges are tapered down to the wrapper plate and end plate thicknesses. This
minimises stress concentrations at the joins. The drum diameter is such that
there is a constant mean diameter, again to minimise local stress problems.

Figure 2-9 Tapered Tube Plate Of Steam Drum

Since the ends of the drum do not need to be flat, they are dished outwards.
This means that these ends do not need additional support in the form of stay
tubes and stay bars as is the case with the flat ends of a shell boiler.

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Section 2 Main Boilers

Activity 2.5
State why the drum ends of a watertube boiler do not need to be flat while the
end plates of a shell boiler do need to be flat.

Test pieces of drum material are taken and checked to ensure that the drum
material is satisfactory. Plates above 50 mm thick are also subjected to
ultrasonic testing to check that sub-surface defects such as laminations are not
present.

The plates are then cut to the required sizes and bent to the correct curvature.
Smaller thickness plates can be bent or rolled cold, but plate thicknesses above
50 mm necessitate hot bending or rolling. In some cases, it is not possible to
bend the plates up to the extreme edges. One solution to this problem is to
‘pre-set’ the ends of the plates by edge rolling and then rolling the plate as
normal. Another solution is to make the plates wider than necessary, and then
cut to correct width after bending is complete.

Any mill scale and other surface contaminants are removed by sand blasting or
by pickling in acid.

The plate edges are then machined to the correct shape for welding. The tube
and wrapper plates are then assembled ready for welding.

Test pieces, cut from the original plate material, are tacked welded to each end
of the longitudinal weld in such a way that the weld can be continued across
the test pieces during the welding process. Using the test pieces in this manner
achieves two functions. Firstly, the weld will start and stop on the test pieces
and not the drum itself. Secondly, the test pieces are removed from the drum
after welding and specified tests are performed to check that the weld is
satisfactory.

Some form of automatic fusion welding process is used to weld the drum. The
machine moves along the stationary drum in any weld process used.

The longitudinal weld seams so formed, as well as the welded test pieces, are
dressed flush and then subjected to radiographic examination to determine the
presence of harmful defects. Where the plate thickness exceeds 75 mm,
ultrasonic testing of the seams is used to supplement the radiographic
examination.

The cylinder so formed is then checked for circularity, marked off and
machined on its ends for the circumferential seams.

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The drum ends are made from steel plate of the same composition and tensile
strength as the shell plates. The ends are hot pressed to shape under a
hydraulic press. After pressing, the ends are normalised by heat treatment and
machined for welding to the cylinder. The circumferential seams connecting
the dished ends to the tube and wrapper plates are then welded.

When all seam welds have been completed and dressed, a complete
radiographic and/or ultrasonic examination is performed as required by
Authorities. If any defects such as porosity are present, the affected sections
are cut out, re-welded, and re-tested.

The drum is again marked off, the holes cut for drum mountings; branch pipes,
supporting saddles, and other such fittings and components are welded on.
Holes for the watertubes are then drilled. Special drilling machines are used to
ensure the correct alignment of the holes with the tube plate. Stub tubes, if
used, are now welded.

When all machining and welding has been completed, the drum is stress
relieved. Heating the drum to between 580 and 620OC, maintaining this
temperature for a specified time relating to metal thickness, and then cooling at
a specified rate provides this stress relief. Test pieces also undergo the same
stress relieving process before they are cut up to provide the required test
specimens.

When satisfactory test results have been received, all nozzles and branches are
plugged, manhole doors fitted and the drum is prepared for hydraulic pressure
testing. The drum is filled with water and the pressure raised to 1.5 times the
design pressure. The pressure is held for at least 30 minutes and the drum is
inspected for leakages and other defects.

When no stub tubes are to be welded, the tube holes may be drilled after the
hydraulic test has been performed.

Support
The boiler must be supported. Typically this is done by using:
• Fixed and sliding feet;
• Girders and brackets.

Girders and brackets are used to provide support for the boiler drums and other
sub-assemblies such as headers. In some cases a bracket may be spring loaded
to allow for expansion. Concentrated loads are imposed where these supports
are located on the boiler, which must be taken into account and proper
precautions taken.

One end of the water drum is normally provided with a fixed foot which is
secured to the ship structure.

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Section 2 Main Boilers

The other end of the drum has a sliding foot.

Figure 2-10 Boiler Sliding Foot

As the boiler heats up, it will expand. It is important to secure the boiler to the
ship structure, but it is equally important to allow for the relative expansion
between the boiler and the ship structure. The sliding foot has slotted holes in
way of the holding down bolts. These slots allow relative movement between
the boiler foot and the ship structure in one direction only.

Headers
Superheaters, economisers, and waterwalls all use headers. These are normally
made from solid drawn round or square section steel tube. Ends, branches, feet
and casing connections are welded on before stress relief. The header is
hydraulically pressure tested, and then access doors holes and tube holes are
machined and drilled.

Tubes
Tubes can be made from solid drawn steel or can be electric resistance welded.
Some tubes such as downcomers or those made from special steel are not
welded but solid drawn only.

The tubes are bent to shape using jigs, and then fitted to the drums and headers.

Tubes can be:

• expanded and bell mouthed; or
• welded.

Tube expanding or rolling is a process of cold working the end of a tube into
contact with the metal of the drum or header. When a tube is expanded, the
outside diameter, inside diameter, and length increase, while the tube wall
thickness decreases. A correctly expanded tube provided sealing as well as

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strength. Expanding consists of using a special tool to expand the tube into the
tube sheet.

The conventional expander consists of three cylindrical (or semi-cylindrical)

rollers mounted in a frame. The frame has holes at each end to allow a tapered
mandrel to be inserted between the rollers. The mandrel can be hand driven,
hand driven through gearing, or machine driven. As the mandrel is turned, the
rollers rotate and forced out against the tube internal wall. Continued turning
of the mandrel causes the end of the tube to be enlarged and the outer surface
of the tube is pressed against the tube hole. Over-expanding can cause a
deformity of the whole shape, making it less likely that a proper seal will be
effected.

The tube ends can be bell mouthed which improves steam and water flows as
well as provided strength to the joint.

Figure 2-11 Expanding A Boiler Tube

Large diameter tubes may have grooves machined into the tube hole. When
the tube is expanded, tube material expands into these grooves and makes the
joint even stronger.

Figure 2-12 Large Expanded Tube With Grooved Seat

A tube may be welded directly to the drum or header, or it can be welded on to

a stub piece. The advantage of using a stub piece is that the tube is not welded
directly onto the drum or header. The stub pieces are welded on during drum
and header construction and so their welds are stress relieved. The tube to stub
piece weld is easier to perform when many tubes are being fitted (due to
access) and the weld is not quite as critical as when welding directly to a drum
or header.
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Figure 2-13 Welded Boiler Tubes

Welded connections of large tubes are usually checked by radiography on

completion.

Some tubes are finned along their length. They are called monowall or
membrane wall tubes. After these tubes have been fitted to the drums and
headers, the fins are welded, connecting one tube to the other. We will
investigate this type of tube later in this Section.

Superheaters and economiser

The superheaters and economisers are prefabricated as much as possible before
final assembly into the boiler. Their construction is similar to the waterwall
tubes and headers. Support of these components must also be provided,
examples of superheater support are shown in the following figures.

Figure 2-14 Superheater C and T Support Arrangements

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Economiser tubes in low exhaust temperature regions are fitted with cast iron
gills. These are sleeves with extended surfaces which fit over the tube. These
gills increase the heat transfer surface area and they also protect the tube itself
from corrosion due to low temperature acid condensation from the exhaust gas.

Figure 2-15 Cast Iron Gilled Economiser

In the lower part of the exhaust stack, where temperatures are higher and low
temperature corrosion is less of a problem, fingers, plates or other
arrangements are welded onto or formed from the economiser tubes.

Figure 2-16 Welded Steel Fin Economiser

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Access and fittings

Access must be provided for inspection, cleaning and repair of the internal
spaces of the boiler. Thus, personal access doors are made at suitable places in
the drums, normally at the drum ends. Headers, due to their size, are fitted
with handhole doors. As well as providing access to the headers and drums,
these doors give access to the tubes for initial fitting, inspection, cleaning, re-
rolling, and replacement. The holes must be large enough to provide the
necessary access.

Large holes in pressure vessels must be reinforced to compensate for the metal
removed. This reinforcement may be achieved by either forming a flange
around the hole from the shell material or by welding a reinforcing ring to the
shell.

In most cases, access doors are elliptical in shape. The door itself can then be
placed inside the boiler. This allows boiler pressure to keep the door in place
in operation. If the door were placed on the outside of the boiler, boiler
pressure would tend to force the door off the boiler.

Casings
Casings are of two types, single or double.

With single casing boilers, the pressure parts (such as waterwalls) form the
main casing. All that is needed outside this casing is refractory insulation
covered with a lightweight outer casing.

Double casing boilers have two major casings, one outside the other. This
permits the passage of pressurised air between the two casings, which prevents
gas leaks into the engine room and reduces heat energy radiation out of the
boiler. Allowance must be made for expansion of the two casings, and sliding
seals must be fitted.

Refractory and insulation

There are two basic purposes of refractory and insulation:
• To minimise heat energy loss out of the boiler into the engine room;
• To protect particular components from overheating.

Heat energy loss from a boiler is reduced by insulation. This insulation

provides both safety of personnel and improves the boiler thermal efficiency.
Materials that are used most frequently for insulation are mineral wool,
calcium silicate block, high temperature plastic, diatomite blocks, and ceramic
fibre. Lagging is an outer covering, and as well as providing some insulation,
protects the main insulation from water or mechanical damage.

Refractory is insulation in and around the furnace. Refractory is material in

solid form that maintains its shape at high temperatures. Refractory may be
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present as fire bricks, clipped or otherwise secured to the furnace waterwall

tubes.

Another type of refractory is plastic refractory, which consists of plastic clay

mixed with crushed firebrick. This type of refractory can be moulded in
position in areas such as the bottom of the steam drum, top of the water drum,
above furnace floor tubes, and in the higher temperature areas of waterwall
tubes. Mouldable refractory is put in place and then set by applying heat
energy (such as minimum firing rate of the boiler burners), while castable
refractory is plastic refractory which is air drying like concrete.

Some boiler types have waterwall tubes that have numerous studs on their
external surfaces. These studs help to provide keying to the plastic refractory.
This means that the refractory has something more than the tube’s smooth
surface to secure itself to.

Plastic chrome ore is an example of plastic refractory.

Hydraulic testing
Boilers and their components must withstand a hydraulic pressure test without
showing signs of weakness or defect. This test consists of filling the boiler
completely with water, using a pressure gauge that is known to be in good
order, and using a positive displacement pump to raise the pressure within the
boiler.

The hydraulic test of a new boiler may be carried out by either of the following
methods:
1. The completed boiler shall be tested to a pressure of 1.5 times the design
pressure; or
2. Where construction permits, all individual components of the boiler shall
be tested to a pressure of 1.5 times the design pressure. The completed
boiler after assembly shall then be tested to 1.25 times the design pressure.

In either test method, the pressure is held for a minimum specified time period.

5.3 Boiler Materials

Steel used in boiler construction must be of a very high quality, with its
constituents carefully controlled. Remember that the material must withstand
the stresses due to boiler pressure at elevated temperatures. Plain carbon (or
mild) steel is a suitable and economic material to about 450 to 480 degrees
Celsius, depending on pressure. Above this temperature, the strength of this
steel rapidly decreases, and alloy steels must be used. An alloy steel is one
where additional elements are intentionally added during the steel making
process. Several elements are use to produce high temperature alloy steel,
chromium and molybdenum being important examples.
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The quality of the steel is determined by chemical analysis for alloys and
impurities. Carbon content is limited to about 0.28% to ensure optimal
ductility for bending and welding operations. Higher levels of carbon will
cause the steel to harden and crack under the influence of pressure and
temperature.

Minimum quality of steels used is specified in Classification Society Rules.

Generally the boiler manufacturer will used steels specified in National
standards.

Creep
Stress and high temperature changes the steel’s internal structure. One
important change is a small but permanent deformation known as creep. When
a boiler is adequately designed, made from the correct materials, and correctly
operated, this change is too small to be measured over the boiler’s lifetime.
Components such as studs, nuts, and safety valves should be made from creep
resistant materials and should be checked regularly for creep.

Drums and headers

Good quality low carbon steel. The main constituents are:
• 0.28% carbon maximum
• 0.5% manganese
• 0.1% silicon
• remainder ferrite (iron)

Steels with chrome, molybdenum, manganese, and vanadium are increasingly

being used. The increased strength and creep resistance enables less material
to be used. They also give reduced weight, overall cost, machining and
assembly time. They are more difficult to weld and adding these elements
increases the cost of the steel itself.

Superheater tubes
Plain low carbon steel, with about 15% carbon can be used up to about 400OC
steam temperature.

1% chromium, 0.5% molybdenum low carbon steel can be used up to about

480OC steam temperature.

Austenitic stainless steel, with 18% nickel and 8% chrome and niobium, can be
used up to about 590OC steam temperature.

Weld decay
When stainless steel tubes are welded to superheater header stubs, the metal
adjacent to the weld can change in structure. Corrosion protection by the
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chromium in the steel can be lost. This can give a band of corrosion around the
tube known as weld decay. Niobium helps to stabilise the metal against this
problem.

Other boiler tubes

Since these tubes operate at temperatures corresponding to the saturation
temperature of the water, they are generally made from plain low carbon steel.

Uncooled superheater element supports and baffles

These components must have resistance to creep and corrosion. Alloys of
nickel and chromium containing high proportions of these materials are
suitable.

5.4 Boiler Water Tube Arrangements

Bent tube design
Earlier watertube boiler designs used straight tubes connecting to headers.
This was a simple arrangement but limited design potential. An improvement
was to use tubes bent to various radii.

Generating tubes
These are numerous small diameter tubes placed in the main flow of hot gases.
They provide a large heat exchange process, steam generation is mainly by
convection.

The number of generating tubes in modern boilers tends to be reduced. Some

boilers have no generating tubes, evolving steam in the waterwalls and screen
tubes only.

Screen tubes
These are tubes in the furnace region, and their special function, apart from
acting as risers and downcomers in steam generation, are to protect the
superheater tubes from the direct radiant heat of the furnace flame.

Due to their location and purpose, screen tubes have a larger diameter
compared to waterwall tubes in order to prevent them from overheating.

Waterwall tubes
These tubes form the walls of the furnace. They are the principle steam
generating section of a modern boiler.

Riser or return tubes

These tubes return steam bubbles and water from the top waterwall headers to
the steam drum.
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Improving waterwall arrangements

Watertube boilers have suffered many problems with furnace refractory
material. Two arrangements which minimise these problems by minimising
the amount of refractory insulating the tube from the furnace flame are the:
• Tangent tube/close pitch tube;
• Membrane tube/monowall tube.

The tangent tube arrangement has tubes placed very close together (hence the
term close pitch). These tubes are backed with high temperature insulation,
low temperature insulation and the boiler casing. Boilers with this tube
arrangement will have double casings.

Figure 2-17 Tangent Tube Arrangement

The double casing arrangement has an air passage which provides preheating
for combustion air. Other features of this arrangement are:
• Amount of refractory reduced
• The boiler is gas tight
• It increase the overall boiler size
• Expansion joints in the casing are necessary
• Access to refractory is impaired and so repairs can be difficult.

The membrane tube arrangement has tubes which have a steel strip welded
between them to form a completely gas tight enclosure.

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Figure 2-18 Membrane Tube Arrangement

This arrangement eliminates much of the high temperature insulation

previously needed. The reduction in insulation:
• Reduces cost (since there is less refractory used)
• Reduces refractory maintenance
• Reduces boiler weight.

The membrane wall also makes the boiler gas tight - giving no leakage of gases
- without the need for a double casing, which also means that the encased
boiler will be slightly smaller.

Repairs to damaged membrane wall tubes, however, are more difficult to

effect.

With both tangent tube and membrane walls arrangements, some refractory
will be used to protect tubes in very high temperature areas of the furnace.

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6. Boiler Types
There are many different types of watertube boilers. Development of marine
watertube boiler design has been minimal since the late 1960’s, at least for
main propulsion purposes. This sub-section provides examples of typical
boilers used for main propulsion giving salient points for each design.

6.1 Babcock & Wilcox integral furnace

Figure 2-19 Babcock & Wilcox Integral Furnace Boiler

Important features
• Two drums and water wall headers.
• Bent tube construction of waterwalls enclosing furnace.
• External downcomers connect steam drum to water drum and waterwall
headers.
• Refractories cooled by waterwalls - plastic chrome ore on stud tubes.
• Superheater protected from radiant heat by screen tubes, and supported by
water-cooled support tubes.
• The superheated steam temperature is controllable within certain limits by
fitting an attemperator, and a desuperheater can be fitted for auxiliary
purposes.
• Main generating bank of small tubes after superheater.
• Mud drum on waterwall.

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6.2 Babcock & Wilcox selectable superheat

Figure 2-20 Babcock & Wilcox Selectable Superheat Boiler

Important features
• Two drums and water wall headers.
• Bent tube construction of waterwalls enclosing furnace.
• External downcomers connect steam drum to water drum and waterwall
headers.
• Plastic chrome ore on stud tubes from baffles.
• ‘W’ shape superheater tubes run only half the length of the furnace,
superheater protected from radiant heat by screen tubes, and supported by
water-cooled support tubes.
• The other half-length of the furnace has generating tubes after the screen
tubes.
• Superheat temperature control is by regulating gas flow by dampers, the
dampers being in a relatively cool area.
• Mud drum on waterwall.

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6.3 Babcock & Wilcox marine radiant (MR)

Figure 2-21 Babcock & Wilcox Marine Radiant Boiler

Important features
• Two drums and water wall headers.
• Improvement in many features of feed supply and boiler systems improved
the efficiency of the boiler such that the required amount of boiler heating
surface was reduced. This meant that less convective heating surfaces are
present in this more modern boiler.
• Membrane waterwall arrangement, with no generating tubes.
• Downcomers connecting steam drum to lower headers.
• 2-stage superheater protected from radiant heat by screen tubes, and
supported by water-cooled support tubes.
• Superheated steam temperature controlled by attemperator.
• Roof fired burners for improved combustion efficiency.
• Bled steam combustion air heater.
• Minimum of refractory used.
• Boiler tubes welded to drums and headers.

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6.4 Foster Wheeler ESD 1

The Foster Wheeler Company was acquired by Senior Thermal Engineering in
1988, but this company is still constructing Foster Wheeler designs.

Many of the salient features of all three Foster Wheeler designs investigated in
the Section are the same. Thus, the ESD 1 boiler will be described, and the
ESD 2 and ESD 3 boilers will be compared to the ESD 1. ESD stands for
External Superheater D type. External indicates that the superheater is sited
external to the furnace.

Figure 2-22 Foster Wheeler ESD I Boiler

Important features
• Two drums and water wall headers.
• Bent tube construction of waterwalls enclosing furnace.
• External downcomers connect steam drum to water drum, the waterwall
headers being supplied by the floor tubes.
• Refractories cooled by waterwalls - tangent wall construction over
firebrick.
• Double casing enclosing boiler.

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• 2-stage superheater protected from radiant heat by screen tubes, and

supported by water-cooled support tubes.
• Superheated steam temperature is controlled within limits by passing some
or all of the superheated steam through an air-cooled attemperator placed in
the circuit between the primary and secondary superheaters.

6.5 Foster Wheeler ESD 2

Figure 2-23 Foster Wheeler ESD II Boiler

Important features (compared to ESD 1)

• Developed to overcome limitations and problems associated with the ESD
1.
• Control of superheated steam temperature is not achieved by air
attemperation. Basically, air as a cooling medium was found to be
inadequate for attemperation purposes.
• Superheated steam temperature controlled by diverting combustion gas
path. This is achieved by using linked dampers after the primary
superheater, before the main economiser bank. If superheated steam
temperature is too great, the gas flow through the primary superheater is
reduced (thus there will be less heat energy input to the steam).

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• The diverted gas passes through a control unit. This is an additional

economiser section placed in parallel to the primary superheater.

6.6 Foster Wheeler ESD 3

Figure 2-24 Foster Wheeler ESD III Boiler

Important features (compared to ESD 1 and 2)

• Developed to overcome limitations and problems associated with the ESD
2, as well as incorporating new design concepts.
• Roof fired furnace.
• External downcomers from the steam drum supply water drum and front
and rear waterwall headers, the sidewall and roof being supplied by floor
tubes.
• Side waterwalls and roof tubes tangent tube arrangement over refractory,
but the screen tubes are of monowall construction.
• 2 stage superheater. The primary superheater (and the economiser) are
arranged to give counter flow of gas and steam (water in the case of the
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economiser). This gives more efficient heat transfer. The secondary

superheater, sited in a hotter gas zone and having higher temperature
steam, is arranged to give parallel flow. This means that the incoming
steam is fed to the bottom of this superheater stage, where the hottest gases
are. Even though this is less efficient than counter flow heat exchange, it
maximises the cooling of the very hot superheater tubes in this region.
Simply, parallel flow helps to protect the secondary superheater tubes from
overheating.
• Superheated steam temperature control is achieved by two linked valves;
one in the steam line leading to a water cooled attemperator in the steam
drum, the other in a bypass line leading directly to the secondary
superheater inlet header.
• Later ESD 3 models no longer used tangent wall arrangement around the
furnace, but used the membrane wall arrangement. This means that these
boilers were now single cased.
• A desuperheater placed in the water drum was used to provide saturated
steam for auxiliary purposes from the superheated steam.

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7. Internal Fittings
The steam drum of a boiler is not the empty space that one may think; it is
filled with many components.

The major fittings within a steam drum are:

• Feed pipe;
• Attemperator;
• Dry steam pipe;
• Baffles;
• Other steam separators.

Figure 2-25 Steam Drum Internals

Feed pipe
Feed water enters the boiler through feed pipe. This is a perforated pipe
running the length of the steam drum. It has a two-fold purpose. Firstly, it
distributes the feed water along the steam drum to ensure that all downcomer
tubes are fed with water and so not be starved of water. Secondly, by evenly
distributing the relatively cold feed water, it prevents there being a cold area in
one part of the drum, so minimising thermal problems.

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Attemperator
An attemperator in the steam drum is a common device used in main boilers to
control superheated steam temperature. It consists of a bundle of U-shaped
tubes. This feature allows the attemperator to expand and contract as the steam
flow through it changes, without needing other, more difficult, expansion
arrangements between it and the steam drum.

Dry steam pipe

The contents of the steam drum are not a quiescent body of water with an
atmosphere of dry saturated steam above it. In reality, the contents are a turgid
mass of steam and water, mixing and bubbling in a complex environment. The
dry steam pipe is a perforated pipe through which the steam passes as it leaves
the drum. Its purpose is to minimise the amount of water which is carried over
in the steam discharge. Remember that the steam leaving the boiler is meant to
be dry saturated.

Baffles
These components are used to direct the steam and water flows. They are used
to:
• Improve steam and water circulation within the boiler;
• Separate the steam and water at the water level, so that above the baffle
there is steam, while above it there is water;
• Prevent water being carried over with the steam discharge.

Other steam separators

Even with a dry steam pipe and baffles, wet steam can still leave the drum.
Other components can be used to ensure dry saturated steam. Different types
are used, but they all generally use one method of separating the water from the
steam. This method is to provide a torturous path for the steam and water
mixture. As the steam and water pass through the separator, centrifugal force
is used to separate the water from the steam (due to the greater density of the
water).

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Figure 2-26 Steam separator

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8. Steam to Steam Generation

Steam to steam generators are used to provide dry saturated, low pressure
steam for auxiliary purposes. This means that a desuperheater and main steam
reducing valves are not required.

The steam to steam generator is effectively a low pressure boiler made of

carbon steel. The heat energy source is not a flame but main boiler steam. The
main steam does not mix with the feed to the generator, but is contained within
heating coils in the form of U-tubes( to allow for relative expansion).

The generator is fitted with the usual boiler mountings such as safety valves,
gauge glasses, level controllers, scum and blowdown lines. An internal dry
pipe and baffle arrangement is also present.

Figure 2-27 Steam To Steam Generator

The main advantages of steam to steam generation are:

• Untreated feed water can be used, or al least the level of water treatment is
reduced compared to main feed.
• Main feed make up is reduced. Auxiliary steam use increases the amount
of steam and water loss from the system. This is due to leaks and
intentional consumption of steam. Since main and auxiliary steam systems
are separate, make up feed water to the main boiler does not have to cope
with the losses from the auxiliary system.
• Reduced main boiler maintenance.
• Auxiliary system contaminants do not enter the main boiler. Auxiliary
steam is used for such purposes are fuel oil heating. If a leak occurred
between the steam system and the fuel, oil could contaminate the system.
Oil in boilers is undesirable to say the least, as it coats the internal boiler
surfaces and acts as an insulating layer. This reduces heat transfer and

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impairs efficiency, as well as posing serious overheating problems for a

fired boiler. Any such contamination of a steam to steam generator stops
oil entering the main boiler. If efficiency is impaired, it is only the
efficiency of the generator and not the main boiler. Also, since the
generator uses steam as the heating source, there is no danger of failure by
overheating.

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9. Common Boiler Defects & their

Repair
The causes of boiler defects can be placed into five major groups:
• Faulty initial design. For example, if waterwall tubes are too close to the
boiler flame and are not insulated, they will overheat.
• Wastage, internal and external. This is due to corrosion and erosion, and
means that there is loss of metal from the boiler and so a reduction in
strength.
• Effects of overheating.
• Combined effect of mechanical action and corrosion.
• Faulty combustion.

These causes can be related. For example, faulty combustion can cause
overheating or make additional deposits on superheater tubes.

The human factor in boiler defects is quite large. Poor operation procedures
and poor maintenance of the boiler and its systems will cause defects. Poor
inspection may also allow the defect to become so large that a major accident
could occur and/or a totally new boiler may be required.

9.1 General procedure for rectifying a defect

The following procedure lists the general actions that should be taken
upon identifying a defect (this procedure assumes that the boiler is shut
down):
• Identify the extent of the defect. For example, if one tube has
overheated and failed, check for others.
• Identify the impact or consequences of the defect. Is the boiler safe
to operate?
• Identify the reasons for the defect. Did the tube fail by overheating
due to loss of boiler water or did it fail by corrosion due to poor water
treatment?
• Determine if an immediate repair is required before the boiler may
be operated again, or if repairs can be effected at a later date.
• Determine if repair or replacement is the best option.

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• Decide if a temporary repair or permanent repair is required at the

present time. A burst tube can be plugged and replaced at a later date.
• Make the repair.
• Stop the defect from re-occurring (if possible).
• Make permanent repair when possible (if a temporary repair was
made).

This procedure will not necessarily be followed in the sequence given, this
depends on the actual defect identified and other factors (such as if the vessel is
in port or at sea).

Depending on the defect, non-ship personnel may need to be contacted,

consulted, and/or employed. These may include:
• Ship’s Engineering Superintendent or other Company representative.
• Statutory Authority and Classification Society personnel.
• Boiler manufacturer.
• Repair specialists.
• Suitably qualified repair technicians (such as certified welders).

9.2 Refractory repair

Refractory defects include:
• Spalling
• Cracking
• Slag attack
• Oil contamination

Spalling is the loss of refractory material from the hot surface. Cracking is as
the name suggests. Slag attack is a chemical reaction between the ash in the
fuel and the refractory. Oil contamination is due to unburnt fuel leaking into
the furnace and soaking into the refractory.

Depending on the type of refractory and defect, repairs include:

• Replacement of defective refractory with similar material.
• Replacement of defective refractory with different material.
• Clean up the defective area and temporarily using plastic refractory to
cover it.

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It is important to repair damaged refractory before the boiler pressure

parts affected by the defect themselves become defective.

9.3 Corrosion and other thinning of drums,

headers, and tubes
It is very important to ascertain the degree of these defects. If they are noticed
in the early stage, the cause of the problem can be addressed and no actual
repair of the small defect is required, apart from regular inspection to check
that the problem has been addressed and the defect is not getting worse.

In some cases, the defect can be built up by welding. An example of this is

eroded baffle plates in superheater steam headers. These plates direct the
steam through the superheater tubes. Small diameter holes at the bottom of
these baffles allow drainage of water when the boiler is cold. If the baffle
becomes eroded, the steam will short circuit (not flow through certain tubes)
and the tube may overheat and fail. Building up by welding provides an
acceptable repair.

If these problems are allowed to build up, the only effective solution is to
replace the defective component or at least that part of the component which is
defective. This could involve large costs if, for example, the steam drum is
heavily corroded or many tubes have thinned so much that they must be
renewed.

9.4 Cracking due to thermal or mechanical

stresses
Weld repairs of cracks in certain low stress areas may be allowed, but other
cracks such as thermal stress cracks on the underside of a steam drum require
replacement of the defective component.

9.5 Burst tubes

A burst tube will require replacement at some point. However there are times
when it is desired to operate the boiler.

A temporary repair in these situations is to plug the tube at both ends.

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Figure 2-28 Plugging Defective Tube - inserting plug

The plug is inserted through the handhole door in the header. It is pulled into
position using the string attached to the end of the plug.

Figure 2-29 Plugging Defective Tube - plug in place

The bridge piece and nut hold the plug in place until the boiler is under
pressure. Once the plugs are in place and the boiler is operational, boiler
pressure will keep the plugs in place. Boiler manufacturers can supply
specially designed plugs for such occurrences. With some types of plugs, the
tube will need to have access holes cut in it at the tube ends.

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Other plugging methods involve cutting the tube near the header and fitting
plugging caps to seal the tube ends.

Another methods to effect a temporary repair is to prepare the area around the
burst site, weld a plate cut from an oversize tube over the hole, and cover the
area with plastic refractory. It is important that this repair is insulated, even
with a membrane tube, as the extra thickness of the patch will impair heat
transfer and cause overheating.

A plugged tube, depending on its location and type, may require vent hols cut
into it and/or covering with plastic refractory. In some cases, the plugged tube
may be allowed to burnt out.

In some cases, the complete defective tube may not need to be replaced. The
defective portion of the tube is cut out, and a new tube portion is inserted.

9.6 Leaking tube ends

If tube ends at headers or drums are leaking, expanded tubes can be re-rolled
with expanding equipment. Unless care is taken however, the repair could
make the leak worse.

Another solution is to seal the tube by welding.

9.7 Defective doors

Defective doors and their seating surfaces will be evident as steam leaks. If the
problem is detected early enough, the repair may be to shut the boiler down,
replace the defective joint and ensure that the door is centralised when
replacing it.

Some boiler types have special covers which can be placed over defective
handhole doors to minimise the leak. However, this stops water loss without
stopping the defect, and at best is only a temporary repair until the ship arrives
in port.

If the door seating is damage by the erosive action of the steam leak, the
surface can be built up by welding and then grinding to shape with special
equipment. If the damage is minimal, just grinding back to a flat surface may
suffice.

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9.8 Notes on weld repairs, including testing

For any welding of the pressure parts of the boiler, there are set requirements
which must be followed. These requirements include specifications for:
• Material requirements
• Welder qualifications
• Welding procedures
• Heat treatment before and after welding
• Non-destructive testing required.

Welding techniques and procedures can be supplied by the boiler manufacturer

(which must meet the approval of regulatory bodies). The welding is
performed by qualified welders who have passed the required code testing.
The use of post-weld heat treatment is required to relieve residual stresses that
are created in the welding process.

Non-destructive testing of the weld may involve radiographic testing (X-

ray or gamma ray testing). These rays are harmful to personnel so access
to the engine room while testing is being conducted must be restricted.
Only necessary personnel, suitably protected should be allowed into the
space.

Depending on the scale of the repair, the boiler will be subject to a hydraulic
test.

Welding without stress relieving and non-destructive testing is restricted to use

on items such as door seats where it is not required to strengthen the pressure
parts of the boiler.

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Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt about the reasons for using watertube boilers to
provide main propulsion. You have also learnt about their basic principles,
circulation, construction, and been introduced to examples of such boilers.
Typical defects and their repair have also been given. You should now refer to
the learning outcome and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this
section and ask yourself if you can:

• identify the advantages of watertube boilers over shell boilers for main
propulsion purposes;
• describe types of main boilers used at sea;
• describe the basic construction, and materials of construction, of main
boilers;
• explain the steam, water, and gas circulation paths within a running main
boiler, giving typical operating parameters;
• discuss the methods used to create superheated steam;
• explain why superheated steam temperature needs to be controlled, and
explain the methods how this is achieved;
• explain how and why steam to steam generators are used;
• describe the internal fittings of watertube boilers, illustrating their location
within the boilers, and explain the reasons they are fitted and how they
function; and
• list common defects of a main boiler, and state how these may be repaired,
including any test procedures after repair.

If you have answered “no” to the above question, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 2
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.

1. Describe why watertube boilers were developed for main propulsion

purposes.
2. List and describe three advantages and three disadvantages of watertube
boilers compared to shell boilers.
3. Briefly explain why shell boilers are not used for steam pressures above
approximately 21 bar.

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4. Make a simple sketch of a water tube boiler, identifying its main

components, and indicate steam, water, and combustion gas paths.
5. Identify why it is necessary to use external unheated downcomers for high
pressure watertube boilers.
6. State a typical composition of a shell boiler material.
7. With the aid of a sketch, describe the monowall construction of watertube
boiler water walls.
8. Identify the basic reason for controlling superheated steam temperature in a
modern boiler.
9. List five (5) main boiler defects, giving an example of repair for each
defect.

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Section 3

Boiler Combustion

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Section Contents Page

Section 3: Boiler Combustion

Learning Outcome 3 87

Assessment Criteria 87

Conditions 87

Section Introduction 88

1. Combustion 89

2. Fuel Oil System 92

3. Burner Arrangements 97

4. Safety 104

5. Combustion Air 107

6. Products of Combustion & Their

Effects 111

7. Automatic Combustion Control 114

Section Summary 117

Progress Check 3 117

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Learning Outcome 3
On completion of this section you will be able to explain how combustion
occurs in a main boiler, and note safety precautions which must be undertaken.

Assessment Criteria
3.1. Principles of combustion are established.
3.2. A typical fuel system, including components and safety
arrangements, for a main boiler is discussed.
3.3. Different types of main boiler burner arrangements are
discussed, noting their relative advantages and disadvantages.
3.4. Problems that fuel combustion products cause within a boiler
and uptakes are discussed, and how these problems may be
catered for are explained.
3.5. The importance of purging a boiler prior to light-off, and other
safety precautions are identified.
3.6. The construction and operation of forced and induced draft
fans are described.
3.7. Automatic combustion control for a main boiler is explained.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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Section Introduction
Combustion is the burning of fuel in air in order to release the fuel’s stored
energy. This energy is used to heat feed water, convert water into steam, and
superheat the steam. Fuel and air must be admitted in correct proportions and
rates to provide the required heat energy transfer efficiently and safely.

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1. Combustion
1.1 Principles
Fuel oil consists of molecules of hydrogen and carbon, called hydrocarbons.
Air contains oxygen, and when fuel and air combust, these atoms and
molecules react. Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water, while carbon
and oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide. If combustion is incomplete,
carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon monoxide.

Liquid fuel oil must be converted into a vapour before it can burn. The furnace
heat energy does this, but the firing equipment puts the fuel into a condition the
make the best use of this furnace heat. To do this, the firing equipment must
break the fuel up into many small particles, which exposes as much surface
area as possible. This is fuel atomisation.

We may explain atomisation as follows:

Consider a sphere of oil fuel, the addition of heat energy causes the outer layer
of oil to vapourise, which then burns. The next layer of oil fuel is then
exposed, which then vapourises and burns, and so on. The effect is like
peeling an onion, layer by layer.

Smaller oil droplets, while having the same combined volume as one large
droplet, have much more surface area exposed, which gives faster and
better burning.

Atomisation normally occurs at the oil burner. Liquid oil enters the burner and
leaves as a hollow, rotating cone of fine oil droplets.

It is important that the oil is supplied to the burner at correct pressure,

temperature and viscosity. If this is not the case, combustion will be
impaired leading to a loss of efficiency, soot deposits, or overheating.

Air used in combustion is generally pre-heated (to temperatures of about 100 to

120OC). This improves combustion by reducing the chilling effect cool air has
on the flame. Pre-heating the air also reduces the thermal stress of cold air on
the hot boiler parts.

1.2 The Flame

The process of combustion can be explained as a mixture of combustible gas or
vapour and air undergoing a rapid, but controlled, chemical reaction.

The flame produced is commonly called a suspended flame. With this flame,
the stream of oil and air enters the combustion zone at the same rate as the

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products of combustion leaving it. In other words, the flame front is stationary.
This flame is stable and properly formed yet it doesn’t come into contact in any
way with the burner register components or with the refractory (insulation)
forming the throat of the burner register.

Figure 3-1 The Flame

Even though most of released heat energy is used to generate and superheat
steam; some heat energy is needed to maintain combustion.

To start combustion (ignition), an external heat source such as an electric spark

or a naked flame is applied to the oil spray. Once started, the flame
temperature must be maintained or else combustion will cease. Cooling of the
flame can be due to:
• oil temperature dropping
• combustion air too cold
• air flow too great
• incorrect setting of combustion equipment, causing an unstable flame.

Once ignited, the lighter fuel elements burn first as a primary flame, and
provide heat energy to burn the heavier elements in the secondary flame. It is
the secondary flame which provides the major source of heat energy for steam
generation.

1.3 Air/fuel Ratio and Combustion

The theoretical proportions of air and fuel which need to be mixed for
complete combustion is known as the stoichiometric mixture or stoichiometric

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air/fuel ratio. To ensure that combustion will be complete, more air than the
stoichiometric amount is used. This is called excess air. The amount of excess
used depends on various factors such as fuel properties and boiler design, but is
normally in the range of 5 to 20 % (modern boilers using as little excess air as
possible).

Too much excess air will give inefficient combustion, and flame instability. It
also increases the amount of acid which may be present in the exhaust gas.
Too little excess air leads to incomplete combustion and increased deposits in
exhaust gas passages.

Good combustion gives the best possible heat energy release and the minimum
amount of deposits.

Too much air gives a bright, white flame which may have white flecks
within it. Exhaust gas will be an opaque, white colour.

Insufficient air gives a dark orange flame with black smoke. The
blackness of the gases is due to the presence of unburnt carbon particles.

Correct air gives a bright orange or straw coloured flame. Exhaust gas
will be a light grey to brown haze.

1.4 Other Factors Affecting Combustion

Water in oil will affect combustion. Small amounts of water may cause
corrosion in the fuel system. Greater amounts of water can lead to flame
instability, and can lead to burner flame out. Flame out can be due to
excessive cooling of the flame or there may be so much water that there is an
absence of fuel issuing from the burner.

If the oil temperature is too low, it won’t atomise properly, so there may be
overheating, flame impingement or refractory failure. If the oil temperature is
too high, the burner tip overheats and there may be carbon deposits at the tip.
Overheated fuel causes cracking which causes carbon deposits, and it may
cause the fuel to vapourise in the lines. Vapour has a larger volume than
liquid, so the mass of oil being burnt diminishes, and the boiler output drops.
Vapourised fuel in fuel lines also causes instability of combustion, resulting in
an unstable or fluctuating flame.

The modern boiler is roof fired, where the burners and air registers are
mounted in the roof of the boiler furnace. This allows for a longer flame,
which gives more time for the fuel to burn completely and supply energy to the
waterwall tubes of the furnace, and improves the boiler thermal efficiency.

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2. Fuel Oil System

Many main boilers use low grade fuel oil for combustion. The exact
arrangement of the fuel oil system of a steam ship will vary, but a typical fuel
oil system is shown in figure 3-2.

Figure 3-2 Fuel Oil System

Bunker tanks (not shown)

Fuel is stored initially in double bottom and other bunker tanks in the ship’s
hull. These tanks will have heating coils to heat the fuel sufficiently for
transferring to the settling tanks.

Settling tanks
A positive displacement transfer pump delivers fuel to the settling tanks. It is
usual to have two settling tanks on board. Heating coils in the settling tank
begin the process of fuel oil heating for combustion. For safety reasons, the
fuel oil is not permitted to become very hot, but some degree of heating will
help the separation of oil and water. The water will settle out from the oil and
fall to the bottom of the tank, where it is drained regularly.

Each tank will generally be large enough to provide enough fuel for at least the
UMS period of steaming. The tanks are used alternately, so one tank is in use
while the other is kept full.

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Activity 3.1
Identify two reasons why the main fuel settling tanks are used alternately.

A typical arrangement of a settling tank is shown in figure 3-3.

Figure 3-3 Fuel Oil Settling Tank

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Main features of the settling tank are:

• Sloping bottom, to allow collection of sludge and water for removal.
• Spring loaded drain valve. This valve is operated manually, water and
sludge draining to a sludge tank. It is spring loaded so that it will only be
open while the engineer is operating it, and cannot be left open accidentally
or open through vibration.
• Steam heating coils. The drains from these heating coils are led back to an
observation tank, so that if the coils are leaky the contaminating oil will be
noticed before the condensate is returned back to the main feed system.
Some ships use heating steam from a steam to steam generator to eliminate
the possibility of oil contamination of the boiler water.
• Local temperature gauge. It is important that the temperature of the
settling tank is known. Some tanks may also have remote sensing of fuel
temperature.
• Filling valve. The tank is filled through this valve, which is connected to
the fuel transfer system.
• Quick closing valve. Oil flows to the rest of the fuel system through this
valve. It is a quick closing or remote actuating valve. In the event of a fire,
this valve can be remotely closed from a fire control station, so removing a
possible fuel supply from the fire. These valves are sometimes known as
Instanta valves, after a particular manufacturer’s product.
• Local and remote level indication. There will be means of determining
tank level, both locally (using a gauge on the side of the tank), and
remotely. A sounding connection, fitted at the top of the tank, will allow
tank level to be determined by a weighted sounding tape. This sounding
connection will have a screw-on cap and a weighted cock, to minimise the
possibility of leakage or contamination through a left open valve.
• Air vent. The vent will have a goose-neck arrangement to stop water
entering it. There will also be a gauze flame trap fitted at the end of the
vent to stop any flame from propagating, should a fire be present.
• Overflow. An overflow line to a dedicated overflow tank and a high level
float alarm minimise the possibility of oil spill occurring during fuel
transfer.
• Manhole door. A bolted door is used to provide access inside the tank for
inspection, cleaning, and repair of the tank internals.

It is dangerous practice to set automatically or remote closing valves so

that they remain open.

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Cold filters
The oil from the settling tank is filtered through a coarse filter. At this stage,
the oil is still relatively cold and viscous, so the filter cannot be too fine. The
filter is present to protect the supply pump, the next component in the system,
from damage. Two filters are arranged (duplex), which means that there are
two filters in parallel, one in use and the other on standby.

Booster or supply pumps

Two positive displacement pumps raise oil to the necessary pressure for use in
the burners. Only one pump is normally in use, the other pump providing
redundancy. Since they are positive displacement, these pumps each have a
spring loaded relief valve to guard against overpressure. Pressure gauges will
also be fitted to indicate discharge and suction pressures. It is possible to stop
these pumps remotely from a fire control station in the event of an emergency
such as fire.

Steam Heaters
These raise the fuel oil temperature, making the oil easier to filter and also
lowering its viscosity to provide good flow and atomisation in the burners.
The condensate drains from these heaters will again lead to an observation
tank.

The temperature to which the fuel is heated is normally between 90OC and
130OC, depending on the oil used and steaming conditions. A temperature
gauge will be fitted for local temperature monitoring, but control will normally
be automatic. It is essential that the oil is not heated more than is necessary to
provide the correct viscosity for correct atomisation. If oil temperature is
raised too high, there is the danger of the oil cracking and leaving deposits in
the heater tubes.

Hot filters
Since the oil is now hot and much less viscous, it is possible to use a fine
degree of filtration. This minimises wear and blockage of the fuel oil burners.
These filters will contain hot fuel oil, and so must be treated with care,
especially when cleaning. Some filters can be cleaned by turning an external
handle, so avoiding the danger of hot oil escaping when removing dirty
cartridges.

Pressure control
Varying oil pressure controls the throughput of many fuel oil burners. There
will therefore be a pressure control valve in the fuel oil system close to the
burners.

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Burners
We will investigate fuel oil burners further in the next sub-section. For the
present it is only important to mention that the fuel oil line to each individual
burner has a manual quick shut off valve.

Recirculation
A circulating valve is used when starting the system, to enable initial heating of
the oil. When the system and oil is heated sufficiently, the circulation valve is
shut.

Diesel oil
A supply of diesel oil may be available to the burners for initial firing of the
boiler.

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3. Burner Arrangements
There are various types fuel oil burners used for main boilers, each boiler
having multiple (three or four) burners and air registers.

All burners attempt to fulfil the following basic purposes.

Purposes of a fuel oil burner include:

• Present the oil as a hollow rotating cone of fine oil droplets for good
combustion;
• Provide an acceptable range of fuel oil flow rates for normal
operation;
• Provide good combustion through the normal operating range.

3.1 Turn Down Ratio

The degree to which the flow of oil through the burner (throughput) can be
altered is known as the turn down ratio (TDR). This is the difference between
the maximum and minimum mass flow rates of the fuel through the burner.
This gives a value for the difference between the maximum and minimum heat
energy release rates of the boiler.
maximum throughput
TDR =
minimum throughput

A high turn down ratio is good, since this means that there is a wide range of
steam production rates for the boiler. A low turn down ratio is undesirable,
since this means that the range of steam production rates is limited.

Activity 3.2
Some boilers use burners with low turn down ratios. How can the turn down
ratio for the whole boiler be improved?

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3.2 Simple Pressure Jet Burner

Figure 3-4 Simple Pressure Jet Burner Body

Figure 3-5 Simple Pressure Jet Burner Tip

The basic assembly is a steel tube or barrel to which is attached swirl and/or
nozzle/orifice plates. A cap secures these components at the burner tip. Oil
pressure forces the oil through fine holes. This, combined with the swirling
action of the oil as it passes through chambers in the burner tip, provides the
necessary atomisation.

Therefore, energy for atomisation comes from the pressure energy of the oil
itself. For a simple pressure jet burner the turn down ratio can be modified to
be:

maximum burner pressure

TDR =
minimum burner pressure

With a simple pressure jet burner then, varying the supply oil pressure controls
the burner throughput.

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For efficient atomisation, there is a minimum oil pressure which can be used.
Below this, atomisation will not be complete and so combustion will be
adversely affected.

A typical turn down ratio for a pressure jet burner is 3:1. To increase the turn
down ratio of boilers fitted with pressure jet burners, the number of burners is
increased. The turn down ratio for the boiler is then the turn down ratio of
each burner times the number of burners.

The advantages of the simple pressure jet burner are:

• Simple;
• Inexpensive;
• Robust.
• No moving parts;
• No major alteration in air register arrangement for all outputs (due to the
low TDR).

The disadvantages of the simple pressure jet burner are:

• Poor turn down ratio (approximately 3:1);
• The pressure change (which gives throughput change) also gives a change
in the effectiveness of atomisation and combustion.

When changing between diesel and residual fuel oils, the burner tip must be
changed. Also, when lighting off, a special low throughput burner tip must be
fitted. Once steam has been raised, this flash off tip, as it is called, needs to be
changed. This means that there can be a lot of manual fitting and removal of
burners as the boiler operation changes.

Fixed swirl vanes may be mounted in a ring around the burner tip. These
vanes guide combustion air into the oil spray, provide mixing of the air and
fuel, and improve flame stability.

3.3 Steam Assisted Pressure Jet Burner

This type of burner uses steam to improve atomisation of the fuel.

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Figure 3-6 Steam Assisted Pressure Jet Burner Tip

Oil is atomised by spraying it into the path of a high velocity jet of steam. The
burner shown in figure 3-6 has steam flowing through a central passage. The
steam then flows through a skewed convergent/divergent nozzle. This gives a
high velocity jet of steam. Oil is delivered to the nozzle throat, is entrained
into the steam jet, is torn to shreds and so atomised.

Maximum oil pressure may be around 22 bar, with desuperheated steam

supplied at 10 to 12 bar. A steam control valve may be fitted to reduce the
steam pressure at low loads.

Thus energy of steam is used to aid the oil pressure energy in atomising the
fuel. Hence the term steam assisted pressure jet burner. It is also known as a
steam blast jet burner.

Sufficient combustion air is entrained by the high velocity steam, so there is

less need for swirl vanes as used with simple pressure jet burners; some
designs do not have these guide vanes fitted.

The advantages of the steam assisted pressure jet burner are:

• Turn down ratio improved to about 20:1;
• Atomisation throughout the throughput range is excellent. At low
throughputs of a simple pressure jet burner, atomisation is poor, giving
larger oil droplets. This does not occur with a steam assisted pressure jet
burner.
• A smaller amount of excess air is required, thereby improving boiler
efficiency.
• Combustion side deposits are reduced. Soot-blowing and water washing of
combustion side surfaces need not be carried out as frequently.

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• With improved combustion and turn down ratio, refractory problems are
reduced.

The disadvantages of the steam assisted pressure jet burner are:

• Steam is consumed. This means that water and fuel are lost in providing
this steam. In later types of this burner, steam consumption is small, being
less than 1% of oil consumption at peak loads;
• More complex burner;
• Only suitable for larger boilers.

Steam for atomisation is only used when burning heavy fuel oil. When
diesel fuel is used (such as during initial flash up) steam is not used.

At high burner throughputs, some combustion systems using steam assisted

pressure jet burners may shut off steam atomising, making the burner act as a
simple pressure jet burner.

Activity 3.3
1. Why is atomisation of a simple pressure jet burner impaired at low burner
throughputs?

2. Why is it possible to shut off atomising steam (depending on the design of

the combustion system) when the burner is at high throughput?

3.5 Air Register

All burners, no matter what type, are fitted in an air register. This is a
collection of flaps, vanes, refractory, cocks, igniters, and other components
which surround the burner.

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Figure 3-7 Air Register

The register provides an entry section through which combustion air is

admitted. Air shut off is achieved by means of a sliding sleeve so that air is
only admitted to each register when necessary. Some registers are arranged
such that the burner assembly and sliding sleeve are in the one unit. When not
in use, the complete burner assembly is withdrawn from the furnace, shutting
off air and protecting the burner from radiant heat of the furnace.

Another purpose of the air register is to create air flow patterns to ensure good
mixing of the air and fuel.

The air registers will all be closed when the boiler is shut down. This stops
thermal stress of boiler metal and refractory due to a natural draft of relatively
cold air through the boiler.

The windbox is a chamber surrounding the registers. Air for combustion is

delivered to the windbox, ready for use in the registers.

Many marine boilers are fitted with roof mounted burners. This enables a
longer flame path and gives more even heat energy transfer throughout the
furnace.

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Activity 3.4
For a main boiler you are familiar with, (or with manuals supplied by your
supervisor):
1. Identify the type and number of burners fitted.

2. State maximum and minimum oil and steam (if used) pressures and
temperatures.

3. State the burner turn down ratio.

4. State the excess air value used in the boiler.

5. Make a simple sketch of the air register arrangements on a separate piece

of paper, noting all fittings and mountings of the register and burner.

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4. Safety
Combustion is a controlled process. If safety precautions and fittings are not
used, fire and explosion may occur with disastrous results.

Typical safety fittings and precautions which should be used are identified in
this sub-section.

4.1 Burner Isolation

For safety, all burners should be arranged so that it is impossible to
remove a burner from the firing assembly without isolating fuel supply to
the burner.

This can be achieved in a number of ways. One method is to arrange a fuel cut
off cock so that its handle covers the disconnection fittings of the burner. The
cock handle must be placed in the shut position to give access to the release
mechanism.

4.2 Flame Detection

Boilers fitted with automated combustion control systems will have flame
detection devices for each individual burner. These continuously detect the
presence of a flame whenever the burner is meant to be firing.

Flame out is when combustion ceases during firing of the burner. Flame out
may be due to various factors, already mentioned in sub-section 1.
It is vital to detect flame out if it occurs, since:
• Without a flame, heat energy transfer will stop, and steam production will
cease.
• If flame out occurs, yet oil flow continues, there will be a flow of unburnt
fuel into the furnace. This fuel may be ignited by flame from other burners
but won’t burn properly or in the correct zone of the furnace.
Alternatively, unburnt fuel may build up in the furnace. Vapours will
accumulate and an explosion may occur at ignition.

A device known as a flame eye generally performs flame detection. This is a

photoelectric cell which generates a small electric current when exposed to the
light of a flame. This current ceases if flame failure occurs, setting off an
alarm and a trip to stop further fuel admission.

An observation lens at the burner provides local evaluation of burner

performance, including flame failure.
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4.3 Ignition Failure

One of the most likely situations when flame failure can occur is at initial
burner light off. An automatic ignition control system can be arranged to allow
for two or three restart attempts. If ignition does not occur at the first start
attempt, the ignition sequence repeats (this will include a purge cycle). After
the set number of failed ignition attempts, the control system trips, locks out,
and initiates an alarm.

4.4 Furnace Explosions

These are the result of the ignition of accumulated combustible vapours in the
confined spaces of the furnace or boiler uptakes.

Such explosions vary in degree from a small puff which will be absorbed by
the boiler structure (indicated by sudden boiler vibration and puffs of smoke
from the funnel) or blowback (a violent explosion which can damage the
boiler and kill people).

Events which lead to a furnace explosion:

• Temporary flame loss, allowing unburnt fuel to enter the boiler (in the
period before fuel is automatically shut off by the flame failure
detection system). This fuel will vapourise and may form an explosive
mixture which can be ignited by hot brickwork or by inexperienced
personnel attempting to re-establish combustion.
• Fuel leaking into an idle furnace which may form an explosive
mixture which can be ignited by a spark or when a burner is lit.
• Attempting to light-off burners from hot brickwork if automatic
igniters are not available, or failure of igniters. This may allow unburnt
fuel to accumulate and their vapours may be ignited by hot brickwork, but
explosively.
• Repeated unsuccessful ignition attempts without proper purging
between each attempt.

Purging
Purging is the venting of the furnace and boiler uptakes with combustion air
long enough to ensure that no pockets of flammable vapour exist.

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Particular care should be taken when raising steam in a cold boiler, since
a small flame will be used and it is easy for droplets of fuel to become
cooled before combustion is complete.
These cooled droplets can accumulate in the uptakes as vapour.
This accumulation can cause an explosion even if flame failure hasn’t
occurred.

The following points should be noted in regard to purging:

Purging notes:
• Purge should last for at least 3 minutes or 8 volumetric air changes;
• All registers should be open during purging;
• Purging should create sufficient air velocity to ensure all areas of the
furnace and uptakes are cleared;
• Purging should take place at about 75% or more of the full load air
flow (ie., fan load 75% or more);
• Purging must be performed prior to every attempt to ignite the first
burner;
• After purging, there should be a set period (say 5-6 minutes) of safety
during which an ignition attempt can be made;
• Purging will not remove liquid fuel which may have accumulated at
the bottom of the furnace. Thus the furnace must be inspected before
light off to check for oil pools.

4.5 Alarms & Trips

Alarms and trips stopping combustion include:
• Low low boiler water level;
• Flame failure;
• Low combustion air pressure;
• High high boiler pressure;
• Lock out after power failure;
• Low fuel oil pressure;
• Low atomising steam pressure.

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5. Combustion Air
Air for combustion is divided into two supplies at the burner, primary air and
secondary air. This division is achieved by guiding plates and vanes. Primary
and secondary air supplies feed their respective flames.

Primary air must be in the correct proportion and of the right velocity. For air
registers with high velocity ‘air streams’, a tip plate at the end of the burner
causes the primary air to spill over into a series of vortices. This gives good
mixing and lowered forward flame speeds. Secondary air is directed through
swirl vanes to give the required flow pattern.

5.1 Draft Arrangements

The combustion air supply system may have forced, induced, or balanced
draft. Whatever draft arrangements are used depends on the particular
requirements of the boiler design and the type of fuel used.

• Forced draft Combustion air is pushed or forced into the boiler

combustion chamber by means of an externally powered fan/blower. This
assists density variations and natural convective currents. It causes a
positive pressure in the boiler, hence any casing leaks can cause
combustion gases to enter the machinery space.
• Induced draft In this case, the fan is situated either at the base of
the uptakes or at the exit point of the uptakes. This fan sucks or induces
airflow from the atmosphere through the combustion space and then up and
out from the boiler. If the fan is at the base of the uptakes, it both sucks
and pushes. In this case a negative pressure exists inside the boiler.
• Balanced draft Here there are both forced draft and induced draft
fans. The fans are arranged so that a small negative pressure exists inside
the boiler.

Smaller boiler installations favour forced draft systems, while larger boiler
plants may have balanced draft systems.

Forced Draft Fan

Features of a modern forced draft fan include:
• double inlet;
• centrifugal;
• backward sloping;
• aerofoil bladed.

Typical fan arrangements are:

• One fan capable of providing all the air required;
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• Two fans each capable of providing all the air required;

• Three fans each capable of providing half the air required.

Figure 3-8 Forced Draft Fan

Induced Draft Fan

In earlier installations, these fans suffered from overheated bearings, distortion,
corrosion, and imbalance due to soot deposits, since they operate with hot
exhaust gas. Locations of these fans was effectively restricted to areas where
gas temperatures are less than 2000C.

Modern induced draft fans use water cooled bearings, and are usually of the
radially bladed paddle wheel type. The blade tips are easily replaceable when
necessary due to erosion/corrosion.

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Figure 3-9 Induced Draft Fan

Air Flow Control

Control of air flow may be achieved by a number of means, which include:
• Varying prime mover speed;
• Varying damper position.

Electric motors are the main form of fan drive. They are most energy efficient
when running at constant speed, having been matched to the fan load.
However, speed control of such motors (using alternating current) is complex.

Dampers, or adjustable vanes restricting air flow to or from the fan are
common means of air flow control. These provide throttling of air and is a
waste of energy. However, in comparison to the cost and complexity of
variable speed motors, these energy losses are acceptable.

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Figure 3-10 Damper Air Flow Control

A damper control arrangement is shown in figure 3-10 above. Pneumatic

actuators move the guide plate. This plate causes the linkages to move, which
rotates the blades. This opens up or closes in the inlet passage to the fan,
controlling air flow.

5.2 Air Heaters

Preheated combustion air accelerates the rate of combustion in the furnace and
thereby improves boiler efficiency. Additionally, the effect of cold air
impinging on the boiler surfaces is avoided.

Heating of the combustion air can be achieved by:

• Using double casing construction, allowing air for combustion to flow
around boiler between the two casings;
• Bled steam air heating;
• Exhaust gas heating.

Bled steam air heating

These are simply finned tube steam/air heat exchangers, with steam inside the
tubes and air flowing over them. The tubes are normally cupro-nickel with
copper fins, expanded into steel headers, and encased in a steel housing.

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6. Products of Combustion &

Their Effects
6.1 Typical Products of Combustion
Products of combustion is another way of classifying the constituents of
exhaust gas.
These products will include:
• Water vapour (if exhaust gas is white in colour, this may indicate water
contamination of the fuel);
• Carbon dioxide, CO2;
• Carbon monoxide, CO (if CO is present, there is poor combustion);
• Nitrogen, N2 (from the air)
• Oxygen, O2 (due to excess air being used)
• Oxides of nitrogen, NOx (the nitrogen and oxygen combining due to the
high temperatures present during combustion);
• Oxides of sulphur, SOx (the sulphur being present in the fuel);
• Vanadium pentoxide, V2O5 (the vanadium being present in the fuel);
• Sodium Chloride, NaCl, (salt from sea water contamination of air);
• Particulate matter (ash and unburnt carbon).

Use of excess air means additional amounts of nitrogen and unburnt oxygen
will be present during combustion. These additional gases absorb heat energy
from the combustion flame, meaning that there is less energy available to
generate steam. Thus, large values of excess air reduce boiler efficiency.

Particulate matter will deposit on boiler surfaces. These deposits:

• Restrict gas flow;
• Act as an insulating layer, reducing heat transfer;
• Can be the fuel source of uptake fires if they ignite (this will be the unburnt
carbon).

The possibility of deposit formation always exists, especially when burning

residual fuel. However, good maintenance of combustion equipment and good
combustion help to reduce the amount of deposits formed. Regular use of
sootblowers, which use jets of steam to remove deposits, avoids build up of
deposits. Regular water washing of the gas side of the boiler when shut down
removes any deposits which have been missed during sootblowing. Thus

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sootblowing and water washing are complementary methods of removing gas

side deposits of a boiler and its uptakes.

6.2 Gas Side Corrosion

There are two types of corrosion which may occur on the external gas passages
of the boiler:
• high temperature corrosion;
• low temperature corrosion.

High temperature corrosion

If the superheater tube external surfaces are covered with deposits containing
sodium and vanadium compounds (contaminants in the fuel), corrosion can
occur. This high temperature corrosion takes place when the deposit is molten.

Chromium improves resistance to this form of corrosion; hence high

chromium/nickel alloys are used as superheater support materials (the nickel is
used to resist the high temperatures experienced).

These compounds, when molten, capture soot and ash and result in severe
deposit formation of tubes in the exhaust gas path, especially superheater
tubes. This is known as slagging.

Combustion products may react chemically with refractory at high

temperatures. This can cause the refractory in the furnace to decompose and
deform, causing slagging of the refractory. Vanadium causes cracking of this
slag (slag cracking).

Low temperature corrosion

This is due to the formation of acids in the dewpoint region of the gases.

Dewpoint is the temperature at which condensation of acids occurs.

While gaseous, acids in the exhaust gas do not harm the boiler uptakes. It
is only when they condense that these acids cause corrosion.

Some of the sulphur in the fuel, after the combustion process, combines with
water to form sulphuric acid, H2SO4, vapour, which will condense on any
surface which lies below the dewpoint of the vapour.

The dewpoint range is typically around 121o C to 177o C, but the actual values
depend on the air properties and the nature of the fuel, and may thus be
different.

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Coping with these problems

Choice of fuel used in the boiler, and setting maximum acceptable levels of
contaminants is one major way of dealing with high and low temperature
corrosion.

Using special materials which resist these problems is another method that is
used.

Regular cleaning and inspection should be carried out to regularly check the
occurrence and amount of high/low temperature corrosion and deposit
formation.

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7. Automatic Combustion Control

The fundamental purpose of an automatic combustion control system is to
regulate combustion to maintain steam production demand.

The essential requirement for an automatic combustion control system is

to correctly proportion the flow rates of fuel and air.

Correctly proportioning fuel and air flow rates will ensure:

• Complete combustion;
• A minimum of excess air;
• Acceptable exhaust gases.

7.1 Simple Combustion Control System

Figure 3-11 Simple Combustion Control System

Figure 3-11 shows a simple combustion control system for a boiler. For the
sake of simplicity, this system does not show the automatic/manual change
over switches and manual controls necessary for manual operation.

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There are three sensors in this system:

• Steam pressure;
• Fuel flow;
• Air flow.

The steam pressure sensor may be mounted at the steam drum or at the outlet
of the superheater.

Flow sensors used in combustion control actually measure a pressure drop

across a device. In the case of fuel flow, this device is an orifice plate. It can
be shown that the flow rate is proportional to the square root of the differential
pressure so measured. Thus, this pressure drop signal is sent to a square root
extractor and the resultant signal will indicate flow rate.

The operation of this system is as follows:

Drop in steam pressure Ö increased firing required

• The steam pressure signal is sent to a master controller. This is compared
to the set value. Since steam pressure is lower than set point, the controller
will send a signal to the slave controller actuating the fuel control valve.
• Fuel flow rate is increased.
• Fuel flow sensor sends the new fuel flow rate to the air/fuel ratio
comparator (marked A/F RATIO). This value is then sent to the air/fuel
ratio controller.
• Since the fuel flow rate has increased but the air flow has not, the air/fuel
ratio controller sends a signal to the FD fan damper actuator.
• Air flow rate is increased, restoring correct air/fuel ratio at the new fuel
flow rate.

Limitations of the simple combustion control system

Unfortunately, the simple combustion control system of figure 3-11 has
limitations. These limitations are:
• Increased response time. The control system cannot act until the change
in steam demand has sufficiently changed boiler pressure.
• Poor combustion during transient periods. When fuel flow rate is
increased before air flow rate, there will be insufficient combustion air and
poor combustion, giving black smoke, will result.

Activity 3.5
State the response of the combustion control system of figure 3-11 to an
increase in steam pressure.

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7.2 Improved Combustion Control System

Modern combustion control systems overcome the deficiencies of the simple
combustion control system of figure 3-11. We will not look at these systems in
detail at this level of your training, but will learn about the basic differences.

Steam pressure is no longer the major value which controls firing rate. A
steam flow transmitter is used to give a much faster response. Steam pressure
measurement still occurs, but acts as a trimming value to the control system,
adjusting firing rate to overcome any long term deviation in steam pressure and
also to cater for inaccuracy of the steam flow transmitter at low steam flow
rates.

The other major additions to this system are high and low signal selectors.

These high and low selectors make sure that combustion air flow is always
greater than air/fuel ratio requirements when load changes occurs.

This ensures that there will always be sufficient air for combustion.

If firing rate needs to be increased, air flow rate will increase first, and
then fuel flow rate will increase.

If firing rate needs to be decreased, fuel flow rate will decrease first, and
then air flow rate will decrease.

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Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt how combustion occurs in a main boiler and
studied the safety precautions which must be followed. You should now refer
to the learning outcome and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this
section and ask yourself if you can:

• Explain the principles of boiler combustion;

• Describe a typical main boiler fuel system;
• Identify and discuss the different types of burner arrangements, giving their
relative advantages and disadvantages;
• Identify the important safety aspects relating to main boiler combustion;
• Describe combustion air arrangements for main boilers;
• Identify the products of combustion;
• Discuss the problems that fuel combustion products cause within the boiler
and uptakes; and
• Explain how automatic combustion control may be achieved.

If you have answered “no” to the above question, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 3
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.
1. Make a simple sketch of a fuel oil settling tank, and indicate nine (9)
features that will be present.
2. Define turn down ratio and explain its significance for burner operation,
and state typical turn down ratios for a simple pressure jet burner and a
steam assisted pressure jet burner.
3. Identify the flame appearance and exhaust gas colour for correct
combustion and when there is too much air.
4. Identify the purpose of purging a boiler, and state how long should purging
last.
5. Explain what is meant by forced and induced draft.

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Section 4

Boiler External
Mountings

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Section Contents Page

Section 4: Boiler External Mountings

Learning Outcome 4 120

Assessment Criteria 120

Conditions 120

Section Introduction 121

1. List of Mountings 122

2. Gauge Glasses 123

3. Remote Indication of Boiler Water

Level 134

4. Safety Valves 137

5. Other Boiler Mountings 148

Section Summary 151

Progress Check 4 151

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Learning Outcome 4
On completion of this section you will be able to list and discuss the various
external fittings mounted on main boilers.

Assessment Criteria
4.1. Mountings commonly found on main boilers, including those
required by Authorities, are listed.
4.2. The construction and operation of high pressure local water
level indicators are described.
4.3. The effects of blockages in water, steam, and drain
valves/cocks of water level indicators will be recognised.
4.4. Common operating routines of high pressure water level
indicators, including clearing blockages and overhaul
procedures, are described.
4.5. Methods of remotely indicating boiler water level are
discussed.
4.6. Types of high pressure safety valves, as well as their operation
construction and overhaul, are described.
4.7. Other fittings of a high pressure boiler are described.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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Section Introduction
There must be a variety of external fittings or mountings to ensure that fuel oil,
air, and feedwater supplies are matched to the demand for steam. There must
also be a number of fittings or mountings which ensure safe operation of the
boiler. Some mountings are alarms which give an indication when a value is
out of its normal range; others are trips which shut the boiler down (by
stopping combustion) as well as giving an alarm.

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1. List of Mountings
A main watertube boiler will have the following basic mountings:
• 2 safety valves;
• 1 steam stop valve;
• 2 independent feed check valves;
• 1 pressure gauge;
• 1 salinometer cock/valve;
• 2 blow down valves in series;
• 2 independent water level indicators (at least one local);
• 1 low water level alarm;
• 1 extra low low water level alarm and trip;
• 1 high water level alarm;
• 1 air vent.

Regulations state that all valves are right-handed (this means that hand wheels
of these valves are rotated in an anti-clockwise manner to open them and
clockwise to shut them when looking down at the handwheel), and it should be
easily seen if they are shut or open.

Other fittings, alarms and trips may also be present, such as:
• additional safety valves on the superheater outlet;
• drain valves on headers;
• superheater circulating valves (for boiler flash up and shut down);
• superheater drain valves;
• high and low pressure alarms;
• steam temperature indicators and alarms;
• combustion failure alarm and trip;
• chemical dosing valve.

This Section will concentrate on the basic mountings found on all boilers.

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2. Gauge Glasses
2.1 Construction
Gauge glasses are local boiler water level indicators. They will therefore be
located at the steam drum of a watertube boiler. Regulations state that there
must be at least one gauge glass, most boilers however have two gauge glasses.

It is vital to ensure that the water level in a boiler is at least at a minimum

safe value at all times.

The water present in a boiler cools the boiler metal and prevents it from
overheated and failing due to pressure.

Main boilers on UMS vessels will have remote level indication and automatic
level control. However, remote devices and automatic equipment can and have
failed, so local, direct means of determining boiler water level must be
provided.

The position of the gauge glass is generally such that the level at normal
operating conditions will be at around the middle of the glass. The glass
should be long enough such that:
• all levels which could be encountered during boiler operations will be
visible;
• the lowest visible level in the gauge glass will be such that there will be
sufficient water available for the downcomers.

Depending on boiler design, there may be a gauge glass at each end of the
steam drum, or they may be placed side by side at the one end of the drum.

Each gauge glass should be kept clean, well lit and in good order, in order to
make the water level as visible as possible. There should be good access to
each glass. It is pointless having a gauge glass that is difficult to see.

The boiler should have a permanent mark indicating the minimum safe water
level.

Tubular Gauge Glass

Auxiliary boilers, below 20 bar pressure, are often fitted with tubular gauge
glasses as shown in figure 4-1.

These gauge glasses should be tested regularly, once a watch or daily gear turn.

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Figure 4-1 Tubular Gauge Glass

Cock handles used on gauge glasses all point down in their normal
operating positions. Thus, the steam and water cock handles point down
when they are open, and the drain cock handle points down when it is
closed.

The handles are arranged like this because:

• These handles can tend to move downwards due to the combined effects of
gravity and vibration.
If the steam and water cocks had their handles arranged so that they are
horizontal when they are open, they could shut, isolating the gauge glass
and make it show a false reading. Similarly, the drain valve could open
inadvertently, wasting water and also giving a false boiler water level.
• Arranging the handles in this fashion provides for a quick visual check that
the gauge glass cocks are in their correct position.
The duty engineer is able to glance at the gauge glass and quickly see that
the cocks are in their normal operating positions ? all pointing down.

This type of level indicator is not suitable for the severe mechanical stresses
and temperatures that are encountered in higher pressure boilers. Also, hot,
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high pressure water has a solvent effect on glass, and can dissolve it in a very
short period of time.

Plate gauge glass

This broad type of water level indicator is suitable for pressures up to 79 bar.
In effect, the plate type of gauge glass is a built up rectangular section box
having a thick glass front and back.

Figure 4-2 Plate Gauge Glass

The gauge consists of a hollow steel centre piece with machined flats on each
side. Thick toughened glass plates are fitted at these flats, (with jointing to
provide sealing) and are held firmly in place by means of tightened backing or
clamp plates.

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Figure 4-3 Cross Section of Plate Gauge Glass

The steam and water from the boiler connections are contained in the centre
piece between the two glass plates.

Up to a pressure of about 34 bar, the glasses of this type of gauge are made of
borosilicate glass, which makes them strong enough to resist the mechanical
forces imposed as well as the solvent effect of the water.

For pressures above 34 bar, the glasses must be protected from the dissolving
effect of the high pressure, high temperature water, thus they are made from
toughened soda lime glass and have a thin layer of mica sealing them from the
water.

Mica is a semi-transparent mineral which resists the dissolving effect of the

boiler water.

Some plate gauge glass designs use mica for boiler pressures less than 34 bar.

A light source, in the form of one or two light bulbs located directly behind the
back of the gauge glass, shines through the glass and helps to make the water
level visible. Louvres can be used to deflect the light upwards. The light will
then be deflected down by the surface of the water in the glass. This makes the
water surface appear like a brilliantly lit spot, again helping to clearly show the
water level position.

There will usually be a ball valve arrangement at the lower end of the gauge.
Normally, this ball will sit at the bottom of its chamber and not interfere with
the functioning of the glass. If the plates shatter, the initial velocity of the
escaping water will cause the ball to move up and shut off the water connection
from the glass.

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Figure 4-4 Check Ball

Activity 4.1
1. Give two reasons why there is a ball valve arrangement at the bottom of a
gauge glass to shut off the water in the event of a glass plate shattering.

2. Why isn't there a similar ball valve at the top (steam connection) end of the
gauge?

Some makes of high pressure gauge glass do in fact have a ball arrangement at
the steam end of the glass.

There will be steam, water, and drain valves or cocks, as with the tubular
gauge glass. There will generally be two valves at each position, to provide
double isolation.

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Double isolation is a safety feature used on high pressure boilers. This is

where there are two valves placed in series.

To understand double isolation, consider the situation when maintenance

requires the gauge glass being removed from its position, and so the steam and
water valves are shut. If there was only one valve on the water connection, and
this valve was damaged so that it cannot seal properly, it would not be possible
to isolate the water connection to the glass. This means that water, at high
pressure and temperature, will be escaping out through the water connection,
being a nuisance and dangerous to personnel.

Bi-colour plate gauge glass

Since boiler water is clear, it can be difficult to quickly determine the water
level in a simple plate gauge glass. The bi-colour plate gauge glass gives an
easy determination of water level. This type of gauge glass uses the principle
that the bending of a ray of light differs as the ray passes obliquely through
steam or water.

The central chamber of this gauge is such that the two glass plates are at
different angles to each other (looking vertically down). Two coloured glass
screens are situated between the light source and the gauge glass. Normally
one screen is red (for steam) while the other is green (for water). One screen
(red) is directly behind the glass while the other (green) is offset.

Figure 4-5 Steam in chamber of bi-colour gauge glass

Light from the red screen will pass through the steam filled portion of the
chamber and be visible to the operator, while the green light is bent out of
view. When there is water in the chamber, the red light is bent out of view
while the green coloured light is bent into view.

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Figure 4-6 Water in chamber of bi-colour gauge glass

Thus, when red light is visible, there is steam, and when green light is visible,
there is water. This gives easy determination of water level.

2.2 Factors changing water level in gauge

glasses
Various factors will affect the water level in the gauge glass, making this level
differ from the actual water level in the boiler itself. Some of these factors
affect gauge glass level slightly, while others will cause the glass to give a
completely false water level indication and are dangerous.

Cooling of water
Since the gauge glass is outside the boiler and is relatively cool, the water in
the glass will become cooler than the water in the boiler. The gauge glass
water will then have a greater density and its volume will reduce. This will
cause the gauge glass to show a slightly lower water level than actually present
in the boiler.

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Leaking drain cock

If the drain cock is leaking, the level in the gauge glass will be lower than the
boiler level. Unless the leak is excessive, the level will only be slightly
different.

Choked/blocked/shut off STEAM connection

If the steam connection to the gauge glass is blocked or the steam valve is
shut, steam will condense in the upper part of the glass. This will cause a
lower pressure in the glass and will give a higher water level. Over time,
the level in the glass will increase and can give a completely false water
level. This is dangerous.

This can occur even if the connection is only partially restricted (choked).

Choked/blocked/shut off WATER connection

If the water connection to the gauge glass is blocked or the water valve is
shut, steam will condense in the upper part of the glass. The glass will fill
with additional water, but this extra water will not drain back into the
boiler, being prevented by the blockage/restriction. This will give a
higher water level in the gauge glass. Over time, the level in the glass will
increase and can give a completely false water level. This is dangerous.

This can occur even if the connection is only partially restricted (choked).

Blockages and restrictions are generally due to deposits of chemicals from the
boiler water. These deposits tend to form first in the cocks/valves.

Blocked drain line

A blocked drain line will not affect the normal working of a gauge glass.
However, if the drain line is blocked, it will be impossible to test the gauge
glass (as described in sub-section 2.3). Also, when maintenance is being
performed on the gauge glass, a blocked drain:
• Will make it difficult to prove that the gauge glass is correctly isolated and
depressurised before maintenance commences.
• Will make it difficult to empty the gauge glass of the relatively hot,
pressurised water and steam.

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2.3 Testing a Gauge Glass

The procedure of testing a gauge glass is often called blowing through the
gauge glass. Testing a gauge glass ensures that the lines are clear and that the
gauge glass gives a correct indication of boiler water level.

The test procedure is:

1. Shut steam cock.
2. Shut water cock.
3. Open drain cock.
4. Slightly open steam cock and wait for emission of steam through the
drain - steam line is clear.
5. Slightly open water cock and wait for emission of water though the
drain - water line is clear. There will be steam coming out of the drain
due to the water flashing off as it encounters atmospheric pressure
and temperature.
6. Shut drain.
7. Open water cock fully. Water should rise to the top of the gauge glass.
8. Open steam cock fully. Water should drop smartly down to the
correct level. Slowness of water level movement indicates a restriction
in either the steam or water lines.

If, at step 7 above, no water enters the gauge glass, this may indicate a
lack of water in the boiler and loss of water procedure should be followed
(loss of water procedure will be described in Section 5)

If, at step 7 above, water enters that gauge glass normally but drains out
of the glass at step 8 (opening the steam cock), the water level is between
the bottom of the gauge glass and the top of the water connection at the
boiler. This indicates less water in the boiler than is desirable but the
boiler downcomers are still below the water surface. The reason for the
lack of water should be quickly found and rectified.

Low pressure boilers, due to their relatively poorer water treatment and smaller
diameter water and steam lines, have an increased likelihood of blockages and
restrictions occurring. Therefore with these boilers, the gauge glasses should
be tested regularly.

High pressure watertube boilers, on the other hand, have a decreased likelihood
of blockages and restrictions occurring.

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Also, the high velocity of the steam and water escaping through the drain
causes erosion of the mica strip. Once the mica is cut through, the glass
plate will be exposed to the water and will dissolve, causing the glass to
fail soon after the gauge glass is tested. This is undesirable.

A high pressure gauge glass will also experience a higher degree of

thermal shock when it is tested, which is again undesirable. The drain
valve body is relatively cold, and if it is not first warmed (by slightly
opening or cracking the valve), the valve may fracture when blowing
through occurs).

Thus, on high pressure boilers, do not routinely test gauge glasses by

blowing through.

Bobbing
Bobbing may be used to check that the lines of a high pressure gauge glass are
clear. This is where the steam valve is shut and the drain valve is quickly
opened and closed. This will cause movement of water in the gauge and the
level will be seen to bob up and down before settling. The steam valve is the
re-opened. Bobbing is a relatively fast method of testing the gauge glass and is
useful in an emergency when you need to quickly test the glass.

Activity 4.2
Does it make any difference, when testing a gauge glass, if step 8 is done
before step 7? If so, why?

2.4 Overhaul & Clearing Blockages

Clearing a blockage
If a blockage of the gauge glass has been detected, the procedure for testing
should be followed. The variations in pressure in the gauge glass may cause
the blockage to clear. This also checks that the valves have not been
inadvertently shut, giving an indication of blockage.

If the blockage is still present, the gauge glass should be isolated from the
boiler, removed and then inspected for blockage.

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If the blockage is between the valves and the boiler, danger to personnel is
so high that engineers should not try to clear this blockage.

Instead, the boiler should be shut down at the earliest opportunity and
then the blockage should be cleared.

Overhaul
Once good practice is to have a spare gauge glass standing by the boiler.
When a gauge glass on the boiler requires overhaul, the gauge glass is isolated
and depressurised (and it should be proved that the glass is isolated from the
boiler and depressurised), and then removed from the boiler. The spare gauge
glass is then fitted and placed into service. The old gauge glass is then taken to
the workshop and overhauled.

The overhaul procedure should then be followed:

• Strip the gauge glass, noting any obvious defects.
• Discard the used glass plates (they are commonly damaged and so are
unsuitable for further use), mica sheets and joints.
• Make sure all joint faces are scrupulously clean.
• Check frame and cover plates for flatness - any warping can cause the glass
to shatter.
• Build up the gauge, inserting the new joints, together with the mica sheets,
in their correct sequence.
• Clamping nuts and bolts should be pulled up finger tight.
• Starting from the centre, the clamping nuts should be tightened in order
(such as indicated in figure 4-7).
• Tighten each nut 1/4 turn, and repeat the sequence until all the nuts are
tight.
• Do not overtighten, and pull up evenly, preferably using a torque spanner
(to the torque specified by the manufacturer).
• Cover the open ends of the gauge glass (to prevent foreign matter entering
it) and store in place next to the boiler as the spare gauge glass.
Manufacturer's instructions and procedures should be followed at all times.

Figure 4-7 Nut tightening sequence

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2.5 Warming through a Gauge Glass

A new installed gauge glass must be allowed to warm up to boiler operating
temperature. If the gauge glass is not allowed to warm through sufficiently, the
relatively cold glass plates may shatter when the steam and water cocks are
opened.

Two methods of warming though are given, and are indicative of the various
procedures that may be found on different ships.

Method 1
• Ensure water valve shut, drain open.
• Slightly open steam valve.
• Allow the steam flow to warm through the gauge glass (15 minutes).
• Shut steam valve and re-tighten any securing nuts in the correct order
(heating up may have caused loosening).
• Slightly open steam valve again to replace heat energy lost while tightening
(5 to 10 minutes).
• Shut steam valve.
• Shut drain valve.
• Open water and steam valves carefully.

Method 2
• Ensure water and steam valves shut, drain open.
• Leave 24 hours to warm through (by conduction from the boiler).
• Shut steam valve and re-tighten any securing nuts in the correct order
(heating up may have caused loosening).
• Shut drain.
• Open water and steam valves carefully.

Do not stand directly in front of the gauge glass during these operations in
case the glass shatters.

3. Remote Indication of Boiler

Water Level
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Remote indication of boiler water level is common on boilers. On UMS ships,

where many processes (including water level control) are automated, remote
indication is a requirement.

Differential Pressure
This method of remotely determining main boiler water level uses a differential
pressure transmitter connected to two columns attached to the boiler, as shown
in figure 4-8.

Figure 4-8 Remote water level indication

Column 1 shown is the reference leg. It is connected to the steam space of the
steam drum. There is a condensing reservoir at the top of the leg. This
reservoir is uninsulated, so steam will condense. A weir allows excess
condensed water to drain off into the measuring leg. Thus the water in the
reference leg is kept at a constant height at all times.

Column 2 is the measuring leg. It is connected to the water space of the steam
drum and also to the condensing reservoir (to allow excess condensed steam to
drain back into the boiler). The height of water in this leg is equivalent to the
height of the boiler water level from the differential pressure transmitter.

Activity 4.3
Remote indication of boiler level involves using a differential pressure gauge.
Referring to figure 4-8, why does a change in boiler pressure not affect remote
indication of water level?

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From hydrostatics, it can be shown that the pressure in a column is given by:
p = ρ •g •h
Where:
p is pressure,
ρ is density,
g is acceleration due to gravity, and
h is the height of the liquid column.

Using the above formula, it can be seen that the pressure at the bottom of the
reference leg (neglecting boiler pressure) will be due to the height of water in
that leg. This pressure will be constant.

Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of the measuring leg will be due to the
height of water in that leg. This pressure will be relative to the boiler water
level and so will change as boiler water level changes.

The difference in pressure between the two legs will therefore indicate boiler
water level, and will be sent as a signal to the automatic level control system
where this signal will be converted to provide a value for the water level.

Other methods
Other methods of remotely indicating boiler water level are:
• Using a closed circuit television (or fibre optics) to transmit a real-time
view of the local gauge glasses.
• Using mirrors to show the local gauge glass level at the remote monitoring
station.
• Using transducers to measure the mass of the boiler and its contents. As
the level (and therefore the amount)of water in the boiler changes, the mass
will change.
• Using a capacitance probe placed vertically in the steam drum. The
capacitance of the probe changes as the amount of water covering it alters.

These methods are not common on marine boilers and will therefore not be
discussed further.

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4. Safety Valves
4.1 Functions of a safety valve
A safety valve fitted on a boiler has two functions:
• Prevents steam pressure exceeding a pre-determined maximum by
automatically discharging steam as soon as this maximum value is
reached (this value is called the set pressure).
• Relieving steam pressure in the event of an emergency by discharging
steam. In this case, the valve is operated manually.

If the maximum safe pressure of the boiler is exceeded, the boiler may not
be able to withstand the force due to this pressure, and there is a danger
of an explosion occurring.

The basic requirement is that at least two safety valves must be fitted. It is
common practice however to have three safety valves and one relief valve:
• Two safety valves fitted at the steam drum, venting to atmosphere through
the funnel,
• One safety valve fitted at the discharge of the superheater, venting to
atmosphere through the funnel,
• One relief valve fitted at the discharge of the economiser, venting to a
designated safe place in the engine room bilges.

The economiser relief valve is set higher than all the other safety valves fitted
to the boiler.

The superheater safety valve is set to a level lower than the set point of the
safety valves on the steam drum. This ensures that if overpressure
occurs, the superheater safety valve will open first, allowing steam to flow
through the superheater before escaping to the atmosphere.

Should the safety valves not be adjusted in this manner the lack of steam
flow through the superheater (caused by the steam drum safety valves
lifting while the superheater valve remain closed) will result in
overheating and serious damage to the superheater elements.

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4.2 Definitions
Normal Operating & Design Pressure
A boiler operates at what is known as its normal operating or working
pressure. The design pressure of the boiler is higher than the normal
operating pressure, and is the maximum pressure for which the boiler was
designed to safely operate with. Normal operating pressure can be up to 10%
less than the design pressure; this gives a factor of safety for the boiler.

Set Pressure
Set or lifting pressure of the safety valve is the pressure at which the valve
opens. It will be between the normal operating pressure and the design
pressure (and is not allowed to be greater than the design pressure).

Blowdown pressure
This is the pressure at which the valve shuts after it has opened. This pressure
is normally limited to be slightly less than set pressure (3 to 5% less for
example). Excessive blowdown leads to a waste of steam (and unnecessary
loss of water) and so in most high capacity valves, blowdown can be adjusted.

Discharge capacity
This is the mass flow rate at which steam (at set pressure) will escape from the
safety valve. The safety valve must have sufficient discharge capacity for the
boiler it is fitted to. Each boiler has an evaporating rate at which the water is
converted to steam. A safety valve with an insufficient discharge capacity may
open at the correct pressure, but it will not allow a sufficient amount of steam
to escape and the pressure will rise.

Accumulation of pressure
Even with a correctly sized safety valve, the pressure of the boiler will increase
as the safety valve is operating. This is called accumulation of pressure, and
is due to the spring force of the valve increasing as the valve opens, so
requiring boiler pressure to increase as well.

The accumulation of pressure test ensures that the safety valves are of the
correct discharge capacity for the boiler. To conduct this test, the boiler is set
to the maximum firing rate with the feed inlet and steam outlets shut. Only
enough feed is allowed in to keep a safe working water level. A minimum
steam flow may be allowed to protect superheater lines and to provide essential
steam, eg. to the turbine feed pump. The boiler is run with the safety valve
lifting for 7 minutes (for a water tube boiler). The boiler pressure is not to
exceed 110% of the set pressure. If superheaters could be damaged, the
accumulation tests may be waived, as long as sufficient documentation from
the safety valve manufacturer and boiler manufacturer is presented.

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Waste steam pipe

This is the pipeline in which the escaping steam from the safety valve passes to
the atmosphere; its outlet is situated in the funnel. The waste steam pipe must
be large enough to ensure that steam pressure does not build up enough to
cause excessive accumulation of pressure.

Feathering
Feathering is when the valve is not quite closed, causing steam leakage which
leads to water loss and erosion of the valve and valve seat.

4.3 Main boiler safety valves

The advent of higher steam pressures and temperatures in watertube boilers has
made it increasingly important that high capacity safety valves, which open
and shut smartly and do not feather, have been developed.

A good safety valve lifts rapidly at its set pressure, relieves the excess pressure,
and shuts positively, after the least amount of blowdown.

Two safety valves suitable for main boilers are described in this sub-section,
and are typical examples of the many different types of safety valve available
for main boilers.

Full Bore Safety Valve

Figure 4-9 Full bore safety valve

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Materials of main valve

Body Cast steel
Valve disc and spindle (one Chromium-molybdenum-nickel alloy steel
piece)
Valve seat Chromium-molybdenum-nickel alloy steel
Piston Stainless steel
Piston ring Nickel alloy
Spring Stainless steel

This type of safety valve has four times the discharge capacity of an ordinary
spring loaded safety valve. The valve consists of a pilot or control valve and a
main valve.

The pilot valve is a spring loaded safety valve adjusted to operate at set
pressure. As the valve lifts, it blanks off ports leading to the atmosphere. This
allows steam pressure to build up in the control line and act on the operating
piston attached to the spindle in the main valve.

The main valve is kept closed by boiler pressure acting on the valve disc or lid.
The operating piston area is about twice that of the valve disc area. When
steam acts on the operating piston therefore, the main valve will be quickly
forced fully open. Steam pressure is relieved.

When the boiler pressure falls to the blowdown pressure, the pilot valve will
close. The steam in the control line is vented to atmosphere and the pressure
on the operating piston is relieved. The main valve will then close; being
pushed closed by the boiler pressure acting on the valve disc.

The important features of this type of valve are:

• Two valves, main and pilot.
• Steam pressure keeps the valve shut. This means that the higher the boiler
pressure the greater the closing force on the valve.
• Steam pressure opens the valve. Since there is no heavy spring to force,
opening of the valve is prompt and direct.
• When used on the superheater discharge, the pilot valve can be mounted on
the steam drum so that it operates with saturated steam. This means that
the pilot valve and the operating piston do not endure superheated steam,
while still protecting the superheater.
• The pilot valve is small and so is less prone to distortion, minimising
leakage.
• A light return spring is fitted on the main valve. This is only present to
keep the main valve shut when there is no pressure in the boiler.

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Full Lift Safety Valve

Figure 4-10 Full lift safety valve

Materials
Body Cast steel
Valve disc Platnam*
Valve spindle Stainless steel
Valve guide Platnam*
Seat Platnam*

Platnam is an alloy and consists of:

• 54% Nickel
• 33% Copper
• 13% Tin
• 0.5% Iron
• 0.3% Aluminium

The main feature of this valve is that valve itself operates in a guide, and
together they act as a piston in a cylinder, as shown in figure 4-11.

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Figure 4-11 Valve arrangement of full lift safety valve

When the steam pressure in the boiler reaches the set pressure, the valve begins
to open against the resistance of the spring. This opening is small at first, but
once the released steam is able to exert its pressure over the full area of the
valve face, the valve opens further. As it does so, the face of the valve enters
the valve guide, which deflects the steam downwards, so setting up a reaction
effect which fully opens the valve.

When the steam pressure has been relieved, the valve begins to close. As soon
as the valve face emerges from the guide, the reaction effect ceases and the
valve shuts promptly.

The important features of this type of valve are:

• Valve and valve guide acting as a piston and cylinder, giving a reaction
effect on opening.
• Spring is isolated from the main body of the valve, thus it is protected from
the escaping steam and is less likely to overheat and distort.
• Blowdown pressure is adjusted by raising or lowering the valve guide.
Lowering the valve guide lowers the blowdown pressure, raising it
increases the blowdown pressure.

The Thermodisc
This safety valve disc design, featured on some valve types, prevents the
problem of safety valve leakage at high pressures. The valve disc is recessed
to form a thin wall at the point of seat contact. The valve disc is then flexible,
which enables it to conform closely to the valve seat as well as compensating
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for temperature variations with minimal thermal stresses. In other words, the
thermodisc provides tight valve closure.

Figure 4-12 Thermodisc

Drain line
A drain line is present in all safety valves. This is a very important line,
as it prevents water build up in the valve. Water build up can directly or
indirectly (due to deposits forming from the water) stop the safety valve
operating properly. In some cases the valve may not open at all. It is so
important to keep this line open that no valve may be placed anywhere in
the line.

Easing gear
All safety valves are fitted with easing gear. The easing gear is a lever which
acts to open the valve manually.

Easing gear may be used to:

• Test the movement of the safety valve.
• Quickly reduce steam pressure in the event of a shipboard emergency
such as flooding. Cold sea water coming into contact with a hot
pressurised boiler may cause an explosion by imposing excessive thermal
stress on the boiler, and so weakening the boiler’s resistance against
pressure.
• Quickly reduce steam pressure in the event of a boiler emergency. If
the boiler has lost water and overheated, it is important to reduce pressure
in order to avoid rupture of boiler components. Since overpressure has not
occurred, the valve will not open automatically. Boiler rupture will fill the
machinery spaces with noise and steam, which can be disorienting and
uncomfortable at the very least.

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Easing gear must be actuated remotely from the safety valve. This is achieved
by using pulleys and wire ropes led away to a relatively safe position.

The connection of the easing gear to the safety valve is arranged so that the
easing gear does not interfere with the automatic operation of the valve.

Safety valves are also fitted with anti-tampering devices. This commonly is in
the form of a padlocked cap fitted over the valve which must be removed
before the valve can be adjusted.

Activity 4.4
Using a information from a main boiler available to you, answer the following
questions:
1. State the operating pressure of the boiler.

2. State the location of all safety valves fitted on the boiler, along with the set
pressure and blowdown pressure of each valve.

3. State the type(s) of safety valve fitted.

4.4 Safety valve overhaul

Overhaul of a safety valve depends on the type of valve used and the
manufacturer's recommendations. However, the following general guidelines
should be followed:
• Safety - isolate lines and boiler, ensure safe access for personnel, wear
personal protective equipment.
• Check past records from previous overhauls and review manufacturer’s
instructions.
• Remove insulation from around the safety valve.
• Remove anti tampering devices and easing gear.
• Remove valve from boiler.
• Fit blank flange to boiler to prevent ingress of foreign matter.
• Take valve to workshop (which should be clean).
• Strip valve in correct order, noting condition of parts.
• Use manufacturer’s figures acceptable tolerances and other measurements
(this will provide information such as lip clearances, seating widths, wing
clearances, and spring heights).
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• All working parts must be in alignment and free in operation, so check for
bent valve spindles and other defects.
• Hang parts by a cord and tap with a ball peen hammer. If the part is sound,
it will ring clear, but if there are cracks, it will not.
• Examine components for corrosion, wear, wire drawing, creep, distortion,
and other defects. Repair and/or replace as necessary.
• Check spring length and for any deformation. The spring metal may have
experienced creep and be shorter than its original length.
• Measure thickness of casing using callipers.
• Check condition of flanges, joints, and fastenings for damage,
corrosion/erosion, and dirt.
• Reassemble parts in the correct order.
• Check easing gear components for defects.
• Check drain lines are clear.
• Use new joints.
• Fit overhauled valve.
• Fit easing gear.
• Set and test valve lifting pressure.
• Fit anti-tampering devices and insulation.
• Keep accurate work records.

Safety valves are sometimes overhauled ashore and set ashore. The valve will
still be tested for operation after it has been returned to the ship and fitted on
the boiler.

4.5 Setting (or floating) safety valves

Refer to manufacturer’s instructions and ship’s procedures.

Adjustment of set pressure is normally achieved by adjusting spring tension

using a compression nut at the top of the spring. After setting, the compression
nut is locked in place with either a lock nut arrangement or by using spacers
called compression rings.

Gags may used to stop some safety valves, other than the one being set, from
lifting.

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Figure 4-13 Gag for safety valve

Gags should never be placed on valves when the boiler is cold, as this may
cause the gag to jam or the spindle to bend as boiler temperature rises.

It is very important to ensure that all gags are removed from the boiler
once setting is complete, as a gagged valve will not lift.

A general procedure for setting a safety valve is as follows:

• Ensure pressure gauge is reading correctly - use dedicated, calibrated
gauge.
• Remove compression rings/ slacken lock nut.
• Raise boiler pressure to the required blow off pressure.
• Screw compression screws down on any valves that are lifting.
• If setting more than one valve, put gags on safety valves not being set. Put
these gags on only when the boiler is hot and then only finger tight.
• Slacken back compression nut until the valve lifts.
• Screw down compression nut carefully, tapping down on the spindle lightly
with a soft hammer, until valve shuts and remains closed.
• Adjust blowdown ring as per maker’s instructions.
• Remove all gags and stow in a safe place. Ensure that all gags are off.
• Test 2 -3 times until satisfied operation okay.
• Measure the clearance where the compression rings go, cut compression
rings to size, split them and lock them in place. Record sizes of these rings.

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• Alternatively, note position of compression screw, record in work book and

tighten lock nut.
• Assemble easing gear and valve caps, and test that they operate okay.
• Secure anti tampering device onto the valve, eg., cap and padlock.
• The superheater safety valves are set lower than drum safeties, while
economiser safeties are set higher to ensure that the economiser is full of
water.
• Record work in logbook, workbook, boiler book, and/or survey book.

When using a hammer to tap a safety valve shut, there is a danger of damaging
the valve and valve seat, especially if the valve has lifted in operation and not
shut. Some manufacturers therefore recommend that tapping should not be
done, while other recommend light tapping only.

To avoid losses of make up water during adjustment of safety valves (this may
be as much as 20 tonnes in highly rated boilers) some shipping companies
arrange for the safety valves to be set in a workshop ashore, using compressed
air. The valves are then fitted on to the boiler and are ‘popped’ to ensure that
they will operate under at normal operating temperature.

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5. Other Boiler Mountings

Many valves mounted on a boiler are fitted in pairs to provide double isolation.

Other external boiler mountings include:

Main steam stop valve

This valve, of globe valve design, is fitted at the superheater outlet. It isolates
the boiler from the main steam line. Generally, this valve is fitted with a
gearing arrangement which assists the operator when opening and shutting the
valve, as well as ensuring that it can only be opened and shut slowly.

Many main steam stop valves are fitted with a balance valve. This is a small
valve, in parallel with the main steam stop, which is opened first to equalise
pressures before opening the valve and can also be when warming through the
steam line.

In multiple boiler installations, the main steam stop is also a non-return valve.
If two boilers are supplying steam at significantly different pressures to the
steam system, steam could flow into the lower pressure boiler instead of
flowing out of it.

Auxiliary steam stop valve

This is smaller than the main steam stop but of the same type. It is again fitted
at the superheater outlet, and supplies steam to the auxiliary superheated
services.

Feed check valve

This valve is fitted at the feed inlet to the steam drum after the economiser. It
is a non-return valve. This is an important feature, since if feed pressure drops
(due to feed pipe rupture), it is important that the direction of flow does not
reverse. Other feed valves may be fitted to the feed supply of the boiler to
allow flexibility of operation. For example, an auxiliary feed line may bypass
the economiser and lead directly to the steam drum. This auxiliary feed line
may be used if it is not possible to use the economiser (due to economiser tube
failure for example).

A screw lift feed valve may be fitted in series with the feed check to ensure
complete isolation.

Air vents
These are fitted to headers and the steam drum, and are small to medium size
valves which release air when filling the boiler or initially raising steam.
These vents are also used to prevent a vacuum as the boiler cools after it is shut
down.

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Bottom blow down valve

This valve enables water to be blown down from the boiler. It drains the boiler
from the water drum, and is used to remove accumulated sludge as well as
emptying the boiler. It is not recommended to blow down from the water drum
when the boiler is steaming at medium and high loads, as water circulation
may be disrupted and tube overheat may occur.

Top blow down valve

This blow down valve is fitted to the steam drum. A blow down from this
boiler can be used to reduce the amount of impurities (known as total dissolved
solids) in the boiler water.

Header drain valves

These small valves are only used when emptying the boiler (for waterwall
headers) or when raising steam (for steam headers - they drain accumulated
water out of the steam line).

Pressure gauges
Pressure gauges are normally fitted at points such as the steam drum and the
superheater outlet. These gauges operate on the Bourdon tube principle.
Steam pressure gauges should be connected to the boiler through a length of
coiled pipe or syphon to avoid steam coming into contact with the Bourdon
tube element. Gauges should never be too hot to handle. Unless specifically
stated, pressure gauges should be mounted in an upright position.

Superheater circulating valves

These are very important valves, as they are used to maintain steam flow
through the superheater during steam raising and shut down, when steam
is otherwise not flowing. This steam flow cools the superheater elements
during these critical procedures.

Superheater circulating valves are fitted at the superheater outlet header, and
are vents to atmosphere.

Personal access doors

Manhole and handhole doors provide either full or limited access to the
internal components of the boiler.

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Figure 4-14 Manhole Door

Figure 4-15 Handhole door

These doors are located by a spigot to ensure positive location.

A stud and strongback (also known as a dog) holds the door in place when the
boiler is shut down and at very low pressures.

The doors are placed inside the boiler so that boiler pressure forces the door
against its seat, rather than boiler pressure forcing the door off its seat (which
would be the case if the door was mounted outside the boiler).

Large doors may have two studs and dogs to hold them in place. The access
hole for large doors will be strengthened to compensate for the metal removed.

Doors are generally oval. This is to enable them to be put inside the boiler and
also to be removed after the boiler has been built.

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Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt about the major external mountings of a boiler.
These mountings vary in importance, from improving the operation of the
boiler, to ensuring safe operation, and to act as safeguards in emergencies.
You should now refer to the learning outcome and assessment criteria stated at
the beginning of this section and ask yourself if you can:

• List the external mountings commonly found on main boilers;

• Describe the construction and operation of local gauge glasses;
• Describe common operating routines of high pressure gauge glasses;
• Discuss methods of remotely indicating boiler water level;
• Describe the purposes, features and operation of safety valves fitted on high
pressure boilers;
• Describe overhaul and installation/setting procedures of safety valves; and
• Describe other external fittings of a main boiler.

If you have answered “no” to the above question, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 4
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.

1. State ten (10) mountings that will be found on a boiler.

2. Sketch a manhole door, indicating its components.
3. Explain the procedure for testing a gauge glass, noting what occurs at each
stage of the procedure.
4. What is the purpose of the mica strip in a gauge glass?
5. State two (2) reasons for having a safety valve.
6. What are superheater circulating valves, where are they located, what is
their purpose, and when are they used?

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Section 5

Main Boiler Operation

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Section Contents Page

Section 5: Main Boiler Operation

Learning Outcome 5 154

Assessment Criteria 154

Conditions 154

Section Introduction 155

1. Boiler Water Level Control 156

2. Operating Principles 162

3. Raising Steam 162

4. Main Boiler Shut Down 170

5. Main Boiler Lay Up 172

6. Emergency Operation 173

7. Boiler Alarms & Trips 182

Section Summary 184

Progress Check 5 184

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 Section 5 Main Boiler Operation

Learning Outcome 5
On completion of this section you will be able to describe the operation of a
main boiler in normal and emergency situations.

Assessment Criteria
5.1. The method by which automatic water level control is achieved is
described.
5.2. The flash up of a main boiler from cold to on-line is described.
5.3. The removal of a main boiler from services and its shut down is
described.
5.4. The steps needed for laying up a boiler for short and long periods is
described.
5.5. The necessity and procedure of isolating a main boiler after shut down
is explained.
5.6. Emergency situations which will affect main boiler operation are
identified.
5.7. The symptoms, causes, effects, and actions to be taken with a main
boiler in the emergency situations of 5.6 above are discussed.
5.8. The mechanism and causes of economiser fires are stated, and the
actions to prevent and control such fires are explained.
5.9. Alarms and shut downs of a main boiler are listed, and their purposes
described.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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Section Introduction
Boiler operation is very important to the marine engineer. At best, incorrect
operation will give poor boiler efficiency and increased maintenance costs. At
worst, incorrect operation can cause boiler explosion, loss of life and the loss
of the ship.

This Section investigates basic aspects of main boiler operation. Equipment

and procedures of different ships will vary to some degree, so general
procedures and typical arrangements will be given.

When you join a vessel, it is very important that you read the manuals and
procedures for that particular ship (including Standard Operating Procedures
and Chief’s Standing Orders), and follow the instructions of your supervisors
and superiors.

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1. Boiler Water Level Control

Boiler water level control on merchant ships is normally achieved
automatically by ship’s equipment.

The simplest form of level control for low pressure auxiliary (shell type)
boilers is on/off control. If water level drops below a certain value, the feed
pump starts or the feed control valve opens, putting water into the boiler. As
water level rises, another signal stops the pump or shuts the feed valve.

A more complex control method is modulating or continuous control. In this

method, the difference between the actual and desired water level (known as
the error) is worked out, and the feed control valve is opened more or less to
bring the water level back to the set value.

These forms of level control are not good enough for main watertube boilers.
One major reason for this is that the steam drum of a watertube boiler is much
smaller than the shell of an equivalent shell boiler. This improves boiler
efficiency, but it means that:
• There is less steam contained in the steam space - less reserve of steam.
• There is less water in the water space - less reserve of water.

Due to this:

Factors, which change the water level of a shell boiler a small amount, will
change water level of a watertube boiler significantly.

Two major factors affecting boiler water level are shrink and swell.

Both shrink and swell occur because there are steam bubbles in the boiler
water. These steam bubbles in the water raise the height of the water level.

1.1 Shrink
Shrink causes water level to momentarily drop when steam flow reduces.

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To understand shrink, consider the following situation:

• A boiler is operating with a steady steam flow. The feed control valve is
open to a value that maintains normal water level. The flow rates are such
that feed flow rate going in to the boiler equals the steam flow rate out of
the boiler.
• The steam flow suddenly reduces (eg the main turbine has gone from full
ahead to dead slow ahead).
• The pressure in the boiler rises very quickly, the combustion control system
reacts to reduce firing rate.
• This reduction in firing rate reduces the heat energy into the boiler, and the
steam bubbles collapse (think of a pan of boiling water on a stove, as soon
as the heat is turned off, the bubbles stop).
• The water level will drop.
• The water level control system senses this drop in water level and opens
the feed control valve to put more water into the boiler.
• However, steam flow rate has reduced. This means that, for the original
feed control valve position, more water is going into the boiler than steam
flowing out. Thus, the feed control valve should be shut or else water level
will rise.
• Thus, at the exact moment that the feed control valve should shut in,
the shrink of the water level will cause the control system to open the
valve even more.
• This could cause the high level alarm and high high level alarm and trip to
be activated when the steam demand is increased again.
• Also, the higher water level may allow more water to flow out with the
steam. This is called carry over (small amounts of water in the steam) or
priming (large amounts of water in the steam).

1.2 Swell
Swell causes water level to momentarily rise when steam flow increases.

Swell is also known as surge.

Swell is due to steam bubbles expanding (or getting bigger) as firing rate
increases or steam pressure reduces. This will occur if steam flow suddenly
increases.

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Activity 5.1
Using the example of how shrink in water level occurs, explain how swell
occurs when steam flow increases.

If water level reduces too much, the low alarm and low low trip should
actuate; the boiler is in a dangerous low water situation.

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1.3 Two Element Water Level Control

To overcome the problems of shrink and swell, and to keep a more or less
constant boiler water level, a watertube boiler may use two element or three
element water level control.

Figure 5-1 Two Element Boiler Water Level Control

Two element control, as the name suggests, measures two elements:

• Steam flow out of the boiler.
• Actual boiler water level.

The control system measures steam flow so that it can predict changes in water
level. This is because, for a constant amount of feed water flowing into the
boiler (and ignoring the momentary effects of shrink and swell):
• An increase in steam flow will cause a drop in water level.
• A decrease in steam flow will cause an increase in water level.

The effects of shrink and swell are reduced by the control system using
steam flow to help maintain boiler water level.

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Measurement of actual water level acts as a final check on water level and is
also used when there is little steam flow.

1.4 Three Element Water Level Control

Three element control gives an even better degree of water level control.

Figure 5-2 Three Element Boiler Water Level Control

The three elements measured are:

• Steam flow out of the boiler.
• Water flow into the boiler.
• Actual boiler water level.

By measuring feed water flow into the boiler, the control system takes into
account any variations in feed water pressure and flow.

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Activity 5.1
For a main boiler that you are familiar with, or with your Instructor’s
guidance, make a simple sketch of the boiler water level control system and
briefly explain its operation.

Do this activity on a separate sheet of paper and attach it to this page.

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2. Operating Principles
Specific operating procedures will vary from ship to ship and with the age and
complexity of the steam plant.

The modern steam plant is complex, and requires the use of automatic circuits
and instrumentation. A minimum of manual intervention is needed under
normal conditions. The complexity of the plant also means that the boiler
systems and sub-systems should be understood.
Five ways to learn about your steam plant are:
• Read equipment and machinery manuals;
• Read the ship’s procedure manuals;
• Observe and ask questions of other engineering staff;
• Investigate and inspect the equipment and machinery personally;
• Participate in boiler operations as much as possible.

3. Raising Steam
The starting up of a boiler is commonly known as flashing up or steam
raising.

The actual procedure for raising steam will vary from boiler to boiler so the
manufacturers’ instructions and ship's procedure manual should be followed. A
number of aspects are common and are outlined in the sub-sections below.

3.1 Preparations (after maintenance)

Before filling the boiler, a thorough examination should be made, both
internally and externally. This should include:

Internally (steam and water spaces)

• All tubes clear.
• No tools or other foreign bodies left inside boiler.
• Internal surfaces clean.
• Internal fittings, such as the feed pipe or baffle plates, are secure.

Externally
• Area around boiler is clean and free of oil or other material which can burn.
• All insulation and refractory in place and in good condition.

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• Access door joints in good condition and doors properly tightened. Do not
over-tighten doors.
• All valves and cocks in good condition and able to be operated.
• Safety valve easing gear is free to move.
• Air vent open.
• Examine gas path uptakes to make sure that there is a clear path for gases
through the boiler. If the boiler has been laid up for some time, check that
funnel covers have been removed.
• Air and gas dampers should be checked for operation and then correctly
positioned.
• Fuel system in good order eg, no leaks, filters cleans, flame detector clean.
Check air registers, swirl vanes and other combustion air components.
• Check that the fuel service tank is full and that the necessary valves are
open to supply fuel to the boiler.
• If the boiler was stopped on heavy fuel oil, circulate and heat the oil (using
electric heaters) or drain lines and circulated diesel oil.

Other important points

• Test sample of water to be used as feed.
• Feed pump and feed control valve okay. All valves in feed line in correct
positions.
• Combustion air fan(s) tested and air supply checked okay.
• Measuring devices, eg thermometers, pressure gauges, and float switches
are in good order.
• Alarms and trips okay. These can be simulated and/or tested at the relevant
stage of flash up.
• Check automatic systems such as combustion control and feed control for
correct operation.
• Bypass exhaust gas air heaters if fitted.
• The Chief Engineer, Second Engineer, and all personnel in the engine room
should be made aware that the boiler is to be flashed up (if they don’t
already know).

3.2 Filling
Lines which should be open
Vents, alarms, level indicators, pressure gauges, superheater circulating/vent
line and drains, feed check valve open (for initial filling only).

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Superheater circulating/vent valves protect the superheater. They must

be open whenever there is heat energy in the boiler and the boiler is not
supplying steam to any services.

There will be two isolating valves in series for the superheater circulating/vent
line. The valve closest to the superheater will be fully open; the second valve
controls steam flow through this line.

Lines which should be shut

Gauge glass drains, waterwall and economiser drains, blow down lines, scum
lines, anti-syphon loop vents, steam stops.

• Fill the boiler with (preferably) hot, deaerated water, to just below the
normal working level, eg 25 mm above the bottom of the gauge glass (or as
recommended in procedures). Ensure feed control is on manual and shut
the control valve or feed check when water is at correct level.
• The recommended amounts of water treatment chemicals should be added.
• Header vents should be shut once water comes out of them.
• Economiser filled with water and vented of air.
• Check that level trips and alarms reset as the level rises.
• Ensure that the water level is the same for all level indicators and that the
level is in fact the true level (serious accidents have occurred in the past).
• Check boiler fittings and mountings for leaks.

3.3 Electrical Supply

When no steam is available, the diesel alternator(s) will be running. In this
situation, the steam turbine alternator will be started when there is sufficient
auxiliary steam pressure available.

There will be additional electrical loads at stages in the boiler flash up, so
ensure that the electrical generating system always has sufficient capacity to
cope with these additional loads. This may require starting and running
another alternator and/or shutting down unnecessary electrical systems.

When steam raising is complete and the electrical power demand has
stabilised, the diesel alternator(s) may be shut down.

3.4 Burner Operation

Fuel flow rates of the normal burners in some boilers cannot be reduced to the
minimum firing rate needed for raising steam. Some boilers have a special

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light off tip for raising steam. This is a low capacity burner/tip to give the
needed fuel flow for steam raising.

• Ensure fuel system is operating.

• Assemble burner(s) with light off tips.
• Ensure flame detector is clean and will work properly.
• Check that no fuel has entered the furnace while oil has been circulating.
• Start combustion air fans (and engine room supply fans if necessary).
• Purge furnace. The furnace must be cleared of any fuel oil vapours
which may have collected. If purging is not performed, these vapours can
ignite and cause an explosion. Open air damper and purge for pre-set
time (the duration of purging is discussed in Section 3 Boiler
Combustion).

• Air should flow through all burner registers.

• Close air slides at every register except for the lighting off register.
• Adjust air damper to correct light off position (usually a minimum setting).
• Before lighting off the boiler it should be remembered that a furnace
explosion may occur when raising steam. Extreme care must be
exercised to ensure a satisfactory purge cycle; correct oil pressures
and temperatures, operation of igniters, and be aware of the dangers
of repeated starting attempts.
• Ensure all sight hole covers are fitted; wear gloves, eye protection and
other relevant protective equipment. Unnecessary personnel to stand clear.
• Operate igniters and open fuel to light off burner. Flame should be
established.
• Check flame detector operation.
• Set for low firing rate with good combustion.
• Regularly check flame shape and length and that the flame is not touching
or impinging on boiler metal. Ensure that only a slight haze is present at
the funnel with no black or white smoke. The flame should be clean and
bright, with no sparking.
• Continue with the recommended firing rates as boiler pressure increases.
• Change over burner to normal firing tip when boiler is at or near normal
operating pressure (or when recommended).
• When steam is available, start heating heavy fuel oil tanks and system;
prepare to change over to heavy oil firing.
• When heavy oil system is heated sufficiently, change over to heavy oil
firing. Burners may require atomising steam when running on heavy fuel.

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• Change combustion control to automatic when boiler is at normal operating

pressure. Monitor combustion flame and exhaust smoke.
• Exhaust gas air heaters or steam air heaters to be put in operation when
appropriate (eg, when the ship is full away after manoeuvring has finished).

3.5 Raising Steam Pressure

It is very important that the boiler is brought up to operating pressure
slowly.

If pressure (and temperature) is increased too quickly, there will not be

enough time for the boiler to warm up evenly. This will cause:
• thermal stressing;
• uneven expansion;
• cracking;
• leaking at tube ends.

The raising steam procedure may be given as a “Steam Raising Chart”, which
should be followed. This procedure is designed to minimise thermal stresses
and allow a uniform heating throughout the boiler, ensuring no local
overheating.

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Figure 5-3 Steam Raising Chart

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From cold, a watertube boiler should reach operating pressure no quicker than
4 to 6 hours or as specified in the steam raising chart of the boiler.

• Drum vent valve to be shut when boiler pressure is about 2 bar (or when
there is a good steam flow coming out of the vent).
• Superheater header vents to be shut when steam comes out.
• Drains on superheater circulating/vent line to be shut when steam comes
out.
• Check that superheater circulating/vent line is venting steam. Keep
superheater circulating/vent valves open until steam is being used from the
boiler.
• As boiler pressure rises, the second superheater circulating/vent valve will
be closed in gradually. The actual amounts the valve is adjusted will
depend on the individual boiler.
• Monitor superheated steam temperature. If the temperature rises above the
maximum recommended value, reduce burner firing rate.
• When boiler is at a suitable pressure, desuperheated and auxiliary steam
stops to be opened slowly and steam lines warmed through. Manual drains
on steam lines to be shut when steam comes out.
• Steam turbine alternator and steam driven feed pump may now be started.
• Once boiler is supplying steam to the auxiliary steam range, the superheater
circulating/vent valves should be shut. Drains on these circulating lines
should then be opened.
• When boiler is at normal operating pressure, main steam stops to be opened
slowly and steam lines warmed through. Manual drains on steam lines to
be shut when steam comes out.
• Check operation of automatic drains.

3.6 Boiler Water Level During Steam Raising

It is very important to monitor boiler water level at all times during boiler
operation.

• The feed check and/or feed regulating valves will initially be shut.
• There will be water loss since there is steam escaping through the
superheater circulating/vent valves.
• Put additional feed water into the boiler to maintain a minimum water level
(if necessary).
• As boiler water temperature increases, the water level should rise (due to
swell).
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• As boiler nears normal operating pressure, the gauge glasses should be

tested to ensure that they are reading the correct level.
• Once steam is being used in services, open feed check valve slowly (to
prevent a sudden emptying of the economiser into the steam drum) and
bring water level up to normal working level.
• Once boiler water level has stabilised, change level control over to
automatic.

3.7 Additional Checks & Actions

• Check the boiler externals for leaks. Ensure that access doors are secure
and that the dogs are correctly tightened.
• Check that the boiler is expanding correctly. This will include noting
movement of sliding feed.
• Ensure that there are no water, oil, or steam leaks and that all aspects of the
boiler operation are correct. This will include superheated steam
temperature control.
• Check correct operation of automatic controls.
• Continue monitoring of boiler operation.

Activity 5.2
For a main boiler that you are familiar with, or with your Instructor’s
guidance, list the boiler flash up procedure from cold.

Do this activity on a separate sheet of paper and attach it to this page.

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4. Main Boiler Shut Down

4.1 General Points on Shut Down
Again, actual shut down procedures vary between steam plants. Boiler shut
down may have to be done at the end of a voyage or at any time of emergency.
The following general points apply to a non-emergency shut down.

• Reduce steam load after obtaining approval from the Bridge. This may
include starting up a diesel alternator and shutting down the steam turbine
alternator. Additionally, steam turbine feed pump may need to be shut
down and auxiliary electric feed pump started.
• Carry out soot blowing, if possible.
• If only one boiler is steaming, change fuel supply to diesel oil and clear
fuel lines of heavy fuel oil, is possible.
• Gradually close main steam stop and open drains.
• Gradually close auxiliary and desuperheated steam lines and open drains.
• Have superheater circulating/vent line slightly open. When steam
issues out of the drain in this line, shut the drain. As pressure drops, the
second circulating/vent valve should be progressively opened - at the same
rate as during steam raising.

• Change combustion control from automatic to manual.

• Change water level control from automatic to manual.
• Stop firing and shut off main fuel shut off/isolating valve.
• Purge furnace with air for 3 to 5 minutes, stop combustion air fans and
ensure burner air registers are shut off (the slide valves should be shut).
• Remove burners and immerse atomiser tips in cleaning fluid.
• Maintain normal boiler water level, if possible, until boiler pressure is low.
Do not use cold feed water to cool down the boiler. Level will drop due to
steam loss through superheater circulating/vent line and also due to shrink
as the water temperature falls.
• If another boiler is steaming, ensure that steam lines are isolated.
• Open superheater circulating/vent line fully when boiler pressure is 10 to
15 bar.
• Open steam drum vent valve when pressure has fallen to atmospheric. This
stops a vacuum occurring in the boiler as it cools.
• Exhaust gas air heaters should be bypassed when uptake temperature is
sufficiently reduced.

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• Do not open access doors until furnace temperature is low, as induced

draughts will rapidly chill boiler pressure parts.
• Open superheater header drains.
• Shut down fuel system.
• Shut down and isolate feed system.
• If the boiler is to be emptied, empty the boiler gradually so that sudden
changes of temperature are not imposed on the pressure parts.

Where possible, a minimum of 5 hours cooling down period is desirable.

Activity 5.3
For a main boiler that you are familiar with or with your Instructor’s guidance,
list the boiler shut down procedure.

Do this activity on a separate sheet of paper and attach it to this page.

4.2 Isolating The Shut Down Boiler

There are two reasons for isolating a boiler when it is shut down. These
reasons are:

• Protection of the boiler.

• Safety of personnel.

Isolation will include the following points:

• Ensure that fuel system is shut down and isolated. Fuel leaking into the
furnace may affect personnel and also may lead to an accumulated vapour
explosion.
• Ensure combustion air system is shut down and isolated after residual heat
energy is removed.
• If possible, ensure that there is double isolation of steam lines between the
shut down boiler and any running boiler. It is vital that there is no
possibility of personnel being exposed to steam.
• Ensure that feed system is shut down and isolated. Water suddenly
entering the boiler may be just as hazardous to personnel as steam.

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5. Main Boiler Lay Up

A boiler that is not in use for a period of time is idle. Precautions have to be
taken to protect boiler internal surfaces from corrosion during idle periods. An
idle boiler is laid up; this means that the boiler is prepared for an idle period.

Two basic methods of preparing the boiler for lay up are used. Which method
is used depends on the length of the lay up.

Short Lay Up
For short periods up to about one month, the boiler, superheater, desuperheater,
and economiser, with all valves and cocks shut, are completely filled with hot
deaerated feed water. This water contains chemicals such as sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) which ensure that the water is alkaline.

Regular checks are made to ensure that the boiler remains full and that
alkalinity is maintained.

Long Lay Up
For lay up periods greater than about one month, the boiler furnace and gas
paths are washed with fresh water. Ashes may contain sulphur, tend to collect
moisture, acids form which can corrode the external components of the boiler.

The boiler, superheater, desuperheater, and economiser are emptied of water,

cleaned, and then completely dried out using heating stoves in the drums and
hot air blowers to pass hot air through the tubes.

When these components are dry, all valves and cocks are shut tight, all doors
shut (with new joints) and the boiler is sealed. This prevents moisture laden air
entering the boiler. Drying agents, called desiccants, are placed in trays are
inserted in the boiler before sealing. The desiccants absorb any moisture from
the atmosphere inside the boiler.

A laid up boiler should be treated as a confined space. Confined space

entry procedures must be followed.

Simmering
Another method which may be used, if steam from another boiler is available,
is to have heating coils in the water drum of the shut down boiler. The shut
down boiler has a normal level of water, and the simmering coils are used to
maintain a small amount of heating. This enables a slight pressure to be
maintained in the off duty boiler, keeping air out. Another advantage of
simmering is that it keeps the gas side of the boiler warm and dry.

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6. Emergency Operation
6.1 General Principles
The essential aims in dealing with emergencies which put boilers at risk
are:
• Protect the boiler(s) from damage;
• Safeguard personnel.

The general principles in any emergency for any ship should be to ensure:
• Safety of personnel;
• Maintaining steerage and ship manoeuvrability;
• Safety of machinery and keeping damage to a minimum;
• Bridge to be informed when the safety of the ship or loss of
performance is involved;
• Engineers’ alarm to be switched on and assistance summoned as
necessary;

And for a steam ship:

• Steam offtake from boiler(s) to be reduced if steam pressure is being
lost;
• Boiler(s) to be shut down before steam pressures drop to 50% below
normal, and while pressure is still adequate for steam driven feed
pump operation;
• Main engine to be stopped if boiler shut down will occur;
• Standby auxiliary machinery should be started in good time if
performance of the running machinery is in doubt;
• Diesel generator to be started if power supplies are at risk;
• Main engine not to be left standing for more than 3 minutes when hot
or when gland steam on. Turning gear should be put in and run.
• Soot blowers should be used after any emergency involving
combustion services.

The Chief Engineer will take charge in any major emergency involving
machinery. The duty engineer, however, will generally be the first engineer in
the machinery spaces, and will:
• Take initial actions as necessary;

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• Inform the Chief and Second Engineers of the emergency;

• Inform the Bridge;
• Follow orders after the arrival of senior engineering staff.

In any boiler emergency where the boiler is tripped (and therefore

normal steam flow has stopped) the superheater circulating/vent line
must be opened to provide a flow of steam through the superheaters.

Follow ship’s procedures when dealing with emergencies. It is very easy

to become confused and to make mistakes. Your ship’s procedures should
help you to do what is required and not miss anything.

Steaming on one boiler

If one boiler of a twin boiler steam plant has to be shut down at sea, the Bridge
must be advised that a reduction of speed is necessary. Control of the main
engine should then be transferred to the Control Room and revolutions
decreased to the allowable single boiler speed (50 rpm/half ahead for example).
The boiler should be shut down and isolated according to procedures. If
necessary, four hours after the burners have been shut off, the forced draught
fan may be used to assist in final cooling of the boiler. With the ship operating
on one boiler and auxiliary steam consumption kept to a minimum, the main
engine speed may be increased until the running boiler is operating at its
normal full load.

There will be differences to every emergency. The following situations are

provided as examples of boiler emergencies that could occur. Do not forget
the broad principles already stated in this sub-section when considering these
emergencies.

6.2 Boiler Water Emergencies

Boiler tube failure
Slight leakage of a boiler tube may be difficult to notice and find, as the
escaping water is vapourised and mixes with combustion gases. Such leakage
may be suspected if make up feed water increases or boiler water test results
are not as expected (eg, chemical reserve levels dropping for apparently no
reason).

If a tube ruptures, however, there will be sufficient indications of this problem,

including:

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• Noise;
• Combustion flame distortion or extinction;
• Noticeable change in funnel gases;
• Loss of water level;
• Sudden increase in make up water to the boiler.

Immediate actions to be taken should include:

• Inform Bridge of the emergency;
• Operate the Engineers’ Alarm;
• Trip the boiler;
• Keep the forced draught fan running to remove escaping steam up the
funnel;
• Shut boiler steam stops;
• Reduce steam demand on the remaining boiler (on a two boiler ship) by
slowing down the main engine;
• Maintain water level in the defective boiler, if possible, until the boiler
cools down (this may involve using the auxiliary feed line to the boiler);
• Monitor water level of remaining boiler;
• Open superheater circulating/vent line;
• If water level is not visible in the gauge glass, this will indicate that the
amount of water leakage is exceeding the make up capacity of the water
level controller, and the feed valve should be shut to stop feed supply;
• Operate easing gear to lift safety valves if steam leakage will endanger
personnel;
• Shut down forced draught fan after the steam pressure has decreased;
• Allow the boiler to cool as slowly as is safe;
• Empty the boiler when cool.

Feed flow failure to boiler(s)

• Notify Bridge and Chief and Second Engineers;
• The cause of the failure must be quickly established;
• When the feed failure is to only one boiler, ensure that supplies to the other
boiler are maintained while trying to fix the problem.
• Steam to the main engines should be reduced to save water. Starting a
diesel generator(s) and taking some load off the turbo alternator will also
reduce steam demand.

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• If feed pressure has dropped, ensure that the standby feed pump has started.
This may rectify the situation if the failure is due to the running feed pump
tripping. Check for and fix the problem that caused the pump failure.
• Check feed tank and deaerator levels.
• If the feed control valve has jammed or has otherwise failed, use the
manual bypass valve to restore feed to the boiler. In this case, a competent
crew member must regulate feed with the manual valve; the valve must not
be left unattended.
• Ascertain if the failure is a secondary problem to tube rupture.
• If water level cannot be maintained, trip the boiler(s) and follow procedures
similar to tube rupture.

Unknown water level

• If the water level is not visible in the gauge glasses, the potential hazard is
so great that the situation should be treated as a tube rupture, until such
time that the true water level is known and the situation corrected.
• When the water level is low, the safety devices should trip the boiler. If
this does not happen, and the water level drops to a point where the heat
transfer is affected, steam pressure will tend to fall and the fuel burners will
automatically increase their firing rate to try to increase pressure.

• Always remember that a drop in steam pressure may be due to a lack

of water in the boiler.

• Where there is not enough water to absorb the heat energy of the furnace,
even with the fuel shut off, the heating surfaces will distort, brickwork will
be damaged, casings will warp and pressure parts will leak.
• When the water level is high and the level controller fails to reduce feed,
the high alarm and high high alarm and trip should occur. If they fail to
operate, large amounts of water will be entrained with the steam. This is
known as priming, and this water will damage the superheater and
turbines.

In establishing whether a gauge glass is full or empty, it is sometimes possible

to quickly tell if the boiler is in the more dangerous low water situation by
looking for the presence of condensate trickling down the inside of the gauge
glass.

Oil contamination
Oil contamination of boiler water coats the boiler heating surfaces and
acts as an insulating layer. This will cause overheating and failure.

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Slight amounts of oil, while not causing such overheating, are still a problem.
In this case, the oil will cause foaming at the water level. If there is enough
foam, it will flow out with the steam, causing carry over of water and
chemicals. This will reduce the boiler water level as well as damaging the
superheater and turbines.

Ways to detect oil contamination include:

• Regular checking of water surface in drains tanks. Oil, if present, will float
on the surface and may also leave a scum around the inside edges of the
tank.
• Grey scum, especially at the normal water level, in the gauge glasses.
• Water treatment samples, left to stand, may be found to have oil floating on
top of the water.

Once oil contamination has been detected, the source of oil must be determined
and the leak stopped.

Slight contamination of the oil may be removed by the addition of chemicals

into the boiler which will cause the oil to precipitate and drop to the bottom of
the boiler as sludge. Regular blowing down of the boiler to remove this sludge
must then be performed.

Large amounts of oil in the boiler water will require the boiler to be shut down,
the oil removed and the boiler cleaned using specialist assistance before re-use.

Activity 5.4
List at least five possible sources of oil contamination of boiler water.

6.3 Combustion Side Emergencies

Furnace explosions
Furnace explosions occur when volumes of oil vapour and air, present in
the boiler furnace in explosive proportions, are ignited.

Sudden admission of air to a fuel rich burner flame can also result in an
explosion.

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Such an explosion in a watertube boiler, with its large furnace, can be very
serious, causing loss of life and major damage to the boiler and its equipment.
A large explosion, especially in monowall boilers, can pull tubes out of drums
or rupture monowall wall panels, allowing the boiler contents to flood the
engine room. It could also ignite secondary fires, igniting combustible
material in other areas of the engine room.

Furnace explosions can occur when flashing up and shutting down the boiler.
At such times, boiler operation may be under manual control and incorrect or
inadequate purging can occur. This is especially so when repeated lighting off
and shutting down the burners, or if there is difficulty igniting the burner.

Always purge the furnace before any ignition attempt.

Purging the furnace removes accumulated fuel vapours. However, a normal

purging cycle will not be enough if liquid oil is present in the furnace. If oil is
present in the bottom of the furnace, it must be removed before any light off
attempt. Small amounts of oil may be removed by extended purging.

These explosions should not occur when correctly using automatic combustion
control. This is because this control system will regulate correct fuel to air
ratio as well as ensuring adequate purging before ignition.

Automatic light up failures can occur, and in this situation, when going over to
manual control (and often in a hurry), wrong actions can be taken, causing an
explosion.

If flame failure occurs, the fuel should be immediately shut off. Unburnt oil
spraying into a hot furnace may be ignited on hot boiler parts or brickwork.

A small explosion may be contained within the boiler, but the pressure
increase in the furnace may blow out the register assembly and injure
personnel at the boiler front. Thus, adequate safety practices should be
followed and personal protective equipment worn.

If a substantial furnace explosion occurs, then the boiler should be secured and
inspected for damage before further operation.

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To summarise, the best method of dealing with furnace explosions is to

avoid them. This will include:
• Inspecting the furnace for oil accumulation before light off;
• Purging the boiler adequately before any ignition attempt;
• Ensure flame detection and fuel shut off equipment is working
properly;
• Follow correct light off procedures, especially when operating the
boiler manually;
• Wear correct protective equipment if lighting off the boiler manually.

Particular care should be taken when raising steam in a cold boiler using diesel
fuel. A small flame will be used so it is easy for droplets of fuel to cool before
combustion is complete (especially if large amounts of excess air are used).
These droplets of fuel can accumulate in the boiler uptakes, and can cause an
explosion in this part of the boiler even if flame failure does not occur.

Sootfires
Soot, rich in carbon, can accumulate in superheaters, economisers and other
boiler components in the exhaust gas path of the boiler. Soot accumulation is
caused by poor combustion, which can occur in port or when operating at low
power for long periods.

If this soot is ignited, it will burn and a sootfire created. The heat from a
sootfire can affect the boiler like any fire, overheating tubes, melting gas air
heaters, and distorting components.

A second, much more serious hydrogen fire can be created by a sootfire. If a

sootfire occurs at a superheater or economiser tube where there is insufficient
water or steam to cool the tube, it can be severely overheated and melt. If the
fire temperature is over 700O C, the iron present in the steel will burn. This
iron will be burning in the presence of steam escaping from the ruptured tube.
This is called an iron fire. The iron fire will cause the steam to dissociate into
hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen will burn in the oxygen, and so a self
sustaining fire occurs (until the supply of steam stops). This is a hydrogen fire.

Such a fire generates very high temperatures and is very intense. It is also very
difficult to put out. The only way to deal with such a fire is to cool the metal
below 700O C by directing a powerful jet of water at the seat of the fire. This
is very difficult to do. The only action which can be performed is to contain
the fire within the boiler and its uptakes and not allow it to spread and cause
secondary fires in the machinery space.

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 Section 5 Main Boiler Operation

The conditions needed for the escalation of a soot fire into a hydrogen fire are:
• Tubes with some steam (or water) content, usually with poor flow rates;
• Tube metal temperatures over 700OC.

The first indications of a sootfire are:

• A rapid increase in uptake gas temperature;
• Sparks coming out of the funnel.

Provided that the sudden temperature rise is not excessive (eg less than 20O C
above normal), it can be assumed that the fire is not yet severe. Slowing the
gas flow (by reducing boiler combustion rate) and maintaining water/steam
flow through the economiser/superheater while allowing the fire to burn itself
out may be sufficient.

Using sootblowers to fight a fire is highly dangerous. Sootblowing may

dislodge deposits from other areas away from the fire, sending them into the
fire. Sootblowing may also cause the fire to grow into a hydrogen fire.

If the fire is in the economiser, a good flow of water through the elements will
help to keep the tube metal cool and may also chill the fire. If the economiser
has been ruptured, the economiser should be drained of water. In this case, the
auxiliary feed line direct to the steam drum should be used to maintain boiler
water level.

Preparations for controlling the fire should be done. This will include starting
up diesel generators and fire pumps, and assembling fire crews and hoses.

If the temperature continues to rise, it should be assumed that the fire is severe
and it may be an iron/hydrogen fire. Red hot boiler casings also indicate that
the fire has escalated. The boiler should be tripped. Water should not be used
to fight the fire, but should be used to give boundary cooling. This is to
prevent the spread of the fire outside the boiler.

Water being used to control the spread of an uptake fire can also short out
electric motors and lines.

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The most effective way of fighting an uptake fire is to prevent it in the

first place. This is achieved by the following:
• Keeping combustion equipment in good condition, preventing poor
combustion;
• Keeping air/fuel ratios correct;
• Regular sootblowing of the boiler and uptakes;
• Regular inspection and water washing of the boiler gas path when it is
shut down.

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 Section 5 Main Boiler Operation

7. Boiler Alarms & Trips

Alarms and trips (or shut downs) that are fitted to a main boiler constantly
monitor the measured parameters.

Alarms act to inform engineering staff of deviations from the desired values or
value ranges. They are especially important on ships which operate under
Unattended Machinery Space (UMS) conditions, to provide monitoring when
the engine room is unattended.

Trips also inform staff of an alarm condition, but they also trip or shut down
the boiler or system involved. Trips act when a dangerous or potentially
dangerous situation occurs. Main boiler trips will either shut off fuel to the
burner (boiler trip), or shut off steam to the main turbine (turbine trip).

Alarms and trips do not replace the watchkeeping or duty engineer; they
are complementary to the watchkeeper. Both automatic equipment and
trained personnel are necessary.

Major alarms and trips which will be fitted to main boilers include the
following:

ITEM ALARM NOTE

Water level Low
Water level 2nd stage low or Low low Boiler trip
Water level High
Water level 2nd stage high or High high Turbine trip
Feed water pressure Low Boiler trip
Steam drum/superheater High and low
outlet pressure
Superheated steam High
temperature
Desuperheated steam High
temperature
Combustion air pressure Low Boiler trip
Oil fuel pressure Low
Oil fuel temperature or High and low Heavy oil only
viscosity
Oil fuel atomising steam/air Low
pressure

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Burner flame and ignition Failure Boiler trip

failure
Uptake temperature High

Activity 5.5
For a main boiler you are familiar with, or with your Instructor’s guidance, list
its alarms and trips, with their values.

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 Section 5 Main Boiler Operation

Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt aspects of main boiler operation for both normal
and emergency situations. You should now refer to the learning outcome and
assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask yourself if
you can:

• Describe the method by which automatic boiler water level control is

achieved;
• Describe how a main boiler is flashed up from cold and put on line;
• Describe how a main boiler is taken off line and shut down;
• Explain the necessity and procedures for laying up a boiler for long and
short periods;
• Identify how a boiler is laid up for short and long periods;
• Identify emergency situations which will affect main boiler operation;
• Discuss the symptoms, causes, effects, and actions to be taken with these
emergency situations;
• State the causes and mechanisms of uptake fires, and explain the actions to
prevent and control such fires; and
• List and describe the purposes of alarms and shut downs of a main boiler.

If you have answered “no” to the above questions, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 5
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.

1. Explain the effect of shrink of the boiler water level, and identify why it
causes feed control problems.
2. Make a simple labelled sketch of a three element water level control
system, and briefly explain how it controls water level.
3. Identify what is meant by purging, stating when and how long a boiler
should be purged, and briefly explain why it is important.
4. If a main watertube boiler is tripped or shut down in an emergency, state
one vital action that must be done by the engineering staff.
5. List 10 main boiler alarms and trips that will be found on a main boiler.

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Section 6 Steam Distribution

Section 6

Steam Distribution

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

Section Contents Page

Section 6: Steam Distribution

Learning Outcome 6 187

Assessment Criteria 187

Conditions 187

Section Introduction 188

1. General Piping Concepts 189

2. Steam Piping 191

3. Steam Traps and Pressure Reducing

Valves 198

4. Symbols Used in Pipeline Diagrams 204

Section Summary 205

Progress Check 6 205

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Section 6 Steam Distribution

Learning Outcome 6
On completion of this section you will be able to illustrate typical
configurations of, and describe operating principles applying to, various steam
distribution systems found aboard a steam ship.

Assessment Criteria
6.1. A typical main superheated steam range is illustrated and described, and
the services normally obtained from a main superheated steam range are
indicated.
6.2. A typical auxiliary superheated steam range is illustrated and described,
and the services normally obtained from an auxiliary superheated steam
range are indicated.
6.3. A typical desuperheated steam range is illustrated and described, and the
services normally obtained from a desuperheated steam range are
indicated.
6.4. A typical exhaust steam range is illustrated and described, and the
services normally obtained from an exhaust steam range are indicated.
6.5. A typical bled steam range is illustrated and described, and the services
normally obtained from a bled steam range are indicated.
6.6. Typical pressure reducing and pressure control valves for steam services
are illustrated and described.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

Section Introduction
Now that we have learnt how steam is made, we will see how this steam is
delivered to the turbines, heaters, and other devices that use this steam.

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Section 6 Steam Distribution

1. General Piping Concepts

Steam pipework, or piping, should be arranged in a neat, orderly manner.
Sufficient allowances should be made for thermal expansion of pipes and
movement due to hull deflection. This is achieved by using expansion bends,
offsets in the piping, expansion joints, or spring loaded supports.

Arrangements should also be made to support the mass of the pipework and the
mass of fluid within it. Flange bolts are generally not intended to support the
pipework by themselves. Hangers or other types of supports also restrict axial
movement. Fixed supports should be located so that bends in the pipework
between them give sufficient flexibility to allow expansion.

Where high and low points in piping or equipment are unavoidable, vents and
drains should be used to ensure proper operation of the system. Lines should
be arranged with a definite slope to allow for drainage.

Steam and liquid piping should not be located where sprays or drips from leaks
or condensation could damage electrical equipment.

Pressure gauges, thermometers, and other measuring devices should be located

so that they are easily visible to the watchkeeper.

Steam plant pipework should be insulated, or lagged. This insulation has two
purposes:
• To minimise heat energy loss;
• To protect personnel from injury.

Colour coding
Pipelines should be marked to indicate to personnel the fluid that is inside each
pipeline. Some ships, however, may not have the piping systems colour coded,
or there may be different standards used on particular ships.

One standard that may be used is an international pipeline colour coding

standard ISO/R 508, Identification Colours for Pipes Conveying Fluids in
Liquid or Gaseous Condition in Land Installations and On Board Ship.

Arrows may indicate direction of flow, and pressure and temperature can also
be marked on the pipe.

Identification colours can be painted on, using standardised colours.

Alternatively, the coding can be applied in the form of special coloured
adhesive tape.

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

Figure 6-1 Pipework Colour Coding

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Section 6 Steam Distribution

2. Steam Piping
Steam use can be put into two broad systems:
• Main (propulsion) steam;
• Auxiliary steam.

Auxiliary steam use can be further divided into secondary systems, such as
those supplying heat exchangers, deck machinery, and heating systems.

Section 4contains a table showing pipeline symbols, placed for easy reference.

2.1 High Pressure Range

The high pressure range supplies the following services:
• Main propulsion turbines (main steam range);
• Turbo-alternators (auxiliary high pressure steam range);
• Turbo-feed pumps(auxiliary high pressure steam range);
• Desuperheater.

A typical high pressure steam system is shown in figure 6-2.

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

Figure 6-2 Main & Auxiliary Superheated Steam Range

Pipes are seamless, and are made from chromium molybdenum alloy steel.
Valves are made of similar material, and are generally of globe design. Joints
are spiral edge wound gaskets with internal and external steel guide rings,
commonly known as a metaflex joint.

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Section 6 Steam Distribution

Figure 6-3 Metaflex Joint

A main steam pipe has a large diameter, since the equipment that uses this
steam requires relatively large mass flow rates. The lagging around the
pipework also makes the pipes appear larger.

Activity 6.1
For a main steam plant you are familiar with, or under your supervisor’s
guidance, make a simple, labelled sketch of a main and auxiliary superheated
steam range.

2.2 Desuperheated Steam Range

The purpose of the desuperheated steam range is to supply steam directly or by
way of pressure reducing valves to all the steam driven auxiliary equipment
and ship services not served by the main steam system.

The desuperheated steam range supplies the following services:

• Sootblowers (at boiler pressure);
• Atomising steam for fuel oil system;
• Air ejectors;
• Make up to exhaust/bled steam system (for conditions when
exhaust/bled steam is not available, eg when in port or at low main engine
loads);
• Steam to the contaminated steam system (or primary steam to steam
to steam generator);
• Steam to the ship’s whistle.

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

Figure 6-4 Desuperheated Steam Range

Other services that may be supplied from the desuperheated steam range
(including contaminated steam services) are:
• Oil tank heating;
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Section 6 Steam Distribution

• Oily water separator;

• Sea chests (used in very cold/icy sea conditions);
• Lubricating oil heating
• Fuel oil heating (for viscosity control);
• Tracing steam (heating coils wrapped along fuel lines to maintain
temperature);
• Domestic uses (hot water and accommodation heating).

Since auxiliary steam lines are smaller in size and in most cases subject to
lower pressures than the main steam lines the materials used in this range,
materials requirements for pipes and components are less stringent.

Some of the auxiliaries systems operate at full boiler pressure, others operate at
reduced pressures. Where reduced pressure is required, a reducing valve is
fitted and is set to deliver steam at the desired pressure. A stop valve is
installed on each side of the reducing valve and a manual bypass is provided so
that steam can be supplied if the reducing valve is malfunctioning.

A relief valve must be fitted in low pressure lines to protect both piping
and machinery which are not designed for higher pressures if the
reducing valve malfunctions. A pressure gauge will also be in the line to
show the reduced steam pressure.

Activity 6.2
For a main steam plant you are familiar with, or under your supervisor’s
guidance, make a simple, labelled sketch of a desuperheated steam range.

2.3 Exhaust/Bled Steam Range

The exhaust steam range collects the steam exhausted by various auxiliary
machinery components and delivers the steam to a number of services.

The thermal efficiency of the steam plant is also increased by extracting, or

bleeding, steam from stages of the main turbine.

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

Figure 6-5 Exhaust Steam Range

Make up steam from the desuperheated steam range is used to supply steam to
the exhaust/bled steam range when the amount of exhaust steam is low and/or
when bled steam is unavailable.

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Section 6 Steam Distribution

The exhaust/bled steam range supplies the following services:

• Combustion air heaters;
• Low pressure feed heaters;
• Deaerator;
• Evaporators.

If the amount of exhaust and bled steam generated is greater than the demand,
excess steam from this range may be directed to the main condenser or
returned to the main engine at the inlet to the low pressure turbine.

Activity 6.3
For a main steam plant you are familiar with, or under your supervisor’s
guidance, make a simple, labelled sketch of an exhaust/bled steam range.

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

3. Steam Traps and Pressure

Reducing Valves
3.1 Purposes of Steam Traps
Steam traps allow only condensed water (condensate) to pass through
them, while stopping the passage of steam.

In many situations in ships, steam is used for heating other substances (such as
fresh water, seawater, air, or lubricating and fuel oils. The heating coils used
are supplied with steam at reduced pressure. A steam trap is fitted to the outlet
or exhaust end of the heating coil. This ensures that only water returns to the
drains tank and improves the thermal efficiency of the heating system.

Steam traps are also used to keep steam lines free of condensate. Moisture in
steam pipes can cause damage (such as erosion, or impact damage due to water
hammer) to turbines, pipes and valves.

Water hammer
Water hammer may occur when a water slug is pushed along a pipe by the
steam (instead of being drained away at low points) and is suddenly stopped by
impacting an obstruction such as a valve or pipe bend.

The speeds of such plugs of water can be very high, especially when the line is
being put in service. When these plugs are stopped, their kinetic energy is
converted into pressure energy and a pressure shock occurs on the obstruction.
A banging noise will be heard and the components may vibrate. In severe
cases, the fitting may fracture explosively, with loss of steam and injury to
personnel and equipment.

Water hammer may be avoided completely if the steam lines are kept free of
water (by using manual drains and steam traps).

3.2 Types of Steam Traps

Three types of steam traps are commonly used:
• Mechanical;
• Thermodynamic;
• Thermostatic.

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We will now look at examples of these types of traps.

Mechanical

Figure 6-6 Ball Float Steam Trap

When the chamber fills with water, the ball floats, opening the valve and
draining the water. As the water drains, the float drops, and eventually shuts
the valve.

Thermodynamic
This traps operates as follows:

Figure 6-7 Thermodynamic Steam Trap 1

• Water pressure at the inlet causes the disc to rise from the seat, allowing
discharge of water through to the outlet.

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

Figure 6-8 Thermodynamic Steam Trap 2

• Once steam starts passing through the trap, it creates a low pressure under
the disc (due to the high speed of the steam as it passes through the trap).
At the same time, steam leaks around the disc and pressure builds up in the
steam chamber.

Figure 6-9 Thermodynamic Steam Trap 3

• Steam pressure in the steam chamber, acting on the full face of the disc,
forces the disc down against the pressure of the incoming steam until the
disc closes on the inner ring of the seat. The disc has also closed off the
outer ring of the seat, so the steam in the chamber is trapped, keeping the
disc shut.

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Section 6 Steam Distribution

Figure 6-10 Thermodynamic Steam Trap 4

• Condensation of the steam in the steam chamber reduces the chamber

pressure. The disc is moved up by the incoming pressure and the cycle
begins again.

Thermostatic
One types of thermostatic (or constant temperature) trap is the bimetallic trap.

This trap uses strips of dissimilar metals welded together, connected to the
drain valve. These are called bimetallic strips.

Figure 6-11 Bimetallic Steam Trap - Open

When water is present in the chamber, the strips are relatively cool, and the
drain valve is open.

Once the water has been drained and steam begins to flow into the chamber,
the bimetallic strips increase in temperature. The two dissimilar metals have
different temperature expansion rates, so as the strips heat up, they bend. This
causes the drain valve to close, trapping the steam.

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

Figure 6-12 Bimetallic Steam Trap - Shut

As the steam in the chamber condenses, the bimetallic strips cool and allow the
drain valve to open, re-starting the cycle.

3.4 Pressure Reducing Valves

Some steam services and equipment use steam at pressures lower than boiler
pressure. Pressure reducing valves are fitted in the steam supply line to
provide this reduced pressure steam.

One simple pressure reducing valve is shown in figure 6-13.

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Section 6 Steam Distribution

Figure 6-13 Simple Pressure Reducing Valve

Steam at discharge pressure acts on a diaphragm through a small passage. This

creates an upwards force on the diaphragm, which is balanced by a spring
acting on the other side of the diaphragm. The spring force is adjustable to
give the desired discharge pressure.

If the discharge pressure is too low, the diaphragm moves down due to spring
force, opening the valve and allowing steam to pass through.

The increase in discharge pressure moves the diaphragm upwards, causing the
valve to close, but not shut. The steam passing through the valve is then
throttled, which causes it to reduce in pressure.

As steam demand reduces, the discharge pressure begins to increase, causing

more throttling and so the pressure reduces to the set value. As steam demand
increases, the discharge pressure begins to decrease, reducing the amount of
throttling, and so the pressure rises to the set value.

Other, more complex pressure reducing valves are often used, but we will not
study them at this level of your training.

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 Section 6 Steam Distribution

4. Symbols Used in Pipeline

Diagrams
The following symbols, used in the steam ranges illustrated in this Section, is
based on Australian pipeline standard symbols for ships.

Symbol Explanation
Direction of flow
Connected piping
Unconnected piping
Manually controlled valve

Motor controlled valve

Pneumatically controlled valve

Non-return valve (arrow shows direction of
flow)

Pressure gauge
Relief valve
Device, such as controller
Steam strainer

Steam trap
Drain line
note:
1 in low pressure steam lines there may be
only one valve
2 a steam trap may also be present in the line)

Pressure controller/reducer

Steam/water mixing for temperature control

Table 6-1 Steam Piping Symbols

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Section 6 Steam Distribution

Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt about the steam distribution systems of a steam
ship. You should now refer to the learning outcome and assessment criteria
stated at the beginning of this section and ask yourself if you can:

• Illustrate and describe a typical main superheated steam range, indicating

what services may be provided from it;
• Illustrate and describe a typical auxiliary superheated steam range,
indicating what services may be provided from it;
• Illustrate and describe a typical desuperheated steam range, indicating what
services may be provided from it
• Illustrate and describe a typical exhaust steam range, indicating what
services may be provided from it;
• Illustrate and describe a typical bled steam range, indicating what services
may be provided from it; and
• Illustrate and describe typical pressure reducing and pressure control valves
suitable for steam services.

If you have answered “no” to the above question, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 6
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.
1. Make a simple labelled sketch of the high pressure range of a main steam
plant, and identify the services which this range supplies.
2. Briefly describe the type of joint used in high pressure steam piping.
3. List the services supplied by the desuperheated steam range.
4. State two reasons why steam traps are fitted in steam lines, and, using
sketches, explain how a thermodynamic steam trap works.
5. Using a simple sketch to aid your answer, explain the operation of a simple
pressure reducing valve.

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 205

 Section 7 Condensate/Feed Systems

Section 7

Condensate/Feed
Systems

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Section 7 Condensate/Feed Systems

Section Contents Page

Section 7: Condensate/Feed Systems

Learning Outcome 7 208

Assessment Criteria 208

Conditions 208

Section Introduction 209

1. Open and Closed Feed Systems 210

2 Condensers 216

3. Air Ejectors 224

4. Extraction Pumps 226

5. Feed Heaters 228

6. The Deaerator 229

7. Main Feed Pump 233

8. Defects 237

Section Summary 240

Progress Check 7 240

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 Section 7 Condensate/Feed Systems

Learning Outcome 7
On completion of this section you will be able to describe typical feed systems
for main boilers, including all components found in such systems.

Assessment Criteria
7.1. Open and closed feed systems are explained.
7.2. Why closed feed systems are superior for high pressure systems is
explained.
7.3. A typical closed feed system is illustrated, showing any interconnections
and control functions.
7.4. Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of main
and auxiliary condensers are described.
7.5. Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of
condensate extraction pumps are described.
7.6. Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of air
ejectors are described.
7.7. Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of feed
heaters are described.
7.8. Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of a
deaerator are described.
7.9. Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of a main
feed pump are described.
7.10. Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of other
feed system components are described.
7.11. Symptoms, causes, effects, and consequential actions of defects with the
components above are described.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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Section 7 Condensate/Feed Systems

Section Introduction
Feed systems are an important part of the steam plant.

The feed system may be defined as that part of the steam cycle which lies
between the exhaust steam leaving the turbine and entry of feed water into the
boiler.

Since these systems operate with condensed steam, they are also known as
condensate/feed systems.

The arrangement and components of a feed system for different ships will
differ, but there will be some similarities for all systems.

This Section will describe a typical high pressure boiler feed system and its
components.

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 Section 7 Condensate/Feed Systems

1. Open and Closed Feed

Systems
1.1 Functions of a Feed System
The four functions of a feed system are:
• Change waste steam to condensate;
• Transfer condensate, as feed water, to the boiler;
• Pre-heat the feed water;
• Remove gases from the feed water.

Change waste steam to condensate

Steam must be changed back into water (called condensate) before being
returned to the boiler.

Transfer condensate, as feed water, to the boiler

The condensate is raised to boiler pressure and delivered, as feed water, back
to the boiler.

Pre-heat the feed water

The thermodynamic efficiency of the steam plant is greatly improved if the
water entering the boiler is as close as possible to boiling temperature at boiler
pressure. In other words, less fuel is used if the feed water is heated before it
enters the boiler.

Remove gases from the feed water

Gases dissolved in water, especially oxygen, are undesirable in the steam plant,
especially the boiler.

The systems described in Sub-sections 1.2 and 1.3 represent typical feed
systems. Actual feed systems will vary between steam plants, so some
differences between these systems and equivalent systems on your ship may be
expected.

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Section 7 Condensate/Feed Systems

1.2 Open Feed System

Figure 7-1 Open Feed System

At some stage(s) in the open feed system, the feed is exposed to the
atmosphere.

The feed water will therefore absorb gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere.

The open feed system is now only used for low pressure auxiliary steam plants,
where dissolved gases in the feed water are relatively unimportant.

Exhaust steam from various services (such as turbo-generator or cargo pumps

on an oil tanker) is changed to condensate in the condenser.

Condensate returns from fuel heating systems, tank heaters and other such
services collect in a drains tank (this tank may also be called an observation
tank), constructed from mild steel and ribbed or otherwise framed to support
the mass of water it contains. It allows for the detection of oil contamination.
There may be a heat exchanger and filters in the drains tank to cool and clean
the collected returns.

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 Section 7 Condensate/Feed Systems

The condensate from the condenser and drains tank drains, due to gravity, to a
hotwell. The hotwell has internal steel baffles which are designed to trap oil to
stop it passing on into the boiler.

A feed pump draws water from the hotwell and raises it to boiler pressure. A
feed heater can be used to preheat the feed before it enters the boiler. The feed
then enters the boiler through the feed regulator (in the main feed line) or
through a manual valve (in the auxiliary feed line).

If the water level in the hotwell falls, a float valve opens and additional water
(known as make up feed or just make up) from a reserve tank is added to the
hotwell. Too much water in the hotwell may be arranged to overflow to an
overflow tank, where there may be a high level alarm fitted.

The drains tank and hotwell are open to the atmosphere. Removal of oxygen in
the water is done by keeping the hotwell as hot as possible and making sure the
lids of these tanks are only open when necessary (when the tanks are being
inspected by the duty engineer).

1.3 Closed Feed System

Figure 7-2 Closed Feed System

A closed feed system is sealed off from the atmosphere.

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By minimising contact with the atmosphere, oxygen is prevented from entering

the water. As boiler pressure increases, the effects of oxygen and other gases
dissolved in the feed water (such as corrosion) increase and must be avoided.
Thus, even though it is more expensive, the closed feed system must be used
for main steam plants.

Steam from the main turbine is condensed in the main condenser, which will
operate under a high vacuum. This condensate collects in a hotwell which is
part of the condenser.

An extraction pump removes the condensate from the hotwell in the bottom of
the condenser and supplies it to the rest of the feed system.

The condensate then passes through the air ejector condenser, gland steam
condenser, and drains cooler. The air ejector uses steam to remove air from
the condenser; excess gland steam from the turbine is condensed in the gland
steam condenser; while the drains from these condensers (and other such
components) are cooled in the drains cooler. The condensate provides cooling
to these components and will therefore be heated.

A recirculating line, where fitted, is used during starting up, manoeuvring, or

shutting down to ensure circulation of condensate through the air ejector and
glands condenser.

Steam is used to heat the condensate in the low pressure heater. Heating the
water up in stages as it passes through the system (rather than heating it up
only in the boiler) improves the thermal efficiency of the steam plant.

Drains collect in the atmospheric drains tank, which is at atmospheric

pressure. This tank is like the observation tank in the open feed system. This
tank, in fact, will be open to the atmosphere, but the water in this tank is only a
small proportion of the total amount of water in the feed system. The drains
pump (operated on intermittent or on/off control) provides simple level control
of the atmospheric drains tank.

The condensate is then delivered to the deaerator. The deaerator removes

gases from the water as well as acting as a feed heater. The water may now be
called feed rather than condensate.

Feedwater from the deaerator is then raised to boiler pressure by the feed
pump. The feedwater may then be again heated in a high pressure heater. This
pressurised feed then enters the boiler through the feed regulator (in the main
feed line) or through the auxiliary feed line).

Excess water at the deaerator flows, through an automatic valve, to the make
up or feed tank. If the level in the deaerator becomes too low, make up water
is fed to the condenser hotwell from the feed tank (again through a control
valve).

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Activity 7.1
Both the open and closed feed systems have two sets of pumps for some
purposes. One pump is normally running, while the other is shut down.

What is/are the purpose/s of having two pumps?

1.4 Other Typical Components

Other components of the feed system which will be present are:
• Valves;
• Contaminated Drains Tank;
• Salinity Detector;
• Other Monitoring devices;
• Chemical Dosing.

Valves
Valves will be present in the system. Some are used for isolation of shut down
or malfunctioning equipment and are manually operated globe or gate valves.
Other valves are used for control purposes, and are automatically operated,
typically using compressed air as the operating medium.

Contaminated Drains Tank

If steam is used in circumstances where there is a possibility of contamination
by oil (such as fuel oil heating for viscosity control), the drains from these
services may be led to a contaminated drains tank before collecting in the
atmospheric drains tank. This tank, regularly monitored by ship’s staff for oil
contamination, helps to reduce the possibility of oil contamination of the main
feed system. Alternatively, a steam to steam generator may be used.

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Salinity Detector
Seawater or fresh water contamination of the condensate is very undesirable
since they contain salts and gases which can cause corrosion and scale
formation of the steam plant, especially in the boiler. A salinity detector is
located after the extraction pump discharge to detect seawater or fresh water
contamination.

The detector measures the conductivity of the condensate. Salt or fresh water
contamination increases the electrical conductivity of the water, due to the
presence of the salts and other contaminants. Temperature compensation (in
other words, an allowance made for water temperature), is needed, since
conductivity changes as the water temperature changes. If the conductivity of
the water, measured in mho’s, increases, the detector will trip an alarm.

Other Monitoring devices

As well as the salinity detector, other monitoring devices such as pressure
gauges and temperature sensors will be present at points in the feed system.
These devices may be local (ie, they are read or recorded locally by the
watchkeeper); others may be remote, connected to the engine room monitoring
system for control and/or alarm actuation.

Chemical Dosing
Chemicals are used to protect the steam system from corrosion and scale
formation. These chemicals must be added, or dosed, into the feed system.

Most chemicals are added using a dosing pot, one typical location for this
dosing is in the high pressure supply section of the feed system, just before the
feed regulating valve. The chemicals are mixed with water and poured into a
chamber. The lid of the chamber is secured and the chamber is vented of air.
The line is pressurised with feedwater, which forces the chemicals into the feed
system.

Some chemicals, such as hydrazine, must be added continuously. Hydrazine

removes oxygen from water, and is called an oxygen scavenger. The
necessary amount of hydrazine is mixed with water in a tank. This tank
supplies a metering pump, which injects a small but continuous amount of
chemical into the feed system between the deaerator and the main feed pump.

Hydrazine, or its derivatives, is dangerous. It is known to cause cancer,

and is also explosive.
Correct storage and handling procedures and precautions must always be
followed.
Always use correct personal protective equipment when working with
hydrazine.

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2 Condensers
2.1 Purposes of a Condenser
A condenser removes energy from waste steam, causing it to condense.

The purposes of the main condenser are to:

• Fully condense waste steam from the main turbine;
• Remove gases from the steam;
• Create a vacuum to maximise turbine work;
• Supply water to the rest of the feed system.

Fully condense waste steam from the main turbine

Waste steam must be changed back to water before it can be re-used in the rest
of the steam plant.

Remove gases from the steam

Gases are undesirable in the condenser and steam plant because:
• They increase condenser pressure (ie reduce the vacuum);
• They lower the heat transfer between the steam and cooling water in the
condenser;
• Oxygen must be removed from the feedwater before the feed water enters
the boiler. Removal of the oxygen at later stages in the steam plant is much
more costly.

Create a vacuum to maximise turbine work

By increasing the pressure difference between turbine inlet and exhaust, a
maximum of output work is possible. Reducing the exhaust steam pressure
(creating a vacuum in the condenser) will increase this pressure difference and
produce more work.

Typically, a main condenser will maintain 95% vacuum with the cooling
seawater temperature at 24oC.

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Maintaining a vacuum depends on:

• Cooling seawater temperature and flow;
• Heat transfer surface condition (if the tubes are dirty, the steam will not
condense and the vacuum will reduce);
• The effectiveness of sealing pumps, turbine glands, joints and other such
places where air can leak in.

Supply water to the rest of the feed system

As steam is taken away from the boiler, its water level is reduced. Feed water
replenishes the water in the boiler and keeps the boiler safe from overheating.
The condenser recycles the water for re-use in the boiler.

2.2 Types of Condensers

Main and auxiliary condensers used in steam plants are surface condensers.
This is where cooling water is passed through tubes, around which the steam
condenses. The condensed steam then falls to the bottom of the condenser
shell and is drained off by the condensate extraction pump.

Auxiliary condenser
Surface condensers used for auxiliary purposes such as condensing steam from
a steam turbo-alternator, can be called simple or non-regenerative condensers.
We will learn about regenerative condensers later in this Section.

Figure 7-3 Auxiliary Condenser

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This condenser has a circular shell which contains a large number of cooling
tubes arranged in a group or groups called tube nests. The steam enters the
condenser shell at the top and flows over the cooling tubes, so condensing.
The condensate collects in the hotwell at the bottom of the condenser.

The end covers of the condenser are sometimes called the waterboxes. This is
where the cooling seawater enters and leaves the condenser, and is directed
through the tubes. If the cooling seawater passes only once through the
condenser, it is called a single-pass condenser, while other condensers are two-
pass.

The condenser shown in figure 7-3 is a two pass condenser. The cooling
seawater enters the condenser at the left hand waterbox and flows (through
tubes) to the right hand water box. This water then is diverted back through
another set of tubes to the left hand water box. An internal division or baffle
plate in the left hand water box stops the incoming seawater from going
straight out with the exiting seawater.

Sacrificial anodes bolted in the waterboxes are used to minimise corrosion due
to the seawater. The inside surfaces of the waterboxes may also be covered
with neoprene which also minimises corrosion.

This condenser has a connection to an air pump. This is a positive

displacement pump which creates a vacuum in the steam space.

Support plates stop long tubes sagging or vibrating.

Some auxiliary condensers are back pressure condensers, where the condenser
is not at a vacuum but is at atmospheric pressure (or slightly higher).

Main condenser
The problem with the simple surface condenser is that undercooling of the
condensate will occur.

Undercooling is where the condensate is cooled so much that its temperature is

5 to 10oC below the saturation temperature of the water at that pressure. This
is unwanted, since this extra energy that has been removed from the water will
have to be replaced, which means that fuel consumption will increase.

Ideally, a condenser should only remove just enough energy from the
steam to cause it to condense.

Also, water at boiling temperature (saturation temperature) will release

dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. If the condensate is
undercooled, the feed water entering the boiler will contain gases dissolved in
it.

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Modern high pressure condensers minimise undercooling to no more that 0.5 to

1oC by using regeneration.

Figure 7-4 Regenerative Main Condenser

A regenerative condenser has steam and air flow patterns which stop the
condensate being excessively cooled.

Consider the regenerative condenser shown in figure 7-4. The left hand side of
the picture is an external view of the condenser, showing cooling seawater
flowing into and out of the waterboxes. The right hand side of the picture
shows the internal workings of the condenser. The main difference of this
condenser is that there is a central steam path from the steam inlet to the
hotwell.

Most of the steam passes over the tubes and is condensed, but the steam in the
central path flows straight down and makes contact with the condensate at the
hotwell. This steam keeps the condensate in the hotwell at (or very close to)
boiling point.

A vacuum connection at the coolest point in the condenser removes air and
some steam vapour. A baffle plate stops steam just entering the condenser
from being drawn into this vacuum connection.

Support plates stop bending and vibration of long tubes, as in auxiliary

condensers.

Cooling seawater

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Activity 7.2
Why is seawater, rather than fresh water, used to provide cooling in steam
condensers?

The cooling seawater is pumped through the condenser by a circulating pump.

This pump must provide a large volume of water at a low pressure. Large
pumps are needed to supply this high volume, low pressure cooling seawater.
This water is not generally used for any other purpose but to provide cooling
water for the condenser.

Some steam ships have used a scoop to supply water to the main condenser.
When the ship is under way, a scoop is extended out from the hull. The motion
of the ship through the sea scoops the water into condenser seawater pipeline
and pushes this water through the condenser. In port or at low speeds, an
auxiliary circulating pump cuts in automatically to provide the necessary
seawater circulation.

Activity 7.3
What will cause the auxiliary circulating pump to automatically cut in when
the ship’s speed is low?

Condenser support
The condenser must be supported. Allowances must also be made for
expansion and contraction of the condenser and turbine as they warm up and
cool down.

There are a number of methods of supporting the condenser, three examples

are given:
• Condenser flange bolted directly to the turbine flange, turbine and
condenser supported on flexible supports such as springs and panting
beams. Condenser hangs from the support and is free to expand down.

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Figure 7-5 Hanging Condenser

• Condenser supported from underneath by flexible support springs.

Figure 7-6 Flexibly Supported Condenser

• Condenser rigidly secured at the coolest end and allowed to expand at the
steam inlet. This method can be used to support a condenser where the
steam flows axially in from the turbine.

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Figure 7-7 Axial Flow Condenser Support

An expansion joint between the turbine and the condenser can be used to allow
for the relative expansion between these two items.

Extra support, using chocks and jacks, must be provided to support the
condenser when filling the steam side of the condenser with distilled water
when leak testing.

2.3 Condenser Materials

Most condenser shells are constructed from mild steel plate, ribbed to
withstand negative pressures (vacuum) on the large surfaces.

Brass tube plates are bolted to the shell with collar bolts to make it easy to
remove the waterboxes.

Figure 7-8 Waterbox Connection Of Condenser

Waterboxes may be made of cast iron or mild steel, neoprene or bonded-rubber

coated.

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Tubes are generally made from some form of copper alloy, such as:
• 70% copper, 30% nickel
• 70% copper, 30% zinc (with arsenic to minimise seawater corrosion of the
zinc)
• 76% copper, 28% zinc, 2% aluminium with small amounts of arsenic,
antimony, and/or tin (this is called aluminium brass).

Tubes may also be made from titanium.

The tubes are rolled and bell mouthed at the inlet end and packed at the
discharge end to allow for expansion. Bell mouthing is used to give a smooth
flow as the water enters and leaves the tubes.

Figure 7-9 Condenser Tube Expanded & Packed

Alternatively, the tubes can be expanded and bell mouthed at both ends. If so,
expansion of the tubes may be allowed for by having expansion joints in the
shell.

Plastic inserts or ferrules are often used in the tube ends. These inserts protect
the tube ends from erosion, which leads to seawater leakage into the
condensate.

Baffles and support plates inside the condenser are typically made from mild
steel plate.

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3. Air Ejectors
3.1 Purpose & Operating Principles
Air ejectors remove ‘air’ (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases) from
the condenser.

The pipeline between the ejector and the condenser is connected in such a way
that as little steam as possible is drawn off with the air.

Figure 7-10 Air Ejector

Two stages of convergent/divergent nozzles and condensers are often used.

Steam passes through a nozzle and enters a venturi. The high velocity of the
steam creates a suction which draws air and some steam vapour from the
condenser. The mixture then passes into a condensing unit through which
feedwater is passing. The mixture is cooled and most of the steam is
condensed. This condensed vapour is returned to the main condenser via a
loop seal. The remaining gases and vapours are then drawn into the next stage
where the process is repeated. Any remaining gases are released to the
atmosphere through a vacuum retaining valve (ie, a non-return valve).

The feedwater, which typically passes through U-tubes (or else expansion
allowances must be made), is itself heated which improves the thermal
efficiency of the steam plant.

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On start-up, the last stage ejector is open first. This creates the initial vacuum
and prevents vapour/air lockup in the unit.

A pair of ejectors may be fitted to each stage. Only one ejector per stage is
needed to create the necessary vacuum, the other ejectors are spare.

Relief valves are fitted on each stage to relieve any overpressure which could
occur.

3.2 Air Ejector Materials

The nozzles of the air ejector may be monel or stainless steel. The condensing
tubes may be aluminium brass, while the remainder of the air ejector is
typically constructed from mild steel.

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4. Extraction Pumps
4.1 Purposes & Operating Principles
The condensate extraction pump is used to draw water from the hotwell
of the condenser.

The pump provides sufficient pressure to deliver the feed water to the
deaerator.

The extraction pump is usually a two stage, vertical centrifugal pump.

The first stage impeller draws in water which is under a high vacuum and is
very close to boiling point. It is very difficult to pump this water, so the
purpose of the first stage is to give a slight positive pressure to the condensate
so that it can be pumped effectively by the second stage. Any vapour formed
in the eye of the first stage impeller is vented back to the condenser. This
helps to stop vacuum locking of the pump.

Vacuum locking is where the water flow through the pump stops.

Figure 7-11 Extraction Pump

The second stage impeller provides the necessary pressure to pump the water
to the deaerator.
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Some extraction pumps have small diameter piping, called balance lines,
between the pump discharge and the condenser (or the pump inlet). These
balance lines also help to prevent vacuum locking of the pump.

A level control system is used to maintain a minimum level of water in the

hotwell, again to stop the pump from suffering a vacuum lock. If the hotwell
level becomes too low, the pump discharge is returned to the hotwell.

Other extraction pumps are constructed so that they are self-regulating. These
pumps are used with dry bottomed condensers (ie, where the hotwell is below
the main chamber of the condenser). As the head of water above the pump
suction reduces, the pump starts to cavitate (vapour bubbles form and the pump
loses suction, ie it vacuum locks). The condensate level in the hotwell
increases. As the hotwell water level increases, the pump picks up suction and
the level falls to establish a balanced flow rate.

4.2 Extraction Pump Materials

The pump casing may be constructed from cast iron or cast steel, the impellers
and pump shaft are typically made from stainless steel. Internal bearings and
casing/wear rings are constructed out of leaded bronze.

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5. Feed Heaters
5.1 Purposes & Operating Principles
The glands steam condenser, drains cooler, and low pressure feed heater are
shell and tube heat exchangers. They provide cooling for drains, condense
gland steam and also heat the feedwater.

Heating the feedwater before it enters the boiler has the following
advantages:
• Improves thermal efficiency of the steam plant;
• Keeping the feed hot minimises the amount of dissolved gases present;
• Minimises the thermal shock of cold water entering the hot boiler.

The glands steam condenser collects steam and air from the turbine glands
steam system. These returns are cooled by the feedwater, and the steam is
condensed. This condensate is then drained to the atmospheric through a loop
seal or steam trap, while the air is vented to atmosphere.

The drains cooler receives exhaust steam from various auxiliary steam services
and condenses them. The condensate again drains to the atmospheric drains
tank through a sealing arrangement as above.

The low pressure feed heater uses either steam bled from the turbine casing or
from the auxiliary steam range to heat the feedwater. Feed temperature may
rise by up to 50OC. Typical proportions of feedwater to steam are 10:1. The
steam condensed in the low pressure feed heater drains, through a control
valve, to the atmospheric drains tank or condenser.

5.2 Feed Heater Materials

Feed heaters are typically constructed like other shell and tube heat
exchangers. The shell and endcovers are fabricated from steel, while the tubes
and tube plates are made from copper or brass alloys.

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6. The Deaerator
6.1 Purposes of the Deaerator
The deaerator is a direct contact feed heater where steam mixes with the
feedwater as it provides heating. Basically, it is a tank of water high in the
engine room which is directly heated by steam.

The purposes of the deaerator are:

• Remove gases from the feedwater (deaeration);
• Feed heating;
• Stop main feed pump gassing up;
• Acts as a surge tank.

Deaeration and feed heating

The gas which is of greatest concern for the boiler is oxygen. Oxygen in high
pressure boilers can cause rapid corrosion. The oxygen level of the feedwater
is reduced from 0.2 millilitres of oxygen per litre of water (0.2ml/l) to o.005
ml/l. The deaerator achieves this reduction of oxygen by intimately mixing the
feedwater with steam, which raises the feedwater to boiling point, releasing
any dissolved gases.

These gases are then cooled to reclaim any steam carried over with the gases
and then vented to atmosphere.

Gassing Up Prevention
The deaerator supplies feedwater to the main feed pump. Feedwater in the
deaerator is at or very close to boiling point, and will vapourise (or flash off)
into steam if the pressure drops. This effect can cause gassing up, where the
feed pump creates a sufficient pressure drop to vapourise the water at the pump
inlet.

The deaerator is placed as high as possible above the main feed pump. This
arrangement means that there is a head of water between the deaerator outlet
and the main feed pump suction. Water pressure at the pump inlet is thus
increased and the possibility of gassing up is reduced.

The deaerator in some steam plants is placed low in the engine room. With
this layout, a booster pump after the deaerator is fitted to stop the feed pump
gassing up.

Surge Tank
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Since the deaerator contains a mass of water, it acts as a surge tank for the
main feed pump. Consider when the steam plant is running at steady state and
the steam demand suddenly increases. The feed regulator increases the feed
flow rate into the boiler, however, the extra steam that is used has not had time
to be used in the turbine, condensed and returned to the feed system. Without
the deaerator, the feed pump may run out of its water supply as the feed flow
rate increases. The reserve of water in the deaerator allows for the sudden
increase in feed flow rate (the level of water in the deaerator falls) and the feed
pump is not starved of water. As the steam plant returns to steady state
conditions, the deaerator level returns to normal.

Alternatively, if there is a sudden decrease in steam demand, the feed regulator

closes in and the main feed pump output reduces. The feed flow rate of the
system is now too great; in this case, the extra water will be stored in the
deaerator.

If the deaerator level falls too much (indicating a loss of water or steam), a
control valve automatically opens and make up feed from the feed tank drains
into the condenser, restoring the volume of water in the feed system.

If the deaerator level rises too much (which could cause the deaerator to
malfunction), a control valve opens and overflow from the deaerator drains to
the make up feed tank.

6.2 Operation of a Deaerator

A typical deaerator is shown in figure 7-12.

Feedwater enters a chamber in the top of the deaerator. The supply pressure
forces this water through spring loaded spray valves, causing the water to
atomise or break into a large number of very small water droplets. This water
spray gives a large contact area between the feedwater and the steam.

Most of the feedwater falls onto the upper surface of the inner cone which is
heated by the incoming steam. This feedwater then enters the central passage
and leaves through a narrow opening in a venturi. The feedwater at this
venturi draws steam through with it, and intimate mixing of the feedwater and
steam occurs.

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Figure 7-12 Deaerator

The feedwater and condensed steam collects in the bottom chamber which acts
as the storage tank.

Heating steam enters the deaerator, initially heating the cone assembly before
mixing with the feedwater.

This heating of the feedwater releases any gases dissolved in the feedwater.
These released gases leave through vent connection and pass through a vent
condenser. Water vapour which has carried over with the gases is condensed
and returned.

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6.3 Deaerator Materials

The deaerator shell is fabricated from steel plate. Insulation in the form of
layers of calcium silicate, glass wool and galvanised steel cladding covers the
shell. Internal components are fabricated from steel, while stainless steel is
used for the atomiser nozzles.

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7. Main Feed Pump

7.1 Purpose of Main Feed Pump
The main feed pump forces the feedwater, at high pressure and the
necessary flow rate, into the boiler.

For low pressure boilers, the feed pump is a multi-stage electric driven pump.

The main feed pump of a steam ship, however, is driven by a steam turbine.

Four reasons for using a steam turbine are:

• The pump requires a large amount of power to supply the water at the high
pressure and flow rate needed;
• The pump must be capable of supplying very quickly changing flow rates;
• Surges in pump power needs do not affect the ship’s electrical system;
• Electrical power black out will not starve the boiler of feedwater.

Two main feed pumps are fitted, one in operation and the other on standby.
Auxiliary electric feed pumps are sometimes fitted to provide feedwater to the
boiler when there is no steam available (eg on initial flash up).

7.2 Main Feed Pump Operation &

Construction
A typical main feed pump for a steam ship is shown in figure 7-13.

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Figure 7-13 Main Feed Pump General Arrangement

A simple sketch of this pump is given in figure 7-14:

Figure 7-14 Main Feed Pump Simplified Sketch

The pump shown in figures 7-13 and 7-14 is a horizontal, two stage
centrifugal, steam turbine driven pump. The driving turbine is mounted on the
same shaft as the pump impellers and is contained in an integrally cast steel
casing. The bearings for this pump are bronze impregnated with PTFE (poly-
tetra-fluoro-ethylene or teflon) and are lubricated by filtered pressure reduced
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water tapped from the first stage impeller discharge. Other main feed pumps
use more traditional bearing materials such as white metal and are oil
lubricated.

The pump is controlled by a differential pressure governor; it has a venturi

fitted in the discharge connection which gives a pressure drop proportional to
flow rate. This pressure drop is used to control the steam flow to the turbine.

Feed pump components are normally made from creep resistant steel.

Turbine End

Turbine principles and operation are discussed in Section 8.

Steam at main boiler pressure passes to the nozzle box through an isolating
valve, a strainer and a throttle valve.

The turbine itself operates on the impulse principle, and has one pressure stage
and two velocity stages. Blades are fixed (by fir tree root connections) to a
turbine wheel connected to the pump shaft by a saw tooth coupling known as a
Hirth coupling. The exhaust steam is not sent to a condenser but is delivered
to an auxiliary steam range for further use (such as feed heating).

The stainless steel pump shaft is hollow at the turbine end. This creates a heat
shield between the turbine wheel and the bearing, to stop the bearing
overheating.

Overspeed protection is achieved by using a spring loaded weight mounted in

the shaft. If the turbine speed becomes too great (eg if the pump gasses up),
this weight moves radially outwards and strikes a lever which shuts the steam
stop.

Pump End
Two stainless steel impellers and a stainless steel balance piston are keyed onto
the pump shaft.

Two impellers are needed to give a two stage pressure increase to the
feedwater. This is necessary since the pump suction pressure is relatively low
(eg 3 to 5 bar) while the discharge is very high (boiler pressure, eg 60 bar).

One important feature of the pump is the balance piston, which is used to
counteract the thrust due to the pressure difference acting on the impellers.
The inlet pressure acting on the inlet side of the impellers creates an axial
force. However, the very high discharge pressure acting on the outlet side of
the impeller creates a far greater axial force acting in the opposite direction.

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The resultant force tends to push the impellers and shaft towards the pump
suction end.

The thrust bearing of the pump, while suitable for loads encountered at start up
and shut down, is not able to bear these high axial forces. The balance piston
in its chamber uses hydraulic forces to resist the axial thrust forces, and keeps
the rotating components of the pump in correct position.

Activity 7.5
For a steam plant you are familiar with, or as instructed by your supervisor,
make a simple sketch (or sketches) of the feed system. On this sketch:
• Label all components;
• Show water and steam flow directions;
• Indicate typical pressure and temperatures (where possible).

Do this activity using your own paper, and attach it to this page when finished.

Figure 7-15 Feed Pump Hydraulic Balance

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8. Defects
Many different defects can occur in the feed system. Some defects will have
dramatic effects; others are minor and may not have immediate or noticeable
effects.

The actions taken when a defect is noticed depends to a large degree on the
defect. Defects which affect the safety of the steam plant (such as main feed
pump failure causing loss of feed water to the boiler) must be acted upon
immediately according to ship’s procedures and the Chief Engineer’s Standing
Orders. Other defects, or suspicion of defects, should be reported to the
Second Engineer; the watchkeeper should then follow the Second Engineer’s
instructions.

Efficient and regular watchkeeping/monitoring of the feed system is the

best method of detecting defects. This will include:
• Monitoring of system flows, pressures and temperatures;
• Noticing any sudden changes in these values;
• Noticing any small but increasing differences in these values (this is
called trend analysis);
• Regular inspection and maintenance of components;
• Performing tests on the boiler and feed water to detect contaminants
and/or determine the amount of chemical additives present (this is
called the chemical reserve).

Be aware that some symptoms may indicate a secondary defect. A

secondary defect is caused by another defect of the system. Thus, even if
the secondary defect is repaired, the original problem has still not been
fixed or even noticed.

Some defects which may occur are:

• Loss of vacuum in condenser;
• Feed contamination;
• Deaerator malfunction;
• Main feed pump failure.

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Loss of vacuum in condenser

Loss of condenser vacuum may be due to:
• Poor cooling water flow (blockages, dirty filters, shut valves, defective
circulating pump);
• Rising condenser level (extraction pump failure, condenser level control
system failure);
• Air leakage into the turbine or condenser;
• Poor heat transfer (sea temperature high, dirty tubes);
• Defective air ejector.

All these causes will reduce condenser vacuum, thus to identify which defect is
causing the problem, all possible information may be to be evaluated. For
example, if the condenser tubes are dirty, the loss of vacuum will be associated
with a rise in condensate temperature, while air leaks will cause a loss of
vacuum but the condensate temperature will remain normal.

Feed contamination
Contamination of the feed water may be initially detected by:
• Salinity detector readings increasing;
• Boiler water test results (eg results indicating a rise in chloride levels).

The source of contamination must be determined and repairs made as soon as

possible. Two likely sources are:
• Make up feed water contamination;
• Condenser tube leak.

If, for example, the fresh water generator is malfunctioning or is operated

incorrectly, the make up feed will be contaminated and this means that the
reserve supply of feed water is unsatisfactory. One way to minimise the
amount of contamination (when there are two make up feed tanks), is to have
one tank in use while the other is being filled (ie, stop the chance of both feed
tanks being contaminated).

Condenser tubes can be eroded or corroded, allowing cooling water to leak into
the condensate. Some condensers are so arranged that, once a leak is
suspected, the condenser load is reduced and one half of the condenser can be
shut down and leak tested at a time. Some condenser leaks can be detected by
isolating and draining the seawater side of the condenser, filling the steam side
with water and checking the tube ends for leakages. The addition of a
fluorescent dye and use of an ultraviolet lamp aids in detection of smaller
leaks. Another way to detect leaks is to isolate the cooling water side of the
condenser, but maintaining vacuum on the steam/condensate side. An
ultrasonic probe is then placed in each tube. A leaking tube will generate noise
as air enters the condenser through the leak. Once the leaking tube is

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identified, the tube is plugged either end. The condenser may still be operated
with a number of tubes plugged (the allowable maximum number should be
stated in ship’s procedures and/or maker’s manuals).

To remove or reduce the contamination, the boiler is blown down at decreased

intervals (to dilute it with clean make up water); extra amounts of water
treatment chemicals may also be added.

Deaerator malfunction
A malfunctioning deaerator may cause two problems:
• Failure of feed pump;
• Deaeration inadequate.

If the level control system for the deaerator malfunctions and the water level in
the deaerator falls, the feed pump may be starved of water. Alternatively, too
high a deaerator level may cause chilling of the water, which can inhibit the
deaeration process. If the spray nozzles are worn (causing poor atomisation of
the feed) or if temperatures drop, deaeration may again be impair. This will
allow gases to remain in the feedwater.

Careful monitoring of deaerator parameters such as pressure and temperature,

as well as regular inspection and maintenance of the deaerator and its systems,
will help in preventing or at least detecting problems early.

The watchkeeper should report any suspicions of malfunction to the Second

Engineer.

Main feed pump failure

If the main feed pump fails, the first action (performed automatically or by the
watchkeeper) is to start the standby pump. The failure can be due to a number
of causes, such as lubrication failure, pump gassing up, and/or pump overspeed
and trip.

If the main feed pump fails and boiler feed cannot be immediately
restored, steam demand should be reduced and the boiler shut down as
soon as possible.

Once feed to the boiler has been restored, the cause of the failure can be
investigated and rectification begun.

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Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt about high pressure steam plant feed systems
and their components. You should now refer to the learning outcome and
assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask yourself if
you can:

• Explain open and closed feed systems, identifying why closed feed systems
are superior for higher pressure installations;
• Illustrate and describe a typical closed feed system, showing any
interconnections and control functions;
• Describe the purposes, construction, materials of construction, and
operation of typical main and auxiliary condensers;
• Describe the purposes, construction, materials of construction, and
operation of condenser extraction pumps;
• Describe the purposes, construction, materials of construction, and
operation of air ejectors;
• Describe the purposes, construction, materials of construction, and
operation of feed heaters;
• Describe the purposes, construction, materials of construction, and
operation of deaerators;
• Describe the purposes, construction, materials of construction, and
operation of main feed pumps;
• Describe the purposes, construction, materials of construction, and
operation of other components used in feed systems, including chemical
injection equipment, atmospheric drains tanks, and contaminated drains
tanks; and
• .Describe symptoms, causes, effects, and actions to be taken to prevent or
address defects of feed system components.

If you have answered “no” to the above question, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 7
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.
1. Define a closed feed system, and briefly explain why this type of feed
system is used in high pressure steam plants.
2. Sketch a closed feed system suitable for a main steam plant, labelling all
components and indication typical pressures and temperatures.

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3. State and briefly explain the four functions of a feed system.

4. How is the vacuum in a main condenser generated and maintained?
5. State three functions of a deaerator and, with the aid of a simple sketch,
explain how a typical deaerator operates.

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 Section 8 Steam Turbines

Section 8

Steam Turbines

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Section Contents Page

Section 8: Steam Turbines

Learning Outcome 8 244

Assessment Criteria 244

Conditions 244

Section Introduction 245

1. Steam Turbine Fundamentals 246

2. Compounding 253

3. Steam Turbine Construction 260

4. Expansion Arrangements 267

5. Gland Sealing 271

6. Turbine Control 274

Section Summary 279

Progress Check 8 279

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Learning Outcome 8
On completion of this section you will be able to illustrate and describe the
principles and construction of main and auxiliary steam turbines.

Assessment Criteria
8.1. The action of nozzles in a steam turbine is explained.
8.2. The concepts of impulse and reaction turbines are explained.
8.3. Velocity and pressure compounding of impulse turbines are
explained.
8.4. The construction of typical steam turbines, including materials
used, blade design and fixing techniques, are described.
8.5. Turbine casing construction, including materials, is described.
8.6. Expansion allowances between rotor and stator, and turbine
and ship structure are described.
8.7. The purpose and operation of turbine gland sealing is
explained.
8.8. Methods of turbine control, including governing and safety
devices, are described.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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Section Introduction
The steam turbine is a device for obtaining mechanical work from the energy
stored in steam. Steam, superheated or dry saturated, enters the turbine with a
high energy content and leaves after giving up most of this energy.

Steam turbines are used to provide main propulsion, supply electrical power, or
to provide power to pumps.

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1. Steam Turbine Fundamentals

The advantages and disadvantages of steam turbines compared to diesel
engines for main propulsion are as follows.

Advantages of steam turbines:

• pure rotary motion - no reciprocating parts;
• no rubbing or friction of parts apart from bearings;
• high power/ weight/space ratio;
• low centre of gravity in ship;
• low maintenance costs;
• can give any power range required at sea.

Disadvantages of steam turbines:

• less efficient than a diesel engine;
• requires a steam boiler and other steam plant components;
• needs a separate astern turbine;
• low starting power;
• manoeuvring can be slightly sluggish.

The turbine consists essentially of two parts:

• Nozzles in which the thermal energy of the steam is converted to kinetic
energy, so that the steam leaves the nozzle at high velocity.
• Blades which are moved by the steam. The steam undergoes a change
in direction and velocity, which means that energy is imparted to the
blades.

The nozzles are located in the stationary casing of the turbine (the stator) while
the blades are attached to the rotating shaft (the rotor). Blades are normally
secured to discs or wheels on the rotor shaft.

One set of nozzles and blades is called a stage. Main propulsion turbines,
alternator turbines, and other such larger turbines will have a number of stages
to maximise steam use and increase efficiency.

Turbines operate at very high rotational speeds, up to about 12 500 rpm, while
the best propeller speed for efficient operation is around 70 to 80 rpm.
Therefore, the output from the turbine is reduced to the propeller speed by
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gearing. Double helical gearing has been used for many years in steam turbine
systems. Epicyclic gearing, with its compact and lightweight construction, is
also common in marine transmission systems.

1.1 Nozzles
Nozzles are devices fixed in the turbine casing which convert the steam
enthalpy (pressure and thermal energy) into kinetic energy (velocity).

A nozzle is a short flow passage which has a converging or

converging/diverging flow area.

Figure 8-1 Convergent Nozzle

Steam velocity after passing through a convergent nozzle will be sub-sonic

(slower than the speed of sound).

Figure 8-2 Convergent/Divergent Nozzle

Steam velocity after passing through a convergent/divergent nozzle will be

supersonic (faster than the speed of sound).

The convergent/divergent nozzle is also known as a De Laval nozzle.

The angle α of the divergent nozzle will generally be no greater than 12

degrees. If the angle is increased, the steam flow will become turbulent as it
moves from the divergent to the parallel section of the nozzle.
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A secondary purpose of nozzles is to guide the steam flow into the rotating
blades at the correct angle.

1.2 Principles of Operation

There are two main types of turbine:
• Impulse;
• Reaction (also known as Parson’s reaction).

The name refers to the type of force which acts on the blades to turn the
turbine wheel.

Impulse Turbines

Figure 8-3 Simple Impulse Turbine

The impulse turbine is made up of a ring (or ring section) of nozzles by a ring
of blades. High pressure, high energy steam is expanded in the nozzle to a
lower pressure, high velocity jet of steam.

The simple impulse turbine of figure 8-3 has the steam leaving the nozzle and
entering the turbine blades at right angles. This causes the steam to lose its
momentum, which has been converted to mechanical rotational energy of the
turbine rotor. However, this simple style of impulse turbine is very inefficient
and provides no real practical application for industrial use. A practical
impulse turbine has blading and steam flow arranged as in figure 8-4.

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Figure 8-4 Impulse Blading

The jet of steam from the nozzle is directed into the impulse blades and leaves
in a different direction. The angle of entry of the steam to the blades is such
that there is minimum shock to the blades or their supports (150 to 300,
depending on blade speed).

This change of direction results in a force on the blades. Blade passages are
parallel giving no pressure drop across the moving blades, but steam velocity
decreases. There is only a very small amount of axial end thrust on the shaft
and there is little or no steam leakage around the blade tips hence fine
clearances are not required. Fixed nozzles in the casing redirect the steam flow
after the blade.

An impulse turbine consisting of a single stage of nozzle and blading is

called a De Laval turbine.

Reaction Turbines

Figure 8-5 Reaction Turbine

This type of turbine is commonly called the Parson’s or Parson’s Reaction

turbine.

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 Section 8 Steam Turbines

The basic reaction principle is shown in figure 8-5. Steam issues out of
moving nozzles. As the steam passes through the nozzles, the action of
throttling causes reactions which rotates the turbine rotor.

The reaction turbine of figure 8-5 is also of limited industrial use. A practical
reaction turbine blading arrangement is shown in figure 8-6.

Figure 8-6 Reaction Blading

Here, a ring of fixed blades is attached to the casing, and a row of similar
blades are attached to the rotor, the fixed blades act as fixed nozzles while the
rotor blades act as moving nozzles. The blades have an aerofoil shape and are
arranged to provide a narrowing passage (a nozzle) which increase the steam’s
velocity.

This increase in steam velocity over the moving blade produces a reaction
effect. An impulse force is also created since the steam changes direction as it
flows through the moving blades. Thus, a more correct term for this type of
turbine would actually be impulse-reaction.

As steam pressure decreases through the turbine, each stage should increase in
height to accommodate the increase in volume. This is impractical, so a
compromise is made where two, three, or four blade rows have equal blade
lengths.

Steam pressure at the inlet side of blades will be greater than at the discharge
side. Therefore the clearance at the blade tips must be minimal in order to stop
steam leaking around the blades instead of passing through them. This is
particularly important at the earlier stages of the turbine, where steam pressures
are greater. To limit these losses, the high pressure reaction turbine may be
preceded by a short impulse stage known as a Curtis wheel.

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When manoeuvring, there should be larger clearances at the blade tips to avoid
rotor/casing contact. This is necessary to allow for distortions in the casing,
blading and rotor due to changing steam temperatures. Considerable blade tip
clearances in the order of 0.6 to 0.8 mm are needed. With reaction turbines
this can give considerable steam leakage. End tightening blading may be used
to accommodate these two conflicting requirements.

Figure 8-7 End Tightening

End tightening is where the blades have a shroud ring to minimise steam
leakage at the blade tips. Axial clearance between the shroud and next blade
root section then governs steam leakage. Radial clearance can now be up to 4
mm. The shrouding is fixed to the blades with tenons which are riveted or
welded over; it is knife-edged to minimise damage in case contact occurs.
When manoeuvring, the rotor can be jacked aft to give an axial clearance of
about 1.25 mm. For steady running, the rotor is jacked forward to give an axial
clearance of typically 0.25 mm.

The reaction effect of the Parson’s turbine imparts a heavy axial thrust on the
rotor shaft. This can be in the order of 400 to 500 tonnes. This load is too
great for the relatively small thrust bearing of the rotor. Also, the closeness of
moving parts in a turbine allows for only minimal axial movement. One
solution to both these problems is to use a dummy piston.

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Figure 8-8 Dummy Piston

Steam bled from a stage of the turbine acts on the dummy piston which is
mounted on the turbine rotor. The turbine casing around the dummy piston
acts as a cylinder. The force acting on the piston counteracts the reaction force
from the blades.

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2. Compounding
Compounding is achieved by two methods:
• the splitting up, into two or more stages, of the steam pressure or
velocity change through a turbine;
• using two separate turbines.

Using only a single stage in a large turbine results in extremely high steam
velocities. This gives poor efficiency. The energy from the steam is therefore
absorbed in a number of stages.

The first method of compounding is to use many rows of blades. Reaction

turbines, due to their operating principle, are compounding without any further
refinements.

Compounding within impulse turbines can be arranged in two ways, pressure

compounding and velocity compounding. These are described in sub-sections
2.1 and 2.2.

The second method of compounding uses two turbines, a high pressure, or hp,
turbine and a low pressure, or lp, turbine. Steam is supplied to the high
pressure turbine, exits through a cross over pipe, enters the low pressure
turbine, and finally exhausts into the condenser. This is known as cross
compounding.

The two turbines rotate at different speeds, but are connected through gearing
to the same output shaft.

Cross compounding is only used in main propulsion turbines.

A separate turbine with its own, separate, steam supply is required to provide
astern power. This astern turbine is commonly mounted on the low pressure
turbine shaft.

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Figure 8-9 Cross Compounding

The blading arrangement will usually be:

• large diameter turbine wheel and lower rotational speeds (low pressure
turbine); and
• small diameter wheels and higher rotational speeds (high pressure turbine).

2.1 Impulse Turbine Pressure Compounding

A pressure compounded impulse turbine is also known as a Rateau
turbine.

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Figure 8-10 Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine (Rateau)

This uses a number of stages of nozzle and blade to progressively reduce the
steam pressure. This gives acceptable steam flow speeds and better turbine
efficiency. It is like mounting several single stage impulse turbines on one
shaft.

Each stage consists of a set of nozzles fitted to a diaphragm ( a stationary disc

between each row of rotor blades) followed by a row of moving blades. The
diaphragm also stops steam leakage, ensuring that the steam passes through the
nozzles. Diaphragms are sealed at the rotor hub by spring backed labyrinths.
The rims are held tight against circumferential grooves in the casing by
pressure differentials. There must be allowance for radial expansion of the
diaphragm as the turbine increases from cold to operating temperature.

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Figure 8-11 Diaphragm

High pressure turbines may rotate at speeds from 6000 to 12 500 rpm.

In practice, there is a small pressure drop across the blades to compensate for
friction between the steam and blades. At each stage, the blade speed is half
that of the inlet steam flow speed. Each stage generates about the same power
and to give this, the pressure of nozzle outlet is half the pressure of the nozzle
inlet (eg. 60 to 30 bar, 30 to 15 bar, 15 to 7.5 bar etc.).

2.2 Impulse Turbine Velocity Compounding

A velocity compounded impulse turbine is also known as a Curtis wheel.

This type of impulse has a single nozzle with several rows of moving blades.
In between each stage of moving blade, there are fixed guide blades which
redirect the steam. This gives a short, lightweight turbine, with only the nozzle
at the turbine inlet experiencing high pressure and temperature.

There is no pressure drop across either fixed or moving blades, so the pressure
in the casing is steam pressure leaving the nozzle. The efficiency drops as the
number of rows increase.

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Figure 8-12 Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine (Curtis)

As steam passes through the blades, it slows down, so blade length must
increase to keep the mass flow rate up. Also, as steam passes over the fixed
nozzles, it slows down and volume increases due to friction reheating.

Although this type of turbine has a poorer efficiency than pressure

compounding, it is used for astern turbines, feed pumps, and the initial stage of
high pressure turbines, where efficiency is less important than other parameters
such as power output.

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2.3 Combined Impulse & Reaction Turbine

Figure 8-13 Reaction Turbine With Initial Impulse Stage

Figure 8-13 shows the arrangement and pressure/velocity curves of a Reaction

turbine preceded by an impulse stage.

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Activity 8.1
1. Identify the operating principle and method(s) of compounding used in a
main propulsion turbine you are familiar with.

2. For a main turbine you are familiar with, state typical rotational speeds of
the high pressure turbine, low pressure turbine, astern turbine, and
propeller shaft.

3. Identify the operating principle and method(s) of compounding used in a

auxiliary generator turbine you are familiar with.

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3. Steam Turbine Construction

3.1 High Pressure Turbines
Most high pressure rotors are of Rateau or pressure compounded impulse type
(with a Curtis wheel for the first stage). This arrangement needs only a few
stages, say 8 to 10, to achieve the necessary heat energy drop. This makes for
a short shaft hence a saving in weight and length.

The rotors are usually solid forged. This gives:

• Even expansion;
• Minimal high temperature distortion;
• Strength.

After initial forging of the rotor the necessary discs/wheels which will carry the
blades must be formed. High pressure rotors are gashed, where the discs are
hammer forged from the basic rotor forging (low pressure rotors may have
separate discs built on, ie. the discs are keyed then shrunk pressed on).

The wheels are normally the same thickness as the blades, but some wheels
may be thicker at the base for improved strength.

Holes are machined in the discs to ensure no build up in pressure on one side,
since this is unnecessary with pressure compounded impulse turbines. This
means that there is no pressure differential across the discs and hence little end
thrust.

A thrust bearing at the forward end of the turbine is used to axially locate the
rotor, while the after end of the turbine is connected to the gearbox through a
coupling. The thrust bearing is used to axially locate the rotor within the
casing, and to withstand the axial force exerted by the steam on the blades and
rotor.

Bearing journals are situated at the ends of the shaft, and there are raised rings
between these journals and the blading. These rings form part of the gland
sealing system.

The rotor can be a chrome molybdenum or 0.5% molybdenum steel.

Approximate material compositions are given in table 8-1 below.

Element Composition %
Carbon 0.27/0.37
Silicon 0.15/0.35
Chromium 0.85/1.25
Nickel 0.50 maximum

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Molybdenum 1.0/1.5
Vanadium 0.2/0.3
Manganese 0.7/1.0
Phosphorous 0.04 maximum
Sulphur 0.04 maximum
(phosphorous and sulphur are
contaminants)

3.2 Low Pressure Turbines

Low pressure turbines are longer and have a greater diameter than their high
pressure counterparts, and they operate at slower rotational speeds. The low
pressure turbine rotor also carries the astern turbine.

Low pressure turbines typically have between seven and nine ahead stages and
two or three separate astern stages.

The first four or five ahead rows may be Rateau, the remainder may be
reaction. The astern turbine may be a single wheel two stage Curtis wheel
followed by a single Rateau stage. The actual arrangements depend on the
astern turbine power requirements.

Exhaust steam may exit from the turbine down into a condenser located below
the turbine. Exhaust steam may exit from the turbine axially into a condenser
placed forward of the turbine. There will be arrangements such a deflection
plates to stop exhaust steam from the ahead blading passing into the astern
blading, and vice versa.

The rotor may be gashed or the wheels may be separate pieces keyed and
shrunk on to the shaft.

Thrust bearing, gland sealing and journal bearing arrangements will be similar
to that of the high pressure turbine.

The low pressure turbine does not experience the same steam conditions as the
high pressure turbine, so the material composition will be different:

Element Composition
%

Carbon 0.45
Silicon 0.15
Phosphorous 0.050 maximum
Sulphur 0.050 maximum

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3.3 Casings
The casing is that part of the turbine which is fixed to the ship structure. It
must be thick and strong enough to resist steam pressure and also to support
the rotor. Insulation is placed around the casing to reduce heat energy losses to
the engine room.

Casings are horizontally split, with the bearing housings in the bottom half
casing. Steam inlet and exhaust flanged openings are made integral with either
the top or bottom half casing. When hot, the casing expands axially; expansion
arrangements will be discussed later in this Section.

High pressure turbine casings are usually made from alloy steel, either:
• 3% molybdenum cast steel, or
• 0,5% Molybdenum 0.3% Vanadium cast steel.

Low pressure turbine casings may be made from cast steel or fabricated mild
steel.

Since the low pressure turbine exhausts into the condenser, it follows that the
cold condenser is very close to the turbine. This can create thermal stressing
and difficulties with relative expansion, especially with the astern turbine. One
arrangement for the astern turbine which addresses these problems is to use a
double casing.

Figure 8-14 Double Casing

An inner casing surrounds the astern turbine; it is subject to the pressures and
temperatures that the turbine experiences and is free to expand. The outer
casing supports the inner casing, and is subject only to exhaust pressure and

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temperature. The steam between the casings acts as an insulating layer to

reduce heat energy losses from the turbine.

Some steam plant installations use bled steam for purposes such as feed
heating. This is when piping is arranged to discharge some steam at one or two
stages within the turbine.

3.4 Turbine Blades

Blades are located on the circumference of each disc on the rotor shaft. Blades
generally are made from low carbon stainless steel; however alloy steel blades
may be used for high temperature applications (such as in the high pressure
turbine) and where water droplets may be present (in the last stages of the low
pressure turbine).

Two examples of blade composition are:

Element Composition A Composition B

% %

Carbon 0.24 0.45

Chromium 12 -
Nickel - 36
Phosphorous 0.04 maximum 0.04 maximum
Sulphur 0.04 maximum 0.04 maximum

The steam volume increases as it flows through the turbine. This increased
volume is catered for by having longer blades (and hence a larger casing size).

Blades must withstand:

• Steam velocity
• Steam temperature
• Centrifugal force caused by the high rotational speed of the turbine.

Blade Fixing
One important aspect of turbine blades is how they are secured to the disc.
There are a number of different methods of securing the blades to the discs, the
actual method used depends on manufacturer, operating principle, and
rotational speed.

Blades may appear loose on the rotor at room temperature, but they will
expand and become tight at operating temperature.

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One method for securing blades is to use segments of blading (10 to 50 blades
are brazed or spot welded together). Shrouding and/or lacing wire is then
fitted to each segment. Metal caulking strips (clearance 0.762 mm) are fitted
between each segment and the bottom of the root. Serrations at the root are
needed to withstand centrifugal stresses.

Figure 8-15 Reaction Blade Fixing

Shrouding is the use of a ring placed at the blade tips. This helps to minimise
steam leakage around the tips and may also aid in reducing vibration. Tenons
(projections from the blade tips) fit in holes in the shroud ring. These tenons
are then riveted (caulked) over.

Figure 8-16 Shroud & Tenon

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Lacing wire, run through holes in the blades and fastened to each blade, helps
to prevent certain types of vibration. Damping wire is similar to lacing wire,
but is not secured to the blades, apart from at its ends. If vibration occurs, the
friction between the wire and the rim of the hole help to reduce the degree of
vibration.

At higher speeds, where centrifugal stresses will be greater, the segment

method is not suitable. Individual blades will then be fitted. Each blade will
have its own root piece and (in some cases) shroud.

Individual blade root fixing arrangements include the following:

• t-root;
• bulb;
• fir tree.

The arrangement can be straddle or inverted, and examples are shown in figure
8-17.

Figure 8-17 Impulse Blade Root Sections

The t-root and bulb arrangements are simple and may be used for high pressure
and the initial stages of the low pressure turbine. Root fixing for the last stages
of the low pressure turbine can be inverted fir tree. This gives a tight fit, does
not depend on centrifugal forces for tightness, has the high strength needed for
the longer blading of these stages.

One method of blade fixing uses a gateway in the disc. Each blade is inserted
through this gateway and moved around the periphery, until the disc is packed
full of blades. A closing blade is fitted into the gateway and is riveted into
position by an axial pin through blade and disc. Rolling the disc flanks
adjacent to the blades (if recommended by the manufacturer) will tighten the
blades.

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The last few stages of the low pressure turbine will be subject to water damage.
Water striking the back of the blades can cause impact damage and also erode
the blade over time. Two common methods of avoiding or minimising water
damage are to:
• Use drains in the casing to collect and drain any water;
• Welding a strip of stellite (a special impact and erosion resistant alloy) to
the back of the leading edge of the blade.

Figure 8-18 Stellite Strip

Drains are fitted to both the high pressure and low pressure turbines.

Drains are fitted to areas where, at operating temperature, water will not
normally be present. These drains, automatic and/or manually operated,
removed water collected during warming up and shut down situations.

Drains in the low pressure turbine, where there is the possibility of water
always being present, will always be open.

Allowing the relatively cool condensed water to drain out of the turbine
can also prevent distortion due to uneven heating or localised cooling.

Activity 8.2
Why will there be moisture present with the steam in the final few stages of
the turbine?

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4. Expansion Arrangements
The rotor and casing must be allowed to expand and contract when fluctuations
in steam temperature and turbine load occur.

Expansion must be allowed for between the:

• Rotor and casing.
• Casing and ship structure.

Rotor & casing

The rotor is usually fixed at its free end by the thrust collar. Any axial
movement between the rotor and the casing is taken up at the gearbox end.
The method use to allow this is to allow the rotor to expand axially at its
gearbox coupling, the flexible coupling (this coupling also allows for small
misalignment). One typical coupling is the gear type, which must have
lubrication.

Figure 8-19 Gear Type Flexible Coupling

Another type of flexible coupling is the membrane type, which does not require
lubrication.

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Figure 8-20 Membrane Type Flexible Coupling

Casing & ship’s structure

The casing, on the other hand, is fixed at the gearbox end and allowed to
expand axially, relative to the ship structure, at the turbine’s free end.

The casing at the free end of the turbine uses sliding feet or panting beams
(like those used for boilers and condensers) which allow for casing expansion
at this end.

Figure 8-21 Turbine Sliding Foot

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A panting beam is a relatively long beam which is flexible in one direction but
not the other.

Figure 8-22 Turbine Panting Beams

The support at the gearbox end may use sliding feet or panting beams which
allow for some sideways movement while holding the casing securely against
fore and aft movement.

Vertical keys and slots on the supports and casing ensure that the casing is kept
central and in alignment while allowing for expansion.

It is important that all sliding arrangements are kept well lubricated (eg
by using molybdenum grease) and free of dirt and debris.

Pipes connected to the casing should have large bends or are fitted with
bellows pieces to enable the casing to move freely without interference from
the pipework. Also, the pipework is flexibly supported to allow movement of
pipework due to expansion and contraction, without putting loads on the
casing.

Indicators are fitted to casings, and show any movement between the rotor and
the casing. When the turbine is stopped, expansion can be checked by a finger
plate and feeler gauges. A spring-loaded spindle or poker gauge can be used to
check expansion when the turbine is running.

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Figure 8-23 Casing Expansion Indication

Figure 8-24 Rotor Expansion Indication

It is important to ensure that the expected expansion is taking place freely

when warming through the turbine.

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5. Gland Sealing
Gland sealing has two purposes:
• To stop high pressure steam leaking out of the turbine.
• To stop air leaking into the low pressure regions of the turbine.

Glands, or seals, are located where the turbine rotor shafts protrude out of the
casings and seal off the steam filled turbine spaces from the engine room. A
combination of labyrinth glands and a gland steam system is used.

Figure 8-25 Gland Sealing

The labyrinth gland provides a tortuous path to the escaping steam, and so
minimises leakage. A series of rings projecting from the rotor and casing
combine to form a labyrinth, or maze of winding passages. These
arrangements may also be called steam packing or frictionless seals.

Steam escaping out of the turbine must pass through this labyrinth, which
reduces the steam pressure down to atmospheric pressure, so reducing steam
leakage.

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Figure 8-26 Labyrinth Seal

Spring backed glands are often used. A spring arrangement is used to

maintain the gland ring at a position close to, but not quite touching, the rotor
shaft. If contact between the rotor and gland occurs, the gland moves against
the spring. This reduces the amount of rubbing that will occur. Rubbing is a
source of wear and friction related overheating which is highly undesirable.

Figure 8-27 Spring Backed Labyrinth Seal

The gland segments should provide minimal damage to the rotor if contact
occurs, and thus they may be made from:
• Brass;
• Copper/lead alloy;
• Lead/copper/nickel alloy (for higher temperature regions).

The gland steam system reduces the amount of labyrinth glands needed.

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Figure 8-28 Gland Steam System

Steam leaking from the higher pressure regions of the turbine leaks along the
gland until it reaches a pocket where the excess steam flows to a gland steam
manifold.

An air pump or air ejector to the gland steam condenser will extract any steam
which leaks further along the shaft to the outer pockets.

Steam from the gland steam manifold will flow to pockets where pressure is
low. Thus, instead of air being drawn in to the low pressure regions, steam
from the gland steam manifold will flow instead.

Any air which leaks in to the labyrinth gland from the engine room will also be
drawn off to the gland steam condenser.

A gland steam controller maintains the pressure of steam in the gland steam
manifold. For example, the pressure may be maintained in the range of 0.5 to
1.0 bar. If the pressure in the manifold becomes less, a supply valve opens and
admits steam to the manifold. At high turbine load, the pressure in the
manifold will increase; in this situation a spill valve will open, and steam
pressure will drop.

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6. Turbine Control
The valves which admit steam to the ahead or astern turbines are known as the
manoeuvring valves. These valves are hydraulically or electro-hydraulically
actuated by an independent system employing a main and standby set of
pumps. Local hand operation is also possible in the event of remote control
system failure.

Opening the ahead or astern manoeuvring valve admits steam to the main
ahead or astern nozzle box, through which the steam enters the turbine.

The arc of nozzles through which steam enters the turbine is called the nozzle
belt.

Many plants will have a system which sprays water into the astern steam
as it flows into the turbine. This cools the superheated steam so that the
condenser will not become overheated. Even with this water spray, astern
power is normally limited to 1 hour in duration, in order to avoid
overheating the condenser with subsequent damage.

A temperature probe may also be used to indicate overheating.

6.1 Control Methods

A number of means are used to control steam flow through the turbine
and hence the output power. These methods include:
• Throttle admission control;
• Throttle admission plus hand control;
• Bar lift/sequential control.

Throttle admission control

The manoeuvring valve acts as a throttle valve. It is fully open at full load but
shut in for partial loads. This is a very simple method of control but creates
throttling losses when operating at part loads. Due to this, throttle admission
control will be used for small turbine units and the astern turbine control,
where control simplicity is quite desirable and throttling losses are more
acceptable.

Throttle admission plus hand control

The nozzle area is divided into groups in order to minimise nozzle throttling
losses. The throttle valve admits steam directly to one nozzle belt, generally
having about half the total nozzle area. The remaining groups have an
intervening manual isolating valve between the nozzles and the throttle valve.

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The concept by which this form of control operates can be explained as

follows. With only throttle control, to provide a certain turbine power the
throttle must be partially open. This gives throttling losses. With hand control,
other belts are manually shut, so steam is only flowing through the main nozzle
belt. Since there are fewer nozzles now available, the throttle valve must open
further than before. This means that throttling losses are reduced even though
steam flow is diminished.

Figure 8-29 Throttle Admission Plus Hand Control

Bar lift/Sequential Control

Throttle valve plus hand control reduces losses, but requires manual
intervention. Bar lift or sequential control achieves the same outcome of
reducing throttling losses, but is very easy to make fully automatic.

This method of control essentially consists of a bar which lifts valves in the
nozzle box in a pre-determined order. The ahead manoeuvring valve is then
purely an isolating valve and is not used for throttle control.

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Figure 8-30 Bar Lift Control

As the bar is raised by the control system, valve 1 will open and throttling will
control steam flow. As power demand increases, valve 1 will become fully
open. Valve 2 will then begin to open, so steam will flow with no throttling
losses to the first nozzle belt and will be throttled through to the second nozzle
belt. As power demand increases further, valve 2 will also become fully open
and valve 3 will control by throttling, and so on. At full load, all valves will be
fully open.

6.2 Astern Guardian Valve

When operating under normal ahead conditions, steam to the astern turbine
should not be admitted. If steam does leak past the astern manoeuvring valve,
it will enter the astern turbine and, due to friction and windage, will cause
power loss, overheating and possible damage.

A double shut off arrangement is often used as a precaution. This consists of

an astern guardian valve located between the astern manoeuvring valve and
turbine.

One arrangement of this valve is shown in figure 8-31. If the ahead

manoeuvring is open steam will be admitted to the piston. This piston will
actuate and the guardian valve will be shut. Even if the astern valve leaks or is
opened, steam will not be admitted to the astern turbine.

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Figure 8-31 Astern Guardian Valve

Another astern guardian valve arrangement uses compressed air. Spring force
holds the valve shut. The turbine control system admits compressed air to the
guardian valve in order to open it and allow steam to the astern turbine.

6.3 Turbine Protection

The turbine must be protected from damage resulting from an internal turbine
fault or the malfunction of some associated equipment. Arrangements are
made in the system to shut the turbine down using an emergency stop and
solenoid valve. Operation of this device cuts off the hydraulic oil supply to the
manoeuvring valve and thus shuts off steam to the turbine.

Main turbine governors generally operate similar to a centrifugal pump and act
more like an emergency governor or emergency trip. If the speed of the
turbine becomes excessive, the governor will produce a higher discharge
pressure, which will act to trip or shut down the turbine.

Other main fault conditions which will trip the turbine include:
• Low lubricating oil pressure
• Low condenser vacuum
• Emergency (manual stop)
• High condensate level in condenser
• High high or low low boiler water level.
• Hp and lp rotor eccentricity or vibration.

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• Hp and lp turbine differential expansion (expansion between rotor and

casing)
• Hp and lp thrust bearing weardown
• Main thrust bearing weardown
• Turning gear engaged (this prevents starting of the turbine).

Auxiliary turbines will be fitted with an overspeed trip. In these types of

turbines however, the overspeed protection consists of a spring loaded weight
which is rotated by the rotor.

Figure 8-32 Overspeed Trip Arrangement

Figure 8-33 Overspeed Trip Bolt

As the turbine’s speed becomes excessive, the centrifugal force acting on the
weight causes it to move radially outwards against spring force. Eventually the
weight will strike a spring loaded lever which will trip the turbine. Before the
turbine can be started again, this trip lever must be re-set.

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Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt about the construction and principles of
operation of steam turbines. You should now refer to the learning outcome and
assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask yourself if
you can:

• Explain the action of nozzles in steam turbines;

• Explain the concepts of impulse and reaction turbines, and how they differ;
• Explain compounding of steam turbines;
• Describe the construction and materials of typical steam turbine rotors and
their blading;
• Describe the construction and materials of turbine casings, stating
differences between high pressure and low pressure casings;
• Describe how expansion is catered for between the turbine rotor and
casings, and between casings and the ship’s structure;
• Explain why and how gland sealing is used;
• Illustrate and describe a typical gland steam sealing system; and
• Describe methods of turbine control, including speed control and safety
devices.

If you have answered “no” to the above question, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 8
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.

1. State two (2) advantages and two (2) disadvantages of steam turbines
compared to diesel engines for main propulsion purposes.
2. Briefly explain with the aid of sketches, the operating principle of an
impulse steam turbine.
3. Briefly explain what pressure compounding of an impulse steam turbine
means.
4. Identify the purpose of fixing stellite strips to a turbine blade.
5. What is the purpose of the astern guardian valve of a steam turbine?
6. Make a simple, labelled sketch of a steam turbine gland steam system.

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Section 9

Lubrication of Steam
Turbines

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Section Contents Page

Section 9: Lubrication of Steam Turbines

Learning Outcome 9 282

Assessment Criteria 282

Conditions 282

Section Introduction 282

1. Lubrication Requirements 283

2. Lubricating Oil Systems 285

3. Lubrication Faults 293

Section Summary 297

Progress Check 9 297

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Learning Outcome 9
On completion of this section you will be able to describe and evaluate
methods of lubricating the principle components of a marine steam turbine and
its associated gearing, and evaluate common faults.

Assessment Criteria
9.1. Lubrication requirements to a marine steam turbine and its associated
gearing are identified.
9.2. A typical steam turbine lubricating oil system, including all components
normally found therein, is described.
9.3. Normal operating pressures and temperatures of a steam turbine system
are stated.
9.4. The distribution of lubricating oil to the bearings and gearing of a steam
turbine is described.
9.5. Common lubrication faults, symptoms, causes, and responsive actions
are identified and evaluated.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

Section Introduction
Lubrication of a steam turbine and its gearing is vital for long life and safety of
operation. You will learn about the needs for lubricating these components,
how lubrication is achieved, and finally you will learn about common
lubrication faults and how to rectify them.

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1. Lubrication Requirements
1.1 Lubrication Purposes
The purposes of a lubricant for steam turbines and gearing are to:
• Lubricate;
• Cool;
• Clean;
• Prevent corrosion;
• Provide hydraulic power.

Friction consumes energy. Reducing friction between the moving parts will
reduce this energy loss. Friction also produces wear which is unacceptable
damage. Since a turbine rotates at thousands of revolutions per minute, this
friction must be reduced to a minimum.

Friction increases part temperature. Also, there will be heat energy transfer
from the steam to the turbine which will be conducted along the metal to the
bearings. The flow of large quantities of lubricant provides cooling.

Any wear products, sludge, and other foreign matter must not be allowed to
accumulate at the bearings and gears. The flow of lubricant which cools these
parts also washes away contaminants.

Lubricating oil has additives which help to prevent corrosion, mainly due to
water.

Pressurised lubricating oil can be used for hydraulic power transmission.

Steam turbine plants can use this function of oil for remote control of the
turbine, emergency control, and emergency shut down.

1.2 Oil as the Lubricant

The lubricant most commonly used in steam turbine bearings and gearing is
oil. In performing the functions required of it, the oil must resist:
• Mixing with any water present (emulsifying).
• Becoming excessively thin carbonising under the action of the high
temperatures present.
• Carbonising under the action of the high temperatures present.
• Oxidising and become excessively acidic on exposure to air and other
oxidising processes.

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Additives to the oil:

• Improve the viscosity of the oil at high temperatures.
• Act as rust inhibitors to help keep the lubricated surfaces free of corrosion.
• Help the oil to resist oxidation.
• Act as wetting agents, which means that the oil adheres to the surfaces
being lubricated.
• Provide protection for gears operating with very high pressures between the
teeth.

Activity 9.1
For a steam turbine plant you are familiar with or with your supervisor’s
assisstance, identify the lubricating oil used and state the properties and
additives of the oil as noted in the oil manufacturer’s documentation.

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2. Lubricating Oil Systems

2.1 Components to be Lubricated
A common lubricating oil system is used to supply oil to the:
• turbine bearings;
• gearbox bearings;
• thrust bearings;
• meshing gear teeth;
• flexible couplings between the turbine and the gearbox.

Turbine and gearbox bearings

These bearings are typically steel lined with tin based white metal, and may be
supported in adjustable housings to allow alignment changes if required. Oil
enters a bearing through a port on either side.

The entry point is chamfered to help with oil distribution along the bearing.
No oil grooves are provided in these bearings.

These bearings also have a greater clearance between bearing and shaft
compared with a diesel engine, due to the greater rotational speeds of the
turbines (which requires large cooling oil flows).

The oil leaves the bearing at the top and returns to the drain tank. Oil from the
gearbox bearings may drain out of the bearing side and drain to the bottom of
the gearbox.

Flow and temperature sensors may be fitted in the oil discharge outlet from
each bearing for monitoring purposes. Alternatively, some bearings may have
temperature sensors fitted in the bearing itself.

Thrust bearings
Hp and lp thrust bearings, along with the main shaft thrust bearing, work on the
Michel or tilting pad principle (operating principles of this bearing type are
discussed in General Engineering Knowledge). These bearings use hydraulic
pressure of the oil to resist the forces involved while maintaining axial
alignment.

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Gear teeth sprayers

Gear teeth experience both sliding and rolling action as they perform. This
action of the teeth means that they are difficult to lubricate compared to shaft
bearings. Oil used to lubricate gear teeth must:
• Provide what is known as boundary or film lubrication;
• Stick on to the teeth as they work;
• Resist the high local forces that are generated.
•

Extreme pressure or EP additives may be mixed with the oil to improve its
lubrication properties under the high local loads that are encountered between
gear teeth. The oil must be chemically stable as it is often in the form of a mist
or spray and thus exposed to extensive oxidation through intimate contact with
air.

Sprayers direct oil on to the engaging side of the teeth (when running ahead).
Astern sprayers were used in older gearbox designs, but modern oils give
improved protection and these astern sprayers are now not common.

Couplings
Claw or gear type flexible couplings must be lubricated. The lubrication needs
of these couplings are similar to those of transmission gear teeth, and the oil is
supplied to the couplings using oil sprayers.

2.2 Types of Lubricating System

There are three main types of lubricating oil system used for main
propulsion turbines:
• Gravity;
• Pressure;
• Combined gravity and pressure.

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Gravity

Figure 9-1 Gravity Lubricating Oil System

Oil is pumped to a gravity tank (or tanks) located high above the turbine (at
least 9 to 10 metres). This tank feeds the system. Each pump has over
capacity - there is an overflow back to the sump through a sight glass. This
ensures that the gravity tank is always full. The pump speed is regulated to
give a steady overflow through a sight glass. The pumps can be either gear
wheel/screw or reciprocating piston types - the latter being acceptable because
the gravity tanks eliminate pulsations in oil pressure. The gravity tank has a
capacity so that if the pumps fail, the system will be lubricated for 3 - 5
minutes and/or time enough to allow the turbine to run down and come to rest.
Optimum oil inlet temperature is normally around 46.5o C. The sump tank
should be capable of accommodating all oil in the system. This is because all
the oil will drain into the sump when the system is shut down.

This is an old fashioned lubrication system.

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Pressure

Figure 9-2 Pressure Lubricating Oil System

Compared to the gravity system:

• the amount of piping is reduced (there is no gravity tank and so less
pipework needed);
• oil quantity is minimised; and
• there is space saving (less headroom needed).

The lubricating oil pump feeds all bearings and the gear teeth sprayers through
a pressure control valve set at 2 bar. A return line from this valve returns oil to
the sump (since the pump should produce pressures greater than 2 bar). Two
pumps are fitted in series. One pump will be running, the other pump acts as a
back up (this is known as having the pump on standby). Should the running
pump fail, the standby pump should cut in automatically.

This lubrication system is primarily used on warships.

If the standby pump does not start, oil flow will cease and damage due to
lack of lubrication and cooling will occur.

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Activity 9.2
State a situation where the running oil pump would stop and the standby pump
would not start.

Combined gravity and pressure

Combining the two systems of gravity and pressure lubrication overcomes

shortcomings of each of the individual systems, and has the advantages of each
system. This combination can be arranged in a number of ways (one method is
shown in figure 9-3) and is the common lubrication system used on modern
merchant ships.

A pump is driven mechanically from the gearbox, so that oil is being pumped
whenever the turbine and gearing is rotating. When the turbine and gearing is
not rotating, or is rotating at low speeds (during manoeuvring for example),
auxiliary electric pumps supply oil.

Oil is delivered to the system from the pump. At the same time, the gravity
tank is kept full by a delivery/overflow arrangement. If pump delivery fails,
the turbine will be automatically tripped; the steam supply to the turbine will
be shut off. The gravity tank supplies enough oil to the turbine and gearbox to
allow time for the rotation of the turbine to stop. This is known as the run
down time.

A non-return valve stops oil flowing back through stopped pumps. Orifice
plates to and from the gravity tank regulate oil flows.

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Figure 9-3 Combined Lubricating Oil System

The pump delivery is adjusted so that there is a continuous overflow return

from the gravity tank to the sump. A sight glass is placed in this overflow line.

Activity 9.3
1. Why should there be a continuous overflow from the gravity tank?

2. Why is there a sight glass in the overflow line back to the sump tank?

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2.3 Typical Components of a Lubricating Oil

System
The major components of a lubricating oil system are:
• Pumps;
• Coolers;
• Gravity tank;
• Filters;
• Oil cleaning system.

Pumps
Pumps are generally gear or screw type since they:
• Are compact;
• Are reliable;
• Are self priming; and
• Give a non-fluctuating oil supply.

Coolers
Typically the coolers are of the shell and tube type. Cooling seawater passes
through the tubes while the oil to be cooled flows around them. Oil pressure is
higher than water pressure to avoid seawater leaking in to the oil. A bypass
arrangement is used to maintain a set oil temperature.

Some systems use feedwater to cool the oil, to minimise possible salt-water
contamination and to improve the plant’s thermal efficiency. These systems
are arranged so that water pressure is higher than oil pressure. There is a
possibility, however, that oil could leak into the cooling water system and
contaminate it.

Gravity tank (also known as header tank)

This tank not only provides a reserve supply of oil if pump failure occurs but
also gives a high venting point for air to be released.

Filters
Filters keep oil clean. They:
• Minimise wear of pumps;
• Prevent pump damage by large particles;
• Remove water from the system (special coalescing filters are required for
this function);
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• Protect bearings and gear teeth from damage.

Thus, filters have a very important role in the satisfactory performance of a

lubrication system.

Cleaning System
The oil must be cleaned. Using filters alone could mean excessive changing
over and cleaning. Also, contaminating water may be difficult to remove.
Therefore it is common for lubricating oil systems to have a centrifugal
separator (a purifier) running constantly, continuously cleaning the oil of
sludge and water.

Activity 9.4
On a separate sheet of paper, make a simple labelled sketch of the lubrication
system of a main turbine plant you are familiar with (or with your supervisor’s
assistance).

Indicate on this sketch typical pressures and temperatures which are found.

Attach this sketch to this page.

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3. Lubrication Faults
Common lubrication faults which may occur are:
• Pump failure;
• Pump wear;
• Blocked/dirty filters;
• Incorrectly shut valves;
• Incorrectly open valves;
• Loss of cooling water;
• Cooling control failure;
• Loss of oil;
• Contamination of oil.

Some of these faults will have the same or similar effects on the system. Some
faults can occur suddenly, others may gradually become evident over time.

Whatever the fault, the turbine and gearing must be kept lubricated
whenever they are rotating.

If lubrication fails, the turbine must be stopped as soon as possible.

The fault must be rectified and the lubrication system restored to normal as
soon as possible.

The response of the automatic monitoring system and/or the watchkeeping

engineer depends on the actual fault which occurs. The monitoring/alarm
system will trip the turbine to minimise damage if certain faults occur.

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Activity 9.5
For a main turbine plant you are familiar with, list the faults which will trip the
turbine.

Pump failure
If the running pump stops, the standby pump should automatically start and
supply oil.

Activity 9.6
How does the monitoring system “know” to start the standby pump?

The engineer should confirm that the standby pump is running and oil
pressure/flow is correct. The cause of the stopped pump must then be
identified and fixed.

If the standby pump has not started, the turbine must be tripped.

If the pumps of a pressure lubricating system fail, there is no gravity tank to

allow for run-down of the turbine. In this case, the ahead steam to the turbine
should be shut and astern steam admitted to the turbine. This steam will act as
a brake, and will stop the turbine in a minimal time. Monitor the rotation of
the turbine and shut/throttle the astern steam as the turbine slows down and
comes to a complete stop.

Pump wear
Pump wear will occur over time, especially if there are no suction filters (or if
the suction filters have been removed and not replaced). A badly worn pump
may cause intermittent pressure drops as the vessel moves in the water or as
manoeuvring occurs. Monitoring pump suction and discharge pressures, oil

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flow rates, and the overflow from the gravity tank helps to identify this fault.
Repair/replacement of the pump or its components will restore the pump.

Excessive pump wear should not occur, so the reasons for this wear must be
identified and rectified.

Blocked/dirty filters
Blocked or dirty filters will cause a reduction in oil pressure and flow. The
effects will be similar to pump failure or excessive wear. The filters should
have suction and discharge pressure gauges; the pressure difference between
these gauges indicates the cleanliness of the filter. Typically, a clean filter will
have about 0.5 bar pressure difference. Some filters use a differential pressure
device connected to an alarm system and/or to operate an automatic filter
cleaning process.

Filters are generally arranged so that there are two filters in parallel with each
other. One filter will be in use; the other should be clean and ready for use.
This is called a duplex arrangement.

When operating with a duplex filter, be careful when changing over from
the dirty filter to the clean one. Be aware that:
• The clean filter may not have been purged of air correctly;
• The cover plate of the clean filter may not have been secured
properly;
• The standby filter may not have been cleaned after the last time in
service;
• A momentary pressure drop may occur which could trip the turbine.

In all cases, follow ship’s procedures when changing over filters.

Always check pressures after changing over filters and ensure that the
system is operating correctly.

A filter that continually requires cleaning may indicate a serious problem such
as bearing or gear damage.

Incorrectly shut valves

If maintenance has been done on the shut down lubrication system, it is
possible that a valve has been inadvertently shut and overpressure may occur in
part of the system while other parts of the system may not have any oil
pressure.

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Always check that all valves are in their correct positions and ensure
correct operation of the system after any maintenance has been done.

Incorrectly open valves

Accidentally open valves, such as the drain valve of the system shown in figure
9-3, may cause loss of system pressure. Incorrectly set or malfunctioning relief
valves on pumps may also cause a loss of pressure.

Loss of cooling water

Cooling water loss will cause oil temperature to rise. As the oil increases in
temperature, its viscosity will drop, and so both cooling effect and lubrication
effect will diminish.

If loss of cooling water is detected or oil temperature increases significantly,

turbine load can be reduced (which will lower heat energy input into oil).

Follow ship’s procedures when reducing turbine load. Contact the bridge
beforehand to ensure that you are not compromising the safety of the
ship.

The turbine will be automatically tripped if oil temperature exceeds a set value.

Cooling control failure

Temperature control system failure will give the same symptoms as loss of
cooling water. If oil temperature rises and cooling water supply is correct,
manual operation of the temperature control valve may be possible.

Loss of oil
Severe loss of oil will affect system pressure and may cause loss of suction,
causing total pressure loss. Sump oil level should be checked regularly and
any fall in level should be investigated.

A common cause of oil loss is leakage at the cooler. Any evidence of oil in the
cooling water system must be investigated and the leak sealed.

Another cause of oil loss is a malfunctioning purifier, causing oil to be drained

to the purifier sludge tank.

Contamination of oil
Water in the oil will affect its performance. The purifier will remove a certain
amount of water, but excessive amounts of water will require rectification.

Other contaminants such as dirt, metal particles, acids and salts will also affect
the oil. Regular oil sampling and testing monitors oil condition. This will also
detect degradation of the oil.

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If contamination occurs, the source must be identified and fixed. Badly

contaminated or degraded oil may require replacement of the oil.

Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt about the lubrication requirements for a steam
turbine and its associated systems. You have also learnt about the methods and
systems by which lubrication is achieved, and how to identify and manage
common faults. You should now refer to the learning outcome and assessment
criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask yourself if you can:

• Identify lubrication requirements of a marine steam turbine and its

associated gearing;
• Describe a typical steam turbine lubrication system, including all
components normally found therein;
• State normal operating pressures and temperatures of a steam turbine
lubrication system;
• Describe the distribution of lubricating oil to the bearings and gearing of a
steam turbine; and
• Identify and evaluate common lubrication faults of a steam turbine
lubrication system, stating symptoms, causes and responsive actions of
these faults.

If you have answered “no” to the above question, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 9
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.
1. State five purposes of lubricating oil in steam turbine systems.
2. Identify the components of a turbine and gearing system that require
lubricating oil.
3. Sketch and describe a lubricating oil system suitable for a main turbine
propulsion system, identifying all major components.
4. Explain why oil must be supplied to the turbine during run down time.
5. State two faults that can occur in a turbine lubricating oil system, giving
symptoms, causes, and actions to be followed when the fault is detected.

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 Section 10 Steam Turbine Operation

Section 10

Steam Turbine
Operation

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Section 10 Steam Turbine Operation

Section Contents Page

Section 10: Steam Turbine Operation

Learning Outcome 10 300

Assessment Criteria 300

Conditions 300

Section Introduction 301

1. General Principles 302

2 Emergency Operation 313

Section Summary 316

Progress Check 10 316

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 Section 10 Steam Turbine Operation

Learning Outcome 10
On completion of this section you will be able to describe normal, transient,
and emergency operation of a steam turbine powered ship.

Assessment Criteria
10.1. The need for warming through and shut down procedures is explained.
10.2. Warming through and shut down procedures are described.
10.3. Routine turbine operating checks are described.
10.4. Normal operating parameters, with the main turbine shut down and
running, are stated.
10.5. Emergency operating procedures of a steam turbine are described.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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Section Introduction
This Section investigates basic aspects of steam turbine operation. Equipment
and procedures of different ships will vary to some degree, so general
procedures and typical arrangements will be given.

A well organised and properly operated steam plant should have an operating
plan that includes instructions for the steam turbine and its supporting systems
(of which turbine operation is an important part).

Before starting the turbine, the operator should become familiar with the
general piping layout, the operating characteristics of the unit, and the
manufacturer’s operating instructions. When you join a vessel, it is very
important that you read the manuals and procedures for that particular ship
(including Standard Operating Procedures and Chief’s Standing Orders), and
follow the instructions of your supervisors and superiors.

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1. General Principles
Successful turbine operation depends, to a great extent, on the manner of the
warming through, loading up, stopping and shut down of the turbine. Different
turbine designs may require slightly different treatment, but the general
principles are the same.

General principles of turbine operation:

• Lubrication must be provided;
• The turbine must be warmed through correctly;
• Turbine drains must be open during warming through;
• Supply steam must be at the correct pressure and temperature and
free from water carry over;
• The propeller must be free to turn;
• The condenser must be circulated with water and at correct vacuum.

Incorrect operation may not show its consequences immediately in the

form of turbine damage, but it will have an adverse effect on the turbine
and cause undesirable internal stresses, permanent distortion and other
defects which will eventually reduce the service life of the turbine.

The operating goals of the steam plant are to produce power at the lowest
possible cost with the highest degree of reliability and safety.
Safety in this case means safety to the machinery and to personnel.

1.1 Objectives of Warming Through and

Cooling Down
A cold turbine must have its temperature increased gradually before operation.
This is called warming through.

After operation of the turbine, it must be gradually cooled down.

Both the warming through and cooling down periods are important processes,
and must be performed correctly.

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The objectives of warming through and cooling down include:

• Keep rotors straight;
• Avoid casing distortion as much as possible;
• Minimise stresses caused by temperature variations.

Keep rotors straight

Small amounts of steam admitted to the turbine will warm it gradually.
However, the rotor must be warmed and cooled evenly, eg, the top of the rotor
shaft must not have a higher temperature than the bottom of the shaft,
otherwise the rotor will hog or bend upwards.

This hogging would be the result of allowing hot steam into a stationary
turbine.

Whenever a steam turbine is warming up or cooling down, the rotor must

be regularly turned to avoid distortion.

Avoid Casing Distortion

Again, uneven heating/cooling of the casing can cause differential heating
consequent distortion. Rotation of the rotor helps to keep the steam adequately
mixed and therefore evenly distributes the heat energy of the steam to the
casing.

It is difficult to avoid a temperature difference from top to bottom in a low

pressure turbine with an underslung condenser. In this case, it is only possible
to minimise this temperature difference (by correct warming and cooling
practices).

Minimise Stresses
If a thick section of metal, such as a thick turbine casing, is warmed or cooled
too quickly, there will be temperature differences within it. It is difficult to
allow for free expansion in such metal objects. Thus, instead bending or other
distortion, thick metal sections can experience internal stresses which can
cause cracking.

Allowing the turbine and steam piping to warm or cool slowly reduces the
internal stresses of thick sections of metal.

One reason for putting insulation around a turbine is avoid chilling of the
turbine casing external surfaces; this minimises internal stresses of the casing.

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1.2 Preparation for Warming Through

Boiler(s) are operating and steam is available up to the main turbine steam stop
valve.

Lubricating oil system

• Check sump tank/drain tank level. Top up if necessary.
• Remove any water that may have collected in sump/drain tank (if
possible).
• Ensure lubricating oil purifier is operating. The purifier keeps the oil
clean, removes water from the oil, and also helps to warm the oil.
• Start lubricating oil pump. Check pressures in the lubricating oil system
are correct (eg, main system pressure no less than 3 bar or as specified by
manufacturer). An excessive pressure drop indicates dirty filters (eg a
pressure drop greater than 0.5 bar across the filter).
• Once pressure is correct, ensure that the standby lubricating oil pump is set
to automatic start.
• Once oil is circulating, check that lubricating oil is flowing freely to all
bearings and sprayers by checking sight glasses on supply and return lines.
Vent air from top of filters.
• If a gravity tank is provided, ensure that the overflow is returning to the
sump/drain tank by checking the overflow sight glass.
• If provision is made for preheating lubricating oil, raise the temperature to
about 40oC. If preheating is performed manually, do not forget to shut
heating off once the turbine is operational.
• Check that cooling water system for lubricating oil temperature control is
operating correctly.
• Check lubricating oil system for leaks.
• Ensure that all lubricating oil alarms are clear and are operational (eg high
oil temperature, low oil pressure).
• Gearbox lubrication is normally provided by the turbine lubrication
system.
• Check that stern tube, propeller shaft and thrust bearings lubrication is
correct (eg by checking oil flows at sight glasses, oil pressures, oil
temperatures).

Turbine

Always contact the Bridge and check that the propeller is clear to turn
before any rotation of the turbine is performed.

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• Note sliding feet and rotor shaft positions. Check that sliding feet are
lubricated and free to move.
• Check that all turbine casing drains are open. These should already be
open but it is essential to check this.
• Check that all other relevant drains, such as manoeuvring valve and main
steam line drains, are open.
• Check that turbine steam isolating valve is shut.
• Obtain propeller clearance, engage and run turbine turning gear. Check
that all parts can rotate freely in both directions then turn engine ahead.
Turning gear motor should be drawing correct current (eg 3 to 4 Amps).
Any variations in turning gear motor ammeter reading should be
investigated, as this may be due to incorrect contact or rubbing between
parts. Any unusual noise should also be investigated. Check that turning
gear interlock has actuated.
• Check that manoeuvring valves are free to operate by opening and closing
them.
It is essential that there should be no steam in the line between the
main stop valve and the manoeuvring valves when this step is taken.

1.3 Warming Through

Ensure that the ahead steam isolating valve, ahead nozzle valves, astern
manoeuvring valve, and astern guardian valve are closed.

During the warming through and operation of the turbine, regular

attention should be paid to:
• Sliding feet position;
• Abnormal noise coming from turbine and gearing (indicating friction
between the stationary and rotating parts;
• Condenser condition;
• Lubricating oil system;
• Cooling water system;
• Other relevant auxiliary machinery and equipment (eg electrical
generation and supply system);
• Boiler operation.

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Ensure that the condenser is operating correctly. This will include:

• Vacuum pumps/air ejectors operating.
• Condenser cooling water pump running and cooling water is being
circulated.
• Condensate pump(s) running, with adequate condensate level and
recirculating control for condensate level is operating correctly.
• Turbine gland steam system operating and that gland steam pressure is
correct (eg at least 0.1 bar).

Without the gland steam system operating, it will be very difficult to bring the
condenser down to its correct vacuum.

If gland steam system is operating, the turbine must be rotated to avoid

distortion.

Do not allow the turbine rotors to remain stationary for more than 2
minutes whenever gland steam system is operating.

If the turbine has a hydraulic control oil system, it must be started up and
checked for operation. Control oil pressure should be correct (eg 15 bar).
Ensure that standby control oil pump will automatically start up if pressure
drops.

Ensure that main engine telegraph is in the stop position and that turbine
remote controls are in the shut down or finished with engine positions.

Do not start tags may be placed on/over remote controls.

Also check that turbine remote control is in the Control room, not the
Bridge, position.

• The turbine should be rotated on turning gear for at least 30 minutes.

• During this period, warm through and then open main steam line to turbine
valves.
• Condenser vacuum should be at required level (eg 722 mmHg/-95 kPa).
• Check that astern guardian valve (if operated with compressed air) is
enabled.
• Inform Bridge that turbine is to be tested.
• Stop and disengage turning gear. Check that turning gear interlock has cut
out.

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• Check ahead nozzle valves, guardian valve, and astern manoeuvring valve
are all shut.
• Open ahead isolating valve to warm through position or open dedicated
warming valve.
• Allow just enough ahead steam to the turbine to start the turbine rotating.
• Shut ahead steam as soon as the turbine begins to rotate.
• Check that turbine stops.
• Allow just enough astern steam to the turbine to start the turbine rotating (if
fitted, the cooling water spray in the astern steam line should operate).
• Shut astern steam as soon as the turbine begins to rotate.
• Check that turbine stops.
• Once satisfied that ahead and astern steam operation is correct, modern
turbines have an automatic steam gusting or auto-spin arrangement which
is enabled. This admits ahead and then astern steam to the turbine at
regular intervals, not enough to move the ship but enough to warm up and
then keep the turbine warm.
• When on auto-spinning,
• If auto-spin is not present, gusting must be done manually. Admit a gust
(small amount) of ahead steam to turn the rotors slowly. Then admit a gust
of astern steam. Do this at intervals of 2 to 3 minutes. Do not allow
propeller rotation to exceed about 7 revolutions per minute.
• After the turbine has warmed sufficiently, it is ready for operation.

Complete warming through of the high pressure turbine will not be complete
until the turbine is operating at load. Also, the low pressure turbine has an
operating temperature which is relatively cool. Thus, for modern turbines, a
long warming through period is not necessary. One recommended warming
through rate is that the temperature at the low pressure turbine inlet belt is
raised to about 80OC in 25 to 30 minutes.

1.4 Standby & Manoeuvring

• The Chief Engineer will be present during standby and manoeuvring.
• Raise condenser vacuum to the recommended value (if not already
reached).
• Close main steam line and manoeuvring valve drains (if they are not
already shut).
• Ensure lubricating oil heater, if fitted, is shut off.
• Open ahead isolating valve fully and shut warming valve (if fitted).
• Prepare main boiler(s) for manoeuvring.

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• Answer Standby request from Bridge by acknowledging the sub-telegraph.

• Give turbine control to Bridge.
• Turbine will remain in auto-spin whilst telegraph is at STOP.
• Monitor turbine and boiler systems.
• Turbine speed should be increased gradually (eg full speed should be
reached no quicker than 80 minutes).
• Check that ahead and astern steam to the turbine are never open at the same
time.
• Monitor lubricating oil temperature and pressure.
• Monitor condenser vacuum, temperature and level.
• Ensure gland steam pressure remains constant. No steam, visible or
invisible, should be allowed to blow from the turbine glands.
• Report any unusual vibration, noise or expansion to the Chief Engineer.
• Monitor boiler operation.

Increase or decrease of propeller revolutions ahead or astern should be

carried out in such a way that high thermal stresses or overloads are
avoided.

Large/sudden turbine load changes are undesirable, but if they are

unavoidable, the boiler water level should be closely watched for
excessively high or low level.

Astern Operation
Since a fewer number of stages are used in the astern turbine, the exhaust
steam temperature is high. The turbine also directly exhausts into the cool
condenser, which also cools the astern turbine casing. There will be
differential expansion between the rotor and casing.

Thus, there are some precautions required when operating astern.

• Ensure water spray (if fitted) operates when astern steam is being admitted
to the turbine.
• The astern turbine must not be operated at full astern for longer than (for
example) 40 minutes.
• Some steam turbine plants are fitted with an exhaust steam temperature
sensor which gives an alarm if the temperature increases.
• Maximum astern propeller shaft torque is around 75% of the maximum
ahead torque.
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• Maximum astern propeller shaft speed is around 70% of the maximum

continuous ahead revolutions per minute.
• After prolonged astern turbine operation, a rapid increase in ahead load
should be avoided. The ahead speed should be increased gradually by
using the normal time schedule (eg 80 minutes). In no case, except in an
extreme emergency, should full ahead power be reached in less than (for
example) 20 minutes.
• Monitor exhaust steam and condenser temperature and pressure. If these
values rise above normal, inform the Chief Engineer.

1.5 Full Away

After manoeuvring is complete and the vessel is in open sea, the operating
situation of the engine will be changed from Standby to Full Away.

• Accept Full Away by acknowledging the sub-telegraph.

• Turbine drains should be shut (if this is not done automatically).
• Ensure astern guardian valve is shut.
• Control system will gradually increase turbine load from Manoeuvring
Ahead (or Harbour Full) to the open sea power set by the Bridge using the
telegraph. This should be no quicker than (for example) 80 minutes.
• Check for unusual vibration, noise, and/or axial displacement of turbines.
• Bled steam from turbine stages (if fitted) may be opened up as required.
• Check sliding feet position.
• Do an all round check of instrumentation for correct operation and values.
• Check boiler and feed system for correct operation.
• Monitor lubricating oil pressure and temperature regularly. Check oil
supply from bearings by observing flow at sight glasses.

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1.6 Excessive Turbine Vibration

Abnormal turbine vibration, which may be encountered when starting the
turbine or when increasing turbine speed, should be dealt with in the following
manner:
• Regularly listen and feel for turbine vibration.
• If excessive/abnormal vibration occurs, contact Chief Engineer (or Second
Engineer, depending on ship’s procedures) and follow instructions.
• Contact and inform Bridge of the situation.
• Reduce speed until vibration reduces.
• Maintain this reduced speed for 15 minutes.
• Increase speed slowly, check for vibration.
• If vibration occurs again, reduce speed for a further period of time.
• Slowly increase speed again.
• If vibration persists, follow Chief Engineer’s instructions.

1.7 Shut Down

Whatever shut down procedure is used should allow for the gradual cooling
down of the turbine. The turbine will have experience some cooling down
simply by being operated at low loads during vessel manoeuvring.

• Accept finished with engines at the sub-telegraph.

• Turbine control transferred from Bridge to Engine Control Room.
• Shut all steam valves to the turbine.
• Ensure all automatically operated control valves are shut, including astern
guardian valve.
• Open pipeline, valve and turbine drains.
• Shut down control oil system.
• Ensure that the propeller shaft is stopped, engage turning gear and rotate
turbine.
• Follow ship’s procedures if further systems are to be shut down.
• If water motion around the ship causes the propeller and hence the turbine
to rotate, you may have to wait to engage the turning gear.

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Section 10 Steam Turbine Operation

1.8 Prolonged Operation at Reduced Load

If, due to navigational requirements, the turbine is to be run at reduced load for
a long period of time (eg 1 to 2 hours), turbine exhaust temperature may be
seen to rise due to the low efficiency in this condition. This may cause
unacceptable differential expansion between the rotor and the casing.

General principles for this situation include:

• Follow the Chief Engineer’s instructions for prolonged low power
operation.
• Monitor condenser vacuum and temperature.
• Monitor differential expansion indicators.
• Reduce superheated steam temperature to a minimum.
• Reduce gland steam pressure to a minimum.
• Reduce condenser vacuum as instructed.
• Automatic drains, if fitted, may open. It may be necessary to manually
shut these drains.
• It may also be necessary to shut the air operated astern guardian valve.
• When power is to be increased, operate the turbine at an intermediate load
(eg half ahead speed) before increasing condenser vacuum. This allows the
low pressure rotor to cool and reduced differential expansion. Increase
load to maximum following normal procedure.

If automatic turbine drains and astern guardian valve are manually shut
for prolonged low power operation, make sure that they are put back into
normal operation for manoeuvring.

Activity 10.1
List the warm through, standby/manoeuvring, run up, and shut down
procedures for a main turbine you are familiar with (or as guided by your
supervisor).

Do this activity on a separate sheet of paper and attach it to this page.

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 Section 10 Steam Turbine Operation

Activity 10.2
List the checks that are made and parameters that are measured, on the main
propulsion system, for a main steam plant you are familiar with (or as guided
by your supervisor). State typical measured values when the turbine is
running and shut down.

Typical engine room log book entries may be useful here.

Do this activity on a separate sheet of paper and attach it to this page.

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Section 10 Steam Turbine Operation

2 Emergency Operation
Emergency situations can be stressful, it is easy to make mistakes. Operate
equipment with care and deliberation.

The following points should always be considered in emergency

situations:
• The object is to get the ship safely to port or a safe anchorage without
further damage or danger;
• Follow the Chief and Second Engineers’ Instructions;
• Keep the Bridge informed;
• Follow ship’s procedures and maker’s instructions;
• Safety of personnel is very important;
• Try to keep calm.

2.1 Turbine Damage

If either the high pressure or low pressure turbine becomes damaged and is
thus inoperative, the other turbine can be run.

Emergency pipe connections are provided which can be installed to provide the
necessary emergency steam pathways.

Turbine control will be from either Engine Control Room or from the local
engine side control station. This will mean that a vessel with UMS (unattended
machinery space operation) will revert to watchkeeping.

High pressure turbine damaged

Follow maker’s instructions for isolating and connecting up piping. General
points will include:
• Disconnecting the coupling between the turbine and the first gearbox
pinion wheel will isolate the high pressure turbine.
• Gland steam to the high pressure turbine will be isolated by using pipeline
blanks.
• Steam to the high pressure turbine will be isolated by using pipeline blanks.
• Emergency piping will be fitted between the ahead steam isolating valve
and the low pressure turbine inlet.
• Measures to avoid overheating the low pressure turbine and condenser
must be taken.

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• There will be limitations to the available ahead power. One reason for this
is to protect the low pressure turbine gearing from overload and consequent
damage.

Measures to avoid overheating the low pressure turbine and condenser include:
• Use reduced superheated steam temperature/use saturated steam.
• Use reduced inlet steam pressure.
• Orifice plate may be fitted in emergency piping to limit steam flow.
• A desuperheating water spray may be situated in the emergency piping.

Low pressure turbine damaged

Follow maker’s instructions for isolating and connecting up piping. General
points will include:
• The low pressure turbine will be isolated by disconnecting the coupling
between the turbine and the first gearbox pinion wheel.
• Steam to the low pressure turbine will be isolated by using pipeline blanks.
• The astern turbine will be unavailable, (since it is on the low pressure
turbine rotor shaft), so astern steam must be isolated.
• Emergency piping will be fitted between the high pressure turbine exhaust
and the condenser.
• Turn the low pressure turbine rotor 180o once every six hours using the
flexible coupling flange to minimise distortion of the rotor.
• Measures to avoid overheating the condenser must be taken.
• There will be limitations to the available ahead power. One reason for this
is to protect the high pressure turbine gearing from overload and
consequent damage.

Measures to avoid overheating the condenser include:

• Use reduced superheated steam temperature/use saturated steam.
• Use reduced inlet steam pressure.
• Limit the ahead steam admitted to keep the high pressure turbine exhaust
pressure below normal.
• Orifice plate may be fitted in emergency piping to limit steam flow.
• A desuperheating water spray may be situated in the emergency piping, or
the desuperheating water spray for the astern turbine may be used.

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Activity 10.3
If the high pressure turbine is disconnected, the gland steam to the turbine is
isolated. However, if the low pressure turbine is disconnected, the gland
steam is not isolated and the rotor is manually turned at regular intervals.

Why is the low pressure turbine gland steam not shut off?

2.2 Manual Operation

If the remote control system is not operational, the turbine may be operated
from the local engine side control station.

Maker’s instructions and ship’ s procedures must be followed.

Change over from remote to local control should be done with all valves shut
(to prevent accidental admission of steam to the turbine). Hydraulic control
system should be shut down.

The Bridge must be made aware of any limitations of turbine operation. Also,
the reaction time of operating personnel will be slower than with the automatic
control system.

Be aware that normal turbine trips may be inactive when operating in

emergency conditions (especially in local control).

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Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt aspects of steam turbine operation for both
normal and emergency situations. You should now refer to the learning
outcome and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask
yourself if you can:

• Describe the warming through and shut down procedures for steam turbines,
explaining why these procedures are necessary;
• Describe the checks which should be regularly made during routine turbine
operation;
• State normal operating parameters with the main turbine shut down and
running; and
• Describe the procedures for emergency operation of a steam turbine.

If you have answered “no” to the above questions, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 10
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.

1. Identify the six general principles of turbine operation.

2. State and briefly explain the three objectives of warming through a turbine.
3. Your vessel is preparing to leave port. A mooring line aft has become
entangled around the propeller, and the propeller shaft cannot be rotated.
What, if anything, should be done to the turbine plant and briefly explain
why this is done.
4. Explain how steam gusting may be used to warm through the turbine.
5. The low pressure turbine of your ship is damaged. Explain how propulsion
may be achieved, and state any limitations on engine performance.

316 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Section 11 Auxiliary Diesel Engines

Section 11

Auxiliary Diesel
Engines

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 Section 11 Auxiliary Diesel Engines

Section Contents Page

Section 11: Auxiliary Diesel Engines

Learning Outcomes 11 & 12 319

Assessment Criteria 319

Conditions 319

Section Introduction 320

1. Diesel Engine use aboard a Steam

Ship 321

2. Safety Features of Auxiliary Diesel

Engines 328

3. Operational Procedures and Checks 332

Section Summary 337

Progress Check 11 337

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Section 11 Auxiliary Diesel Engines

Learning Outcomes 11 & 12

On completion of this section you will be able to:
• Describe the safety features of auxiliary diesel engines.
• Describe the operation of auxiliary diesel engines.

Assessment Criteria
11.1. The uses of an auxiliary diesel engine aboard a steam ship are identified.
11.2. The need for safety features in the design and construction of auxiliary
diesel engines and their systems is identified.
11.3. Common safety features incorporated in the design and construction of
auxiliary diesel engines and their systems are listed.
11.4. Pre-start, start, and shut down procedures and checks for an auxiliary
diesel engine are described.
11.5. Operational procedures and checks for a running auxiliary diesel engine
and its systems are described.
11.6. Procedures for emergency operation of an auxiliary engine are described.

Conditions
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom;
laboratories; appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.

The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

You will be provided with:

• access to appropriate vessels or models.

You will provide:

• writing material
• calculator

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Section Introduction
The application of diesel engines aboard steam ships is in certain auxiliary and
emergency systems, even though main propulsion, main electrical systems,
feed pumps, and other such machinery are driven by steam turbines.

We must know basic information about diesel engines and their applications
aboard a steam ship in order to operate and monitor these engines effectively
and safely.

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1. Diesel Engine use aboard a

Steam Ship
1.1 The Diesel Engine
The diesel engine is an internal combustion engine where fuel is burnt with
oxygen containing air in a combustion chamber. The expanding gases cause an
increase in pressure in the combustion chamber, and drives a piston. This
piston is connected to a crankshaft via a connecting rod. This means that the
reciprocating (or up and down) motion of the piston is converted to a rotary (or
revolving) motion in order to drive its load.

Figure 11-1 Photograph of Caterpillar 3516 Diesel Engine

A diesel engine found on steam ships will typically be a four stroke, medium
speed/high speed, trunk piston engine.

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Activity 11.1
1. Research and identify the following terms of diesel engines:
(a) four stroke;

(b) medium and high speed;

(c) trunk piston.

The following diagrams are external outline views of the Caterpillar 3500
series engine. Note the location of the various components indicated.

Figure 11-2 Front View of 3500 series engine

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Figure 11-3 Right Hand Side View of 3500 series engine

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Figure 11-4 Left Hand Side View of 3500 series engine

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Figure 11-5 Top View of 3500 series engine

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1.2 Diesel Engine Uses

Certain features of the diesel engine make this type of engine suitable for a
variety of applications aboard a steam ship.

All the applications of diesel engines are for auxiliary and/or emergency use.

The uses of auxiliary diesel engines on steam ships can be summarised as:
• Supplementary electrical generation
• Emergency electrical generation
• Emergency prime mover for pumps and compressors
• Lifeboat engines

Supplementary electrical generation

Generally, the normal electrical generation aboard a steam ship is provided by
steam turbine driven alternators. For intermittent additional, a diesel engine
can be used to provide electrical power generation. Intermittent electrical
loads can be due to the use of bow thrusters when manoeuvring.

When steam is not being produced, or when there is a shortage of steam, the
auxiliary diesel generator can take electrical load. A situation where this
would occur is when the electrical load is required when the machinery plant is
being started from the cold ship condition. With no boilers running, there is no
steam available. Electrical power needs to be available for equipment such as
auxiliary feed pumps in order to fill the boiler with water, and continue raising
steam. Thus the auxiliary diesel alternator is necessary.

Activity 11.2
1. List five (5) systems/items of machinery which require electrical power
with the ship alongside in port in the cold ship condition.

2. List four (4) systems/items of machinery which would need to be operated

in order to start raising steam from the cold ship condition.

Emergency electrical generation

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Certain electrical loads are supplied from the emergency electrical

switchboard. If normal electrical supply is lost, the emergency switchboard
must supply electrical power for these loads. This emergency electrical power
is generated in the emergency generator, which will be a diesel engine. This
generator will continue running until normal supply is restored.

Activity 11.3
1. List six (6) systems/items of machinery which are supplied from the
emergency switchboard.

2. Briefly explain why a diesel engine is commonly used as the emergency

generator.

The electrical system of some steam ships may be such that the emergency
diesel generator is designed to provide sufficient electrical power to the main
switchboard for in order to raise steam.

Emergency prime mover for pumps and compressors

For similar reasons as needing an emergency generator, a diesel engine may be
used to directly drive items of machinery that may be required in an
emergency.

Items of machinery that may be directly driven by a diesel engine include:

• Emergency starting air compressor. This is a small compressor, driven by
small diesel engine, which is used to provide sufficient starting air in order
to start the emergency diesel generator.
• Emergency fire pump. It is a requirement that all ships have an emergency
fire pump. Some ships have an emergency fire pump that has a diesel
engine providing motive power.
• Breathing apparatus air compressor. If a fire is being fought aboard a ship,
the supply of breathing air cylinders can be quickly exhausted. A small
diesel engine powered air compressor may be used to recharge empty
cylinders.

Lifeboat engines
If the ship is to be abandoned in an emergency, the crew will hopefully have
sufficient time to launch the lifeboats. These vessels (and other craft such as
work boats and rescue boats) will be propelled by diesel engines.

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2. Safety Features of Auxiliary

Diesel Engines
If a diesel engine is operated incorrectly or operated when there is a defect,
there are three possible outcomes that are undesirable:
• Damage to the engine
• Loss of power to the load
• Injury to personnel.

Safety features of diesel engines are designed to prevent these occurrences, or

if a defect occurs, safety features minimise or remove the danger.

The need for a particular safety feature depends to a degree on the type, size,
and purpose of each particular diesel engine. For example, a lifeboat diesel
engine will have minimal safety features compared to a diesel alternator, but
there will be at least one feature present in a lifeboat engine not required with a
diesel alternator.

The following list of safety features pertains to the diesel engine and its
systems. It does not include features which may be fitted on, for example, the
generator of the diesel alternator.

Safety features include:

• Protection of personnel when starting
• Lubricating oil system protection
• Jacket water cooling system protection
• Secondary cooling system protection
• Starting air system protection
• Crankcase explosion protection
• Overspeed protection
• Other protective and monitoring equipment

Protection of personnel when starting

Lifeboat engines and other such small diesel engines are started by hand
cranking the engine. There is a danger that, once the engine has started, the
hand crank will then be driven by the engine, pulling out of the hand of the
operator and acting like a flail. One safety feature addressing this problem is
to use a slipping clutch arrangement for the hand crank. This is a device
which will allow the operator to turn the engine with the crank handle, but
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when the engine starts and is running faster than the crank handle, the clutch
slips and the crank handle will not be rotated by the engine.

Lubricating oil system protection

Without lubricating oil, a diesel engine will quickly seize. If the oil is too hot,
lubrication will be ineffective, again causing damage to the engine. A variety
of safety features are used the give protection, which include:
• Low sump level alarm
• Low lubricating oil pressure alarm
• High lubricating oil temperature alarm
• Oil filter.

Sometimes the oil pressure and temperature alarms may be just a light, while in
other situations these alarms will also trip the engine, shutting it down.

Filters clean dirt and other debris from the oil. By keeping the oil particle free,
the bearings of the engine are protected.

Pressurised lubricating oil systems, fitted on all but the smallest diesel engines,
use a positive displacement gear pump. Such pumps must be fitted with an oil
pressure-regulating device which limits pump pressure if it becomes too high.
This could occur for example if then engine is started in a cold climate and the
oil is cold and very viscous. Such a device normally consists of a spring-
loaded valve which lifts on overpressure and returns surplus oil to the sump or
the suction side of the pump.

Jacket water cooling system protection

Most diesel engines are cooled by fresh water circulating systems. Protection
in these systems include:
• High cooling water temperature alarm
• High high cooling water temperature alarm and trip
• Low cooling water flow alarm
• Low header tank water level alarm
• Vacuum relief valve for radiator systems.

Cooling systems which have air cooled radiators require a spring loaded valve
which will open if the system is shut down and a vacuum is created by the
cooling water.

Secondary cooling system protection

Lubricating oil and jacket cooling water must be cooled. This is done by
secondary cooling such as air or sea water. Another arrangement is to cool the

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lubricating oil with jacket water and then to cool the jacket water by the
secondary system.

Temperature, pressure, and flow alarms may be fitted on water filled secondary
cooling systems.

Secondary systems using air, such as in a radiator arrangement, may have some
protection devices such as discharge air temperature and damper position. The
radiator may have dampers which close to protect the radiator from the outside
environment when the engine is not running. If the engine is started with the
dampers shut, a limit switch may be fitted to give an alarm indication to the
engineer.

Starting air system protection

If the diesel engine is started using compressed air, there will be protective
devices fitted. These may include:
• Low air pressure alarm (if the air pressure is too low, the engine will not
start)
• Relief valve on the starting air receiver (to relieve excess pressure, which
may occur if the air compressor is accidentally left running after the
receiver has been charged).

Crankcase explosion protection

A hot spot such as an overheated bearing may cause lubricating oil to
vapourise and become a white mist. If this oil vapour is exposed to the hot
spot, it may ignite and cause an explosion. Small diesel engines such as
lifeboat engines are robust enough to contain such an explosion. Also, due to
the much smaller volume in such engines the energy content of an explosion is
relatively small.

A crankcase explosion or relief valve or door is fitted on larger auxiliary

diesel engines to give protection. This is a spring-loaded door which will open
and relieve the crankcase pressure if an explosion occurs. Without explosion
doors, the pressure generated by the explosion could over-pressurise the crank
chamber and rupture the crankcase. These doors also have a gauze fitting
which act as a flame trap to stop escaping of an explosion from passing out of
the engine.

Overspeed protection
An engine which is allowed to rotate at speeds greater than designed maximum
speed can generated internal forces large enough to over-stress components
and cause damage.

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Activity 11.4
State two (2) situations when a diesel engine could overspeed.

An overspeed trip is simply a spring-loaded mass which rotates as the engine

rotates. If the engine exceeds its maximum speed, centrifugal force will cause
the mass to move radially outwards, acting against spring force. This mass will
then strike a trip level which will shut down the engine. Similar arrangements
are used to protect steam turbine driven main feed pumps. The overspeed trip
of a diesel engine is normally set to operate at 110% maximum allowable
engine speed.

Other protective and monitoring equipment

Cylinder relief valves may be fitted on diesel generators to relieve over-
pressurisation of the combustion chamber which can occur on overload,
starting, or poor combustion.

Exhaust gas temperature thermometers or probes are used to monitor exhaust

gas temperature levels of the engine.

Local monitoring devices such as pressure gauges, thermometers and

tachometers are used to enable the operator to evaluate engine operation and
performance and identify problems and defects before they become serious
enough to actuate automatic alarms and trips.

The engineer must be familiar with auxiliary diesel engine arrangements

and operating characteristics. You, as the operating engineer, are a vital
component of the safety arrangements of the diesel engine. Particular
engines may not have some of the safety features that have been
identified, and defects can occur which may only be detected by the
operating engineer.
Do not rely solely on the safety features listed to protect the auxiliary
diesel engine; use them in conjunction with your own senses and
knowledge.

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3. Operational Procedures and

Checks
The procedures and checks given in this sub-section are general examples of
those which are used for starting, operating, and shutting down auxiliary diesel
generators.

Use the procedures given in your own ship’s and engine makers’ manuals for
specific information.

3.1 Prior to starting the engine

Procedures and checks which are followed before the engine is started can be
summarised as follows:

• Ensure that the engine control is set to off.

• Check fuel tank level.
• Drain off water from bottom of fuel tank and at fuel oil filters (if possible).
• Check oil level in sump.
• Check oil level in turbochargers.
• Check water level in header tank/radiator.
• Ensure that engine is set correctly for remote or local starting/running.
• Check valves in fuel, lubricating oil, jacket water, and other appropriate
systems are in their correct positions.
• Check for loose or damaged fittings and components.
• Check for leaks around engine.
• Reset any trips that may have been activated.
• Check for freedom of movement of fuel racks and other linkages.
• With the engine isolated so it cannot be started, turn the engine manually
through two revolutions to ensure that there is the engine is free to turn.
Running an auxiliary electric lubricating oil pump when turning will
provide an initial amount of lubricating oil to bearing surfaces.
• Prime fuel oil system to remove air pockets.
• Check starting air pressure is sufficient (if using starting air) or check that
starting system is ready. Starting air-isolating valves should be opened or
checked that they are open.
• Radiator dampers, if manually operated, to be opened.
• Ensure that appropriate ship personnel are aware that the engine is to be
started.

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• Indicator cocks, if fitted, should be opened. With fuel shut off to the
engine, admit starting air and observe engine rotation. Check for water
issuing out of indicator cocks. (This procedure may not be performed on
some engines.)
• Indicator cocks, if fitted, should be shut.

The engine is ready to be started.

3.2 Starting the engine

Procedures and checks which are followed at and after engine start can be
summarised as follows:

• Set fuel lever to start position/set engine control to starting position.

• Start the engine. This should be done with the engine off-load.
• Check that the engine has picked up speed and is running.
• Check that lubricating oil pressure increases.
• Isolate air start system as specified in ship’s procedures. (In some
applications, the engine must be able to be started at all times.)
• Listen/observe for excess vibration, knocking, noise, leaks, and other
indications of problems.
• Monitor exhaust gas temperature.
• Check oil and cooling water pressures.
• Check oil and cooling water temperatures.
• Check oil levels.
• Check pressure drop across oil filters.
• When engine is running steadily and has warmed up to an acceptable level,
put engine on line.
• Observe temperatures, levels, pressures, and other parameters as engine
warms up further.
• Change over to remote running if applicable.
• Recharge starting air receiver, if necessary.

The engine is now running.

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3.3 Shut down of engine

Procedures and checks which are followed to shut down an auxiliary diesel
engine can be summarised as follows:

• Ensure that it is safe to shut the engine down.

• Ensure that you are shutting down the correct engine. It would be
embarrassing and perhaps dangerous if the incorrect engine was stopped.
• Take engine off load.
• Allow the engine to cool. This can take about ten minutes. Alternatively,
monitor exhaust gas temperatures and watch for temperatures to stabilise at
a specified value (200O C for example).
• Shut engine down. Ensure that the engine has stopped.
• Check sump levels.
• Check water levels.
• Check fuel level.
• Shut manually operated dampers on radiator.
• Ensure that engine is set correctly for remote or local starting/running for
the next time it is to be started.

The engine is now shut down.

3.4 Starting in an emergency

Auxiliary diesel engines aboard a steam ship are designed to start and run
quickly in an emergency.

In emergencies such as boiler trip where the engineer knows that steam
pressure will drop and steam to the turbo-alternator will eventually fail, the
diesel generator should be started up by the engineer and put on-line before the
main power supply fails. This stops blackout occurring where services are lost
before they are resupplied from the emergency generator.

In an emergency, the engineering staff may be occupied with other duties, and
may need to rely on the safety features noted earlier.

The operating engineer should still try to perform checks and procedures as far
as possible depending on the situation.

It is very easy to become stressed in such situations. Try to remain calm, as

mistakes are very easy to make in a panic. As an example, consider the
starting of a lifeboat engine when abandoning ship. The operator could forget
to open the decompression lever, which would make it impossible to turn the
engine over. The operator could also use the incorrect grip on the starting
handle and, if a backfire occurred, could have his or her thumb broken.

A suggested reminder list in an emergency is as follows:

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In an emergency:
• Try to remain calm.
• Do not forget any running auxiliary diesel engines (this includes the
emergency generator).
• Monitor essential parameters. This will include fuel tank levels (during a
long emergency), sump levels, and other basic pressures and temperatures.
• Realise that you may have to rely on the safety features fitted.
• When the emergency is over, check the diesel engine(s) and make sure
they are shut down and ready for use in the event of the next emergency.

3.5 Operating checks

It is important to regularly monitor the operation of an auxiliary diesel engine
and its systems while the engine is running. Checks to make include:
• Engine sump and other lubricating oil levels
• Jacket cooling water header tank level
• Fuel tank level
• Drain fuel tank of water
• Lubrication oil temperature and pressure
• Fuel oil pressure
• Cooling water flow, temperature, and pressure
• Differential pressure across oil filters (this gives an indication of a dirty
filter)
• Engine revolutions - what they are and how steady they are
• Exhaust gas temperatures
• Charge air pressure and temperature
• Unusual vibration, noise, or smell
• Fuel rack position and movement
• Leaks at and around the engine
• Engine load/power output
• Exhaust gas colour
• Starting air pressure/starting system availability.

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These parameters should be checked at least twice a day when the engine is
running continuously.

At less regular intervals (such as monthly):

• Indicator cards should be taken of engine cylinder performance
• Samples of lubricating oil and jacket water should be taken and tested for
contaminants and treatment/additive levels
• Perform inspection of engine as per manufacturer’s recommendations.

3.6 Exhaust smoke indications

Evaluation of exhaust gas emissions provides some indications of diesel engine
performance.

A diesel engine operating at correct working temperature and in good

mechanical condition should produce exhaust gas which is clear to a light
brown/grey haze, depending on the grade of fuel burnt.

If the engine is issuing smoke, the colour of the smoke can indicate the
following:

Blue smoke
This will be produced due to fuel oil not being burnt completely in the engine
or excessive lubricating oil leakage into the cylinders. If it is found that the
colour changes from a light to a darker blue as the engine reaches operating
temperature, the problem will probably be due to lubricating oil loss.

White smoke
The presence of white smoke is usually due to improper combustion due to low
combustion chamber temperature. This is normal when the engine is cold, but
the exhaust gas should become clear when normal operating temperature is
reached. If the fault persists, low engine operating temperature or low cylinder
compression is indicated. Low temperature may be due to excessive cooling or
it could be due to the presence of water in the cylinder.

Black or dark grey smoke

This is due to a considerable amount of unburnt fuel in the exhaust emissions.

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Section Summary
In this chapter you have learnt the uses of auxiliary diesel engines aboard ship.
You have also learnt about safety features which are used on these machines
and their systems, including the fact that the operating engineer has an
important contribution to engine safety. Finally, you have learnt typical
operating procedures and checks of auxiliary diesel engines. You should now
refer to the learning outcomes and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of
this section and ask yourself if you can:

• Identify the uses of diesel engines aboard steam ships;

• Identify the need for safety features for auxiliary diesel engines and their
systems;
• List common safety features incorporated in the design and construction of
auxiliary diesel engines and their systems;
• Describe start up, running, and shut down procedures and checks for diesel
engines; and
• Describe emergency operating procedures for auxiliary diesel engines.

If you have answered “no” to the above question, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.

Progress Check 11
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.

1. List four (4) uses of diesel engines on steam ships.

2. Identify two (2) items of emergency machinery that may be powered
directly by a diesel engine.
3. State three (3) reasons why safety features are necessary on auxiliary diesel
engines.
4. List and explain four (4) safety features which may be present on an
auxiliary diesel engine or its systems.
5. Describe the operational procedures and checks performed in order to start
and run an auxiliary diesel generator.

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 Feedback

Feedback
Feedback to Activities
Section 1
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 2
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 3
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 4
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 5
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 6
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 7
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 8
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 9
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 10
Supervisor to advise on activities.
Section 11
Supervisor to advise on activities.

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Feedback

Feedback to Progress Checks

Progress Check 1

1. Dry saturated steam - all of the liquid has been converted to steam.
Wet steam - some liquid water is present with the steam.
Superheated steam - dry steam that is at a higher temperature than the
relevant saturation temperature.

2. Main - for propulsion purposes.

Essential - eg, turbo-alternator.
Domestic - eg, accommodation heating.

3.

4. See subsection 3.4

5. Losses, see subsection 4.2

State & explain three of the following:
• Expansion of steam/heat energy transfer.
• Undercooling of condensed water.
• Pressure drops in the system.
• Efficiency of components.
• Additional complexity and energy demands of the real system.
• Sensible heating of boiler water.

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 Feedback

Improvements, see subsection 4.3

State & explain four of the following:
• Use superheated steam for power applications.
• Raise the boiler pressure.
• Lower the condenser pressure.
• Use a regenerative condenser.
• Use feed heating.
• Use an economiser.
• Improve the efficiency of steam system components.
• Correct operation and maintenance

Progress Check 2

1. See subsection 1.1.

The quest for increased overall efficiency and higher vessel speeds (higher
output powers) led to the adoption of watertube boilers to use with turbines.

2. See subsections 1.2 & 1.3

List and describe three of the following advantages:
• Higher pressures & temperatures
• Saving in weight & space
• Higher evaporation rates
• Greater mechanical flexibility
• Rapid steam raising
• Wider safety margin in event of rupture.

List and describe three of the following disadvantages:

• Complex water level control system needed
• Complex combustion control system needed
• Better water quality & feed system required
• Large furnace explosions can occur more readily and are more
dangerous.

3. See subsection 1.2.

Above this limit, boiler shell needs to be too big, making it hard to
construct and having thermal stress problems.

4. Figures 2-19 and 2-21 are examples of simple sketches.

Water flows in (through an economiser) to the steam drum, down through
external & internal downcomers to the water drum. Water then flows to
the
water walls and up through risers back to the steam drum. Steam flows out
of the steam drum through superheaters. Gas flow is from the burners,

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Feedback

through passages in the screen tubes and up through the exhaust space,
flowing over superheaters and economisers where fitted.

5. See subsection 3.3.

The density difference between water and steam at higher pressures is
reduced, affecting natural circulation. External downcomers improve the
circulation of water and steam within the boiler.

6. See subsection 5.3.

0.28% carbon, 0.5% manganese, 0.1% silicon, remainder iron.

7. See subsection 5.4 and figure 2-18.

Tubes have steel strips welded between them. Use a simplified version of
figure 2-18, or equivalent.

8. See subsection 4.2.

To prevent overheat and failure of the superheater tube elements.

9. See subsections 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, and 9.7.

Progress Check 3

1. See subsection 2.

2. See subsections 3.1, 3.2 & 3.3.

TDR is the ratio between maximum and minimum fuel throughputs of the
boiler burner(s). This gives a value for the difference between the
maximum and minimum heat energy release rates of the boiler (and thus the
steam production rates).

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Pressure jet burner, 3:1.

Steam assisted pressure jet burner, 20:1.

3. See subsection 1.3.

Too much air: very bright, white flame which may have white flecks within
it; exhaust gas will be an opaque, white colour.
Correct air: bright orange/straw coloured flame; exhaust gas will be a light
grey to brown haze.

4. See subsection 4.4.

Purging removes any accumulated, flammable vapours from the furnace and
uptakes and ensures that these spaces contain fresh air. This reduces the
possibility of a furnace explosion occurring when lighting off.
Purging should last for at least 3 minutes or 8 air changes.

5. See subsection 5.1.

Forced draft is where air for combustion is pushed into the boiler furnace by
a fan or blower.
Induced draft is where the airflow through the furnace and boiler uptakes is
caused by a fan/blower situated in the exhaust gas side of the boiler, this
sucks or induces the combustion products from the furnace, so drawing air
into the furnace.

Progress Check 4

1. See subsection 1.
Ten of following fittings:
• Safety valve
• Steam stop valve
• Feed check valve
• Pressure gauge
• Salinometer cock/valve
• Blow down valve
• Water level indicator
• Low water level alarm
• Low low water level alarm
• High water level alarm
• Air vent
• Drain valve
• Superheater circulating valve
• Chemical dosing valve

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Feedback

2. See subsection 5.

3. See subsection 2.3.

• Shut stem cock
• Shut water cock
• Carefully open drain cock
• Slightly open steam cock and wait for emission of steam through the
drain
• Slightly open water cock and wait for emission of water through the
drain
• Shut drain
• Open water cock fully; water should rise to the top of the gauge glass
• Open steam cock fully; water should drop smartly down to the correct
level.

See subsection 2.1.

To protect the glass from the dissolving action of high pressure, high
temperature boiler water.

See subsection 4.1.

Prevents steam overpressure of the boiler.
Relieving normal boiler steam pressure if an emergency/dangerous situation
exists.

See subsection 5.
These are vent valves situated at the superheater outlet header. They protect
the superheater tubes from overheating at low steam demands by allowing
steam to vent to atmosphere (so creating a steam flow through the
superheater). They are used during flash up and shut down of the boiler,
whenever there is furnace is hot and steam is not otherwise being used.

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Progress Check 5

1. See subsection 1.1.

Shrink causes boiler water level to momentarily drop when steam flow
reduces. A simple water level control system would sense this drop and
increase feed flow rate into the boiler when actually less steam is being used
and so the water level will actually rise. This could cause the water level to
become too high.

2. See subsections 1.3 and 1.4.

The controller measures feed flow in and steam flow out of the boiler, that
is, the amount of water being put into the boiler and the amount of steam
(and thus water) being removed from the boiler. If either of these flow rates
alters, the controller acts to open or close the feed control valve (and so
adjust feed flow rate) as needed. For example, if steam flow increases, the
controller will increase feed flow rate. Measurement of actual water level
acts as a final check on water level and is also used when there is a small
steam flow rate.

3. See subsection 2.
• Read equipment and machinery manuals
• Read ship’s procedure manuals
• Observe and ask relevant questions of other engineering staff
• Investigate and inspect the equipment and machinery
• Participate in boiler operations as much as possible.

344 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Feedback

4. See subsection 6.1.

Open the superheater circulating/vent valve to maintain steam flow through
the superheater.

5. See subsection 7.
Ten of the following:
• Low water level alarm
• Low low water level alarm & trip
• High water level alarm
• High high water level alarm (& turbine trip)
• Low feed water pressure alarm & trip
• High and low boiler pressure alarm
• High superheated steam temperature alarm
• High desuperheated steam temperature alarm
• Low combustion air pressure alarm & trip
• Low fuel oil pressure alarm
• High and low fuel oil temperature/viscosity alarm (only if using heavy
fuel oil)
• Low atomising steam/air pressure alarm
• Flame/ignition failure alarm & trip
• High uptake temperature alarm.

Progress Check 6

1. See subsection 2.1.

The high pressure range supplies: main turbine, turbo-alternators, turbo-feed
pumps, and desuperheater.

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 Feedback

2. See subsection 2.1.

This type of joint is common called a metaflex joint, and consists of a
wound strip of gasket and steel backing with internal (at the inside diameter)
and external (at the outside diameter) steel guide rings.

3. See subsection 2.2.

Sootblowers
Atomising steam for fuel burners
Air ejectors
Make up to exhaust/bled steam system
Steam to contaminated steam system
Whistle steam

4. See subsections 3.1 & 3.2.

Ensure only water (condensate) returns to drains tanks from steam heaters,
to increase thermal efficiency.
Keep steam lines free of condensate, to prevent water hammer.

• Water pressure at the inlet causes the disc to rise from the seat, allowing
discharge of water through to the outlet.

• Once steam starts passing through the trap, it creates a low pressure under
the disc (due to the high speed of the steam as it passes through the trap).
At the same time, steam leaks around the disc and pressure builds up in the
steam chamber.

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• Steam pressure in the steam chamber, acting on the full face of the disc,
forces the disc down against the pressure of the incoming steam until the
disc closes on the inner ring of the seat. The disc has also closed off the
outer ring of the seat, so the steam in the chamber is trapped, keeping the
disc shut.

• Condensation of the steam in the steam chamber reduces the chamber

pressure. The disc is moved up by the incoming pressure and the cycle
begins again.

5. See subsection 3.4.

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Steam at discharge pressure acts on a diaphragm through a small passage. This

creates an upward force on the diaphragm, which is balanced by a spring acting
on the other side of the diaphragm. The spring force is adjustable to give the
desired discharge pressure.

If the discharge pressure is too low, the diaphragm moves down due to spring
force, opening the valve and allowing steam to pass through.

The increase in discharge pressure moves the diaphragm upwards, causing the
valve to close, but not shut. The steam passing through the valve is then
throttled, which causes it to reduce in pressure.

As steam demand reduces, the discharge pressure begins to increase, causing

more throttling and so the pressure reduces to the set value. As steam demand
increases, the discharge pressure begins to decrease, reducing the amount of
throttling, and so the pressure rises to the set value.

Progress Check 7

1. See subsection 1.3.

A closed feed system is sealed off from the atmosphere. This prevents
oxygen from the atmosphere from entering the water. As boiler pressure
increases, the effects of oxygen and other gases dissolved in the feed water
(such as corrosion) are increased.

2. See subsection 1.3, figure 7-2.

348 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

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3. See subsection 1.1.

Brief explanation of the following:
• Change waste steam to condensate
• Transfer condensate, as feed water, to the boiler
• Pre-heat the feed water
• Remove gases from the feed water

4. See subsection 2.1.

Generating & maintaining a vacuum depends on:
• A flow of cooling seawater
• Gland sealing system to minimise air ingress to the condenser
• Air ejector.

5. See subsections 6.1 & 6.2.

• Remove gases from the feedwater
• Feed heating
• Stop main feed pump gassing up
• Acts as a surge tank.

Simplified sketch of figure 7-12 (or equivalent).

Feedwater enters a chamber in the top of the deaerator. The supply pressure
forces this water through spring loaded spray valves, causing the water to
atomise or break into a large number of very small water droplets. This
water spray gives a large contact area between the feedwater and the steam.

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 Feedback

Most of the feedwater falls onto the upper surface of the inner cone which is
heated by the incoming steam. This feedwater then enters the central
passage and leaves through a narrow opening in a venturi. The feedwater at
this venturi draws steam through with it, and intimate mixing of the
feedwater and steam occurs.

The feedwater and condensed steam collects in the bottom chamber which
acts as the storage tank.

Heating steam enters the deaerator, initially heating the cone assembly
before mixing with the feedwater.

This heating of the feedwater releases any gases dissolved in the feedwater.
These released gases leave through vent connection and pass through a vent
condenser. Water vapour which has carried over with the gases is
condensed and returned.

Progress Check 8

1. See subsection 1.
Two of the following advantages:
• Pure rotary motion
• No rubbing or friction of parts apart from bearings
• High power/weight/space ratio
• Low centre of gravity in ship
• Low maintenance costs
• Can give any power range required at sea.

Two of the following disadvantages:

• Less efficient
• Needs a boiler and other steam plant components
• Needs a separate astern turbine
• Low starting power
• Manoeuvring can be sluggish.

2. See subsection 7.2.

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High pressure, high energy steam is expanded in the nozzle to a lower

pressure, high velocity jet of steam.

The jet of steam from the nozzle is directed into the impulse blades and
leaves in a different direction. The angle of entry of the steam to the blades
is such that there is minimum shock to the blades or their supports (150 to
300, depending on blade speed).

This change of direction results in a force on the blades. Blade passages are
parallel giving no pressure drop across the moving blades, but steam
velocity decreases. There is only a very small amount of axial end thrust on
the shaft and there is little or no steam leakage around the blade tips hence
fine clearances are not required. Fixed nozzles in the casing redirect the
steam flow after the blade.

3. See subsection 2.1.

This turbine has a number of stages of nozzles and blading. The pressure is
reduced gradually through each nozzle, the steam velocity is reduced as it
passes through the moving blading. As the steam is reduced in pressure in
the following nozzle, its velocity is increased again. Diaphragms fitted
between each row of blading houses the nozzles and prevent steam leakage,
ensuring that the steam passes through the nozzles.

4. See subsection 3.4.

The stellite strip protects the blading of last few stages of the low pressure
turbine from water damage.

5. See subsection 6.2.

Prevents ahead and astern steam being admitted to the turbines at the same
time.

6. See subsection 5.

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 Feedback

Progress Check 9

1. See subsection 1.1.

• Lubricate
• Cool
• Clean
• Prevent corrosion
• Provide hydraulic power.

2. See subsection 2.1.

• Turbine bearings
• Gearbox bearings
• Gear teeth
• Flexible couplings between the turbine and gearbox.

3. See subsection 2.2.

Select one of the three types of system, gravity, pressure, combined
gravity/pressure then sketch and describe the system you have selected.

4. See subsection 2.2.

352 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

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To provide sufficient lubricating oil to the turbine bearings to ensure

adequate lubrication while the turbine is still rotating but the normal
lubrication system is not operating.

5. See subsection 3.
State two of the following faults, and give typical symptoms, causes and
actions to be taken:
• Pump failure
• Pump wear
• Blocked/dirty filters
• Incorrectly shut valves
• Incorrectly open valves
• Loss of cooling water to oil cooler
• Cooling control failure
• Loss of oil
• Contamination of oil

Progress Check 10

1. See subsection 1.
• Lubrication must be provided
• Turbine must be warmed through correctly
• Turbine drains must be open during warming through
• Supply steam must be at the correct pressure and temperature and free
from carry over
• Propeller must be free to turn
• Condenser must be circulated with water and at correct vacuum.

2. See subsection 1.1.

Brief explanation of the following:
• Keep rotors straight
• Avoid casing distortion as much as possible
• Minimise thermal stress due to temperature variations.

3. The principles of question 2 must be followed. If the turbine

cannot be rotated, all steam flow to the turbine must be stopped. This will
include gland sealing steam. Distortion due to differential heating will be
minimised.

4. See subsection 1.3.

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 Feedback

Ahead then astern steam is admitted to the turbine at regular intervals. The
amount of steam admitted is not enough to propel the ship but is sufficient
to slowly rotate the turbine and keep the turbine warm.

5. See subsection 2.1.

Follow maker’s instructions for isolating and connecting up piping. General
points will include:
• Disconnecting the coupling between the turbine and the first gearbox
pinion wheel will isolate the low-pressure turbine.
• Using pipeline blanks will isolate steam to the low-pressure turbine.
• The astern turbine will be unavailable, (since it is on the low-pressure
turbine rotor shaft), so astern steam must be isolated.
• Emergency piping will be fitted between the high pressure turbine
exhaust and the condenser.
• Turn the low pressure turbine rotor 180o once every six hours using the
flexible coupling flange to minimise distortion of the rotor.
• Measures to avoid overheating the condenser must be taken.
• There will be limitations to the available ahead power. One reason for
this is to protect the high pressure turbine gearing from overload and
consequent damage.

Measures to avoid overheating the condenser include:

• Use reduced superheated steam temperature/use saturated steam.
• Use reduced inlet steam pressure.
• Limit the ahead steam admitted to keep the high pressure turbine
exhaust pressure below normal.
• Orifice plate may be fitted in emergency piping to limit steam flow.
• A desuperheating water spray may be situated in the emergency piping,
or the desuperheating water spray for the astern turbine may be used.

Progress Check 11

1. See subsection 1.2.

• Supplementary electrical generation
• Emergency electrical generation
• Emergency prime mover for pumps and compressors
• Lifeboat engines

2. See subsection 1.2.

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Two of the following (this list is not exclusive):

• Emergency diesel alternator
• Emergency starting air compressor
• Emergency fire pump
• Breathing apparatus air compressor
• Lifeboat engines.

3. See subsection 2.
To prevent or minimise:
• Damage to engine
• Loss of power to the load
• Injury to personnel.

4. See subsection 2.
Briefly explain four of the following:
• Protection of personnel when starting
• Lubricating oil system protection
• Jacket cooling water system protection
• Starting air system protection
• Crankcase explosion protection
• Overspeed protection
• Other protective and monitoring equipment you may be familiar with.

5. See subsections 3.1, 3.2, and 3.5.

Procedures and checks which are followed before the engine is started can
be summarised as follows:

• Ensure that the engine control is set to off.

• Check fuel tank level.
• Drain off water from bottom of fuel tank and at fuel oil filters (if
possible).
• Check oil level in sump.
• Check oil level in turbochargers.
• Check water level in header tank/radiator.
• Ensure that engine is set correctly for remote or local starting/running.
• Check valves in fuel, lubricating oil, jacket water, and other appropriate
systems are in their correct positions.
• Check for loose or damaged fittings and components.
• Check for leaks around engine.
• Reset any trips that may have been activated.
• Check for freedom of movement of fuel racks and other linkages.

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 Feedback

• With the engine isolated so it cannot be started, turn the engine

manually through two revolutions to ensure that there is the engine is
free to turn. Running an auxiliary electric lubricating oil pump when
turning will provide an initial amount of lubricating oil to bearing
surfaces.
• Prime fuel oil system to remove air pockets.
• Check starting air pressure is sufficient (if using starting air) or check
that starting system is ready. Starting air-isolating valves should be
opened or checked that they are open.
• Radiator dampers, if manually operated, to be opened.
• Ensure that appropriate ship personnel are aware that the engine is to be
started.
• Indicator cocks, if fitted, should be opened. With fuel shut off to the
engine, admit starting air and observe engine rotation. Check for water
issuing out of indicator cocks. (This procedure may not be performed
on some engines.)
• Indicator cocks, if fitted, should be shut.

The engine is ready to be started.

Procedures and checks which are followed at and after engine start can be
summarised as follows:

• Set fuel lever to start position/set engine control to starting position.

• Start the engine. This should be done with the engine off-load.
• Check that the engine has picked up speed and is running.
• Check that lubricating oil pressure increases.
• Isolate air start system as specified in ship’s procedures. (In some
applications, the engine must be able to be started at all times.)
• Listen/observe for excess vibration, knocking, noise, leaks, and other
indications of problems.
• Monitor exhaust gas temperature.
• Check oil and cooling water pressures.
• Check oil and cooling water temperatures.
• Check oil levels.
• Check pressure drop across oil filters.
• When engine is running steadily and has warmed up to an acceptable
level, put engine on line.
• Observe temperatures, levels, pressures, and other parameters as engine
warms up further.

356 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Feedback

• Change over to remote running if applicable.

• Recharge starting air receiver, if necessary.

The engine is now running.

It is important to regularly monitor the operation of an auxiliary diesel

engine and its systems while the engine is running. Checks to make
include:
• Engine sump and other lubricating oil levels
• Jacket cooling water header tank level
• Fuel tank level
• Drain fuel tank of water
• Lubrication oil temperature and pressure
• Fuel oil pressure
• Cooling water flow, temperature, and pressure
• Differential pressure across oil filters (this gives an indication of a dirty
filter)
• Engine revolutions - what they are and how steady they are
• Exhaust gas temperatures
• Charge air pressure and temperature
• Unusual vibration, noise, or smell
• Fuel rack position and movement
• Leaks at and around the engine
• Engine load/power output
• Exhaust gas colour
• Starting air pressure/starting system availability.

These parameters should be checked at least twice a day when the engine is
running continuously.

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 357

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References

Taylor D.A., 1995, Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition,

Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford.

Morton T.D., 1979, Steam Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers,

Volume 9 Reed’s Engineering Series, Thomas Reed Publications Ltd, London.

Jackson L. & Morton T.D., 1984, General Engineering Knowledge for Marine
Engineers, Volume 8 Reed’s Engineering Series, Thomas Reed Publications
Ltd, London.

Roy G.J., 1978, Steam Turbines and Gearing, Marine Engineering Series,
Stanford Maritime Limited, London.

Flanagan G.T.H.,1982 Marine Boilers, Second Edition, Marine Engineering

Series, Stanford Maritime Limited, London.

Milton J.H. and Leach R.M., 1980, Marine Steam Boilers, Fourth Edition,
Marine Engineering Series, Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd., London.

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Glossary
N Newtons
Nm Newton metres
J Joules
W Watt
kW Kilowatt
TDC Top dead centre
BDC Bottom dead centre
V/V Valve
SW Salt (sea) water
FW Fresh water
P/P Pump
T/C Turbocharger
MDO Marine diesel oil
MGO Marine gas oil
MFO Marine fuel oil
HFO Heavy fuel oil
Tk Tank

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 359

 Engineer Watchkeeper

SPC 115
Steam Engineering Knowledge

Training Assessment Guide

Regional Maritime Programme

Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji
Engineer Watchkeeper

SPC 115

Steam Engineering
Knowledge

Training and Assessment

Guide

Regional Maritime Programme

Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji

SPC 115 Engineering Knowledge Motor (Watchkeeper)

 ©
Copyright Secretariat of the Pacific Community 1999

All rights reserved. This work is copyright but permission is given to trainers and teachers
to make copies by photocopying or other duplicating processes, for use within their
educational institution. This permission does not extend to the making of copies for use
outside the institution in which they are made, or to the making of copies for hire or resale.

First printed, November 1999

Original text: English

‘Pacific Community’ is the new name of the South Pacific Commission (SPC). The new
name became official on 6 February 1998, in commemoration of the 51st anniversary of the
1947 Canberra Agreement, which originally established the SPC.

The change of name does not alter all the established SPC acronyms, but their meanings
are modified.

‘Pacific Community’ applies to the total organisation, i.e., the member governments, the
Conference, the CRGA and the Secretariat. ‘Secretariat of the Pacific Community
(SPC)’ refers to those who provide the service to members of the Community.

Secretariat of the Pacific Community

Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji
Telephone: (679) 370 733
Facsimile: (679) 370 021
E:mail: [email protected]
Web site: http://www.spc.org.nc/

The resource and material were prepared by the Australian Maritime College Search Ltd
with financial assistance of the New Zealand Government.

Author: Stanoje Marriott

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Training and Assessment Guide

Contents
Page No

Introduction 1

Competency Based Training 2

Module Overview 4
Module Purpose 4
Learning Outcomes 4
Nominal Duration 4
Prerequisites 4

Module Resources 5
Learner’s Guide 5
Training and Assessment Guide 6
Use of Resources 7
Required Resources 7

Instructor’s Role 8
Steps to Follow 9

General Delivery and Assessment Strategies

Delivery Ideas 10
Assessment Principles 10
Assessment Methods 13
Creating Assessment Task and Tools 14
Recording Learner Achievement 16

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 Training and Assessment Guide

Section Delivery and Assessment Strategies

Section 1: Thermodynamics of Steam 17

Section 2: Main Boilers 22

Section 3: Boiler Combustion 28

Section 4: Boiler External Mountings 35

Section 5: Main Boiler Operation 41

Section 6: Steam Distribution 46

Section 7: Condensate/Feed Systems 51

Section 8: Steam Turbines 58

Section 9: Lubrication of Steam Turbines 63

Section 10: Steam Turbine Operation 69

Section 11: Auxiliary Diesel Engines 74

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Training and Assessment Guide

Introduction
Welcome to the Training and Assessment Guide for module SPC 115 Steam Engineering
Knowledge (Watchkeeper).

This guide is designed to assist:

• instructors in helping learners achieve competence in the module learning outcomes;

and

• instructors and assessors in developing tools for assessing skills, attributes, and
underpinning knowledge.

This guide gives an overview of the module and details the learning outcomes, assessment,
and resource requirements. Together with the Learner’s Guide, it makes up a package of
learning resources to be used in a flexible delivery environment. The latter may include
classroom learning, workplace training, distance learning, or a combination of the above.

This Guide provides guidance on delivery and assessment strategies, enabling delivery and
assessment to take place in a variety of situations. In addition, this guide offers suggestions
on how to assess competency in each learning outcome against the specified assessment
criteria of the curriculum.

An SPC Class 3 Engineer Certificate is a pre-requisite to this module.

Therefore, the learner should have attained competence in all modules for a
Class 3 certificate before attempting this module.

SPC 113 General Engineering Knowledge covers competencies that are

required by a Steamship Engineer Watchkeeper, and may not be covered in this
module.

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 Training and Assessment Guide

Competency Based Training

Competency Based Training (CBT) is concerned with the attainment and demonstration of
specified knowledge, skills and application by a learner. CBT is ‘criterion-referenced’
rather than ‘norm-referenced’. This means that it is concerned with a learner’s attainment
and demonstration of specified knowledge, skills and application, rather than that
individual’s comparative ranking within the group.

CBT places primary emphasis on what an individual can actually do as a result of training
as opposed to emphasis on the process involved in training. Certification is based on the
attainment of competencies rather then the completion of a training program. However,
under some circumstances, nominal training periods are still necessary.

An educational program that incorporates CBT includes three basic features:

• a statement of competency that summarises the skills, knowledge, and the application of
such knowledge and skills which the learner is expected to be able to perform;

• measurable learning outcomes that the learner must be able to perform; and

• means of assessing the learner’s achievement of these outcomes.

Competency standards are specified by a particular industry. In the maritime context, the
International Maritime Organisation’s STCW-95 (Standards of Training & Certification of
Watchkeepers 1978, as amended in 1995) convention is the starting point for the
development of standards. These standards define the minimum competencies required for
effective performance in the profession at the level specified. An important point to note is
that competence cannot be observed directly. It is necessary to infer competence from
indirect evidence. This can be done in two ways. In the ‘attribute-based’ approach
competence can be inferred by testing that certain personal attributes (eg skills, knowledge
and attitudes) that underlie competence are present at an appropriate level in the individual
whose competence is to be recognised. One of the most commonly tested attribute is
knowledge, usually by a written examination.

In the ‘performance-based’ approach, competence is inferred by observation of

performance of an individual in the actual workplace. One drawback with the
‘performance-based’ approach is that competence is assessed in a particular situation. It is
difficult to assess whether an individual will perform equally well in other circumstances.
Due to the shortcomings of both approaches if used in isolation, it is considered that testing
personal attributes of an individual together with how those attributes are likely to be
applied in the actual workplace would represent the logical approach.

In CBT, the learning program is organised into modules. A module usually represents a
major unit of competency with its associated learning outcomes. Assessment criteria are
used to judge how well the learner has attained the learning outcomes. A complete module
consists of the module descriptor (curriculum), the learner’s guide, the facilitator’s
(instructor’s) guide and any supplementary resources.

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Training and Assessment Guide

CBT allows flexible delivery of the training program. This means that a range of teaching
styles can be adopted in a variety of learning environments to cater for differences in
learning styles, needs, and variations in learning opportunities. Since the emphasis of CBT
is on job related skills, training programs can be beneficially conducted in the workplace,
together with assessment. Furthermore, CBT allows the formal recognition of an
individual’s previously acquired skills through recognition of prior learning (RPL).

SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 3

 Training and Assessment Guide

Module Overview
Module Purpose
To provide students with an understanding of the construction, operating principles, and
characteristics of a steam ship's propulsion power plant, such as to enable safe and efficient
operation at Engineer Watchkeeper level during steady state, transient, and fault
conditions.

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this module the learner will be able to:

• Discuss the thermodynamic aspects of main steam plants;

• Describe the types of main boilers utilised at sea, and state typical operating pressures
and temperatures of these boilers;
• Explain how combustion occurs in a main boiler, and note safety precautions which
must be undertaken;
• List and discuss the various external fittings mounted on main boilers;
• Describe the operation of a main boiler in normal and emergency situations;
• Illustrate typical configurations of, and describe operating principles applying to,
various steam distribution systems found aboard a steam ship;
• Describe typical feed systems for main boilers, including all components found in such
systems;
• Illustrate and describe the principles and construction of main and auxiliary steam
turbines;
• Describe and evaluate methods of lubricating the principle components of a marine
steam turbine and its associated gearing, and evaluate common faults;
• Describe normal, transient, and emergency operation of a steam turbine powered ship;
• Describe the safety features of auxiliary diesel engines;
• Describe the operation of auxiliary diesel engines.

Nominal Duration
40 hours.

Prerequisites
SPC Class 3 Engineer Certificate

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Module Resources
Learner’s Guide
The focus of the learner’s guide is to provide the learner with all the information and
activities required to achieve the competencies stated in the learning outcomes of the
module. You may use the Learner’s Guide to plan and deliver your training.

The Learner’s Guide is comprehensive and is the main learning resource of the
modularised package. However, the learner may at times need to refer to other resources
and get assistance from the instructor.

You will need to assist the learner to:

• understand the information in the Learner’s Guide;

• complete activities; and
• complete progress checks.

The icons shown below are located in the left margin of the learner’s guide. They advise
the learner on actions that are required and notices that needed to be heeded, during
various stages of their study.

Check your Progress icon

Caution/Beware icon

Activity icon

Check Text icon

Tips icon

Key Point icon

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 Training and Assessment Guide

Training and Assessment Guide

The Training and Assessment Guide introduces you to the:

• module purpose
• learning outcomes; and
• assessment criteria.

The Training and Assessment Guide provides information to the instructor and the
assessor.

The information for the instructor includes tips on:

• how to use the learner’s guide in delivering the module;

• your role as an instructor;
• steps to follow;
• delivery strategies;
• recording achievements; and
• resources required.

The information for the assessor includes:

• assessment principles;
• assessment methods;
• creating assessment task/tools;
• assessment strategies;
• sample written question and model answers;
• practical assessment tasks and guidelines; and
• resources required.

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Training and Assessment Guide

Use of Module Resources

The use of module resources for the delivery and assessment of this module is depicted by
the following diagram.

START

LEARNER Learner's Guide

DELIVERY INSTRUCTOR

Training and
Assessment Guide

ASSESSMENT ASSESSOR

Not Yet Competent Competent

COMPETENT? END

Required Resources
Access to:

1. Appropriate vessels, or ship models

2. Appropriate marine machinery and structures, (or models)
3. Appropriate marine steam plant components and models
4. Tools and equipment.
5. Manuals and information in regard to machinery on board vessels.
6. Appropriate testing equipment.
7. Lifting equipment and machinery.
8. Ship plans and drawings.
9. Appropriate tools and safety equipment.
10. Statuary regulations for the South Pacific.

See individual sections for details of required resources.

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 Training and Assessment Guide

Instructor’s Role
1. The role of the instructor is to:

• use examples relevant to situations encountered on vessels, the maritime industry,

and real-life experiences;

• give examples relevant to the learner’s duties and work environment;

• assess continually the learner’s competency via activities and progress tests;

• ensure there is adequate feedback on all activities, tests, and assessments;

• ensure that the learner has access to required resources and has adequate
supervision during practical activities;

• encourage the learner to familiarise themself with the use of machinery, tools and
other relevant equipment, rather than the pure memorisation of the theory;

• promote one-to-one instruction for learners having difficulties in certain areas;

• encourage learners with advance knowledge to progress through the Learner’s

Guide at their own pace;

2. Instructors should encourage learners with advance knowledge to:

a) Read the learning outcomes and assessment criteria in each section.

b) Identify the learning outcomes and assessment criteria that reflect the
competencies they may already have.
c) Identify the sections that consist of these learning outcomes and assessment
criteria.
d) Complete the ‘Progress Check’ in these relevant sections and check their answers
against those provided at the end of the learner’s guide. If successful, they should
go on to the next section.

3. As an SPC Engineer Class 3 Certificate is a pre-requisite for this module, it is assumed

that the learner is familiar with the concepts dealt with in the modules of that course. If
the learner has difficulty in dealing with the basic concepts, you should advise the
learner to revise them using the Learner’s Guides of that course. Additionally, SPC xxx
Heat & Heat Engines (Watchkeeper) may also be revised by the learner for a
thermodynamic background of steam and steam plants.

4. Ensure the provision of a safe working environment and the adherence to occupational
health & safety (OH&S) practices during practical activities in workshops and onboard
vessels. The work should be carried out under proper supervision.

5. Ensure the correct selection of tools and equipment.

8 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Training and Assessment Guide

Steps to Follow
The steps to follow in delivering and assessing the module are given in the following
flowchart.

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 Training and Assessment Guide

General Delivery and Assessment

Strategies
Delivery Ideas

The educational process in a CBT programme is student centred. The emphasis is on what
the learners can do or need to be able to do, in order to prove competency in performing
specific tasks. This results in a flexible approach where it is no longer necessary for all
learners to learn at the same pace or perform the same assessment tasks at the same time.
Your students will be using the Learner’s Guide as their main source of reference,
completing the activities, and self assessment exercises (progress tests) set out in the guide.
The learners will look to you for support and guidance. Your role will be to facilitate their
learning process and provide support structures which are appropriate to their needs and
learning styles.

It is suggested that you help to:

• ORIENT THE LEARNERS to the Eg. Explain:

nature and processes of the CBT program • the structure of the course
• range of options available to the learner
• method of learning and assessment
• how to access learning materials and
resources
• roles of the instructor, etc

• CUSTOMISE THE LEARNING Eg. Select or design tasks and activities that
PROGRAM to make it more relevant. reflect local industry trends and for which
Learning experiences should reflect on- facilities are readily available
the-job environment

• ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN Eg. Ensure that learners are able to access
LEARNING STATIONS equipment labs, simulators, vessels and
other learning sites when they need them in
their learning sequence. Ensure that
learning stations are properly equipped and
resourced

• PROVIDE SKILLS Eg. Show how to test a boiler gauge glass

DEMONSTRATIONS
• GIVE PRACTICAL Eg. Give the opportunity to inspect an
OPPORTUNITIES for the learners to opened up steam turbine
experience

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• CLARIFY CONTENT, if necessary by Eg. Discuss the operation of a steam

providing information beyond the pressure reducing valve which has feedback
learning materials

• PROVIDE A RANGE OF Eg. Show different steam piping

EXPERIENCES to cover knowledge in arrangements
the broader industry

• PROVIDE A POSITIVE LEARNING Eg.

ENVIRONMENT • plan and organise effective learning
experiences
• provide positive and supportive feedback
• keep learners actively involved
• help learners develop individual and
group learning plans
• allow learners to demonstrate their
knowledge

• PROMOTE CRITICAL THINKING Eg. Give learners a scenario where they are
AND PROBLEM SOLVING in charge during a defined main boiler
emergency. Ask for actions they would take
to address this emergency while attempting
to maintain essential services

• MONITOR LEARNERS’ PROGRESS Eg. Use checklists to record the

and provide remedial support and performance of learners
counselling where appropriate

Assessment Principles

Assessment in CBT is about collecting evidence and making judgements about a learner’s
progress towards learning outcomes. Typically, a learner’s performance or achievement of
learning outcomes is assessed in relation to the module purpose and course aim against
appropriate assessment criteria.

A number of different types of assessment can be used within a competency based system.
These are :

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Holistic These techniques check a learner’s ability to complete workplace tasks

Assessment: utilising a range of skills, knowledge, and understanding. These tasks
usually involve a combination of theory/practice and a range of
competencies.

Formative Formative assessment is used to provide feedback to learners on their

Assessment progress towards the achievement of the required performance.

Summative Summative assessment is used at the end of a training program to

Assessment check that learners have fulfilled all the competency requirements for
the training program.

Diagnostic Diagnostic assessment is used by trainers to determine the educational

Assessment and training needs of learners.

Recognition of RPL is a form of assessment used to determine whether a person has

Prior Learning achieved a required competence for entry and/or credit in a training
(RPL) program through previous learning and experience.

The quality of assessment in CBT is based on the following principles:

Validity Assessment must measure what it is supposed to measure. For example,

an assessment of a person’s ship-handling skills should be assessed by a
practical application of the skills and not a written explanation.

Reliability The assessment should be designed to give the same result irrespective of
the individual assessing the competence or the time of assessment.

Fairness Assessment activities should be selected so that they are fair to all
concerned and do not disadvantage particular persons.

Flexibility Assessment should cover both on and off-the-job components of training.

Assessment procedures should provide for recognition of competencies
regardless of when or where they were acquired.

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Assessment Methods

A variety of methods can be used to measure knowledge, skills, and attitudes of learners.
The suitability of various methods is shown below by the crosses in the respective column,
together with key issues.

Knowl Skills Attitu Key Issues

edge des

Observation of X X X • High level of validity.

Performance • Opportunities to demonstrate competence
across a full range of activities may be limited.

Skills Tests X X X • Allows assessment of practical and technical

skills.
• Standardisation of tasks increases reliability.

Simulations X X X • Permits complex assessments.

• Safety is not compromised.
• Standardisation of tasks increases reliability.
• Individuals react differently in a simulated
environment.

Projects/Assign X X X • Can be off-site and therefore avoid disruptive

ments environments.
• Difficult to predict exactly what type of
evidence will be generated.

Oral X X • Supplements other assessment methods.

Questioning • Can be rigorous.

Written X X • Focuses on knowledge.

Questioning • Cannot directly assess technical performance,
practical skills, and some attitudes.

Evidence of X • Can provide high level of validity.

Prior Learning • Quality of evidence may be difficult to
determine.

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Creating Assessment Tasks and Tools

As far as practicable, a person’s competence should be tested in an environment that is

similar to the actual workplace conditions. In many cases training institutions may not
have the resources to duplicate the actual workplace conditions. However, you should
ensure that assessment tasks are meaningful and relevant. As an assessor you should
thoroughly understand the basis on which a competence based assessment system operates.
Remember that in a competency based system:

• the focus is on ‘outcomes’;

• assessment is individualised;
• an individual’s performance is not judged against performance by other individuals;
• assessment can be carried out on or off-the-job;
• all standards must be met; and
• the assessment process should be valid, reliable, fair, and flexible.

It is suggested that you take the following steps in creating assessment tasks.

Step 1 Determine:

• Whether the assessment will be for certification or the recognition of prior learning.
• What has to be achieved, by referring to the learning outcome.
• How well it must be achieved, by referring to the assessment criteria.
• In what conditions will the assessment take place, by referring to the conditions of
assessment.
• What forms can assessment take, by referring to the methods of assessment.
• How the achievement of learners is to be recorded.

Step 2 Plan the assessment event by taking into account:

• The availability of equipment, resources and operational constraints.

• The most appropriate method of assessment.
• When the assessment is to take place.
• Whether the learner is ready for assessment and understands the assessment procedures.

Step 3 Develop assessment tasks by referring to:

• The assessment criteria.

• The activities within each section of the Learner’s Guide.
• The ‘Progress Check’ activities at the end of each section of the Learner’s Guide.
• The sample assessment tasks within each section of this Guide.
• The general guidelines stated below.

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Guidelines for Practical Skills Tasks

• Give all learners a fair and equal chance.

• Set up the assessment exercises in stages to enable easier identification of deficiencies
and mistakes.
• Develop a performance checklist or rating scale.
• Provide details to learners being assessed on the nature of the test, the time limits, what
they are expected to do, the tools, equipment or materials to be used, and the criteria for
assessment. It is recommended that you make a task sheet for this purpose.

Guidelines for Written Questioning

• When preparing short answer questions ensure that the questions are precise and require
a definite answer. Where appropriate, make it clear what level of accuracy or precision
is required.
• When preparing multiple choice questions ensure that the learners know precisely
whether they have to select one definite answer, or choose the best answer, or choose
the one incorrect answer among the choices. Do not include irrelevant and unnecessary
information in the question. Most multiple choice questions should offer 2 to 4
distractions and 1 correct choice.
• When preparing descriptive, essay type questions, choose the lead word carefully. If
you want general broad based answers, you can use words like ‘describe’ and ‘discuss’.
If you want the answer to be more specific, use the word ‘explain’. Use essay type
questions where learners must be able to show their ability to describe, analyse,
evaluate, synthesise, and summarise.
• Be aware that “discussion” type questions are subjective by nature and may incur
disparity of marking among different assessors.

Guidelines for Oral Questioning

• Make sure that you create a non-threatening environment particularly for the anxious
learner.
• Prior to the oral assessment, the learner should know which competencies are being
tested.
• Oral assessments are particularly useful in situations where the learner’s ability to
pronounce words correctly is to be tested. For example, when testing a learner’s ability
to respond to boiler light off procedural orders in the English language.

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Recording Learner Achievement

In order to keep track of the learner’s progress, it is required to maintain a record of the
achievements of the learner against the respective learning outcomes. This will enable the
learner, the instructor, and the assessor to monitor the achievement of learning outcomes,
(ie. identify the learning outcomes already achieved and not yet achieved at any given
time).

Recording achievements of competencies will depend on the individual learner,

establishment, and the delivery/assessment methods utilised. An example of a paper based
recording method is given below.

Module No: SPC 115 Module Name: Steam Engineering Knowledge

Learning Outcome Date Competence

Achieved
1. Discuss the thermodynamic aspects of main steam plants.
2. Describe the types of main boilers utilised at sea, and state
typical operating pressures and temperatures.
3. Explain how combustion occurs in a main boiler, and note
safety precautions which must be undertaken.
4. List and discuss the various fittings mounted on main
boilers.
5. Describe the operation of a main boiler in normal and
emergency situations.
6. Illustrate typical configurations of, and describe the
operating principles applying to, the various steam
distribution systems found aboard a steam ship.
7. Describe typical feed systems for main boilers, including
all components normally found in such systems.
8. Describe and illustrate the construction and operation of
main and auxiliary steam turbines.
9. Describe and evaluate methods of lubricating the principle
components of a marine steam turbine and its associated
gearing, and evaluate common faults.
10. Describe normal, transient, and emergency operation of a
steam turbine powered ship.
11. Identify and list the safety features of auxiliary diesel
engines.
12. Describe the operation of auxiliary diesel engines.

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Section 1: Thermodynamics of Steam

Learning Outcome 1

Discuss the thermodynamic aspects of main steam plants.

Assessment Criteria

1.1 Describe the thermodynamic cycle upon which the operation of a main steam plant is
based.

1.2 Explain why the practical cycle differs from the ideal cycle, and describe the typical losses
which occur throughout a main steam plant, and state their effects.

1.3 Explain the effects of air preheating, feed heating, and economisation upon the energy
balance of a typical main steam plant's thermodynamic cycle.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Introduce the basic concepts of steam generation and • Learner’s Guide

encourage the learner to understand them rather than • appropriate vessels
memorise them. • Thermodynamic
steam charts and
2. Identify the uses of steam on board ship and encourage the
tables
learner to be able to categorise different applications.
• appropriate
3. Identify the basic components of a main steam plant. machinery and
procedural manuals
4. Encourage the learner to explain the basic steam plant
thermodynamic cycles and the processes that occur within
these cycles, using thermodynamic steam diagrams.

5. Identify the thermodynamic losses of steam plants, in both

theoretical and real cycles, encouraging the learner to be
able to summarise and then briefly explain them. Use these
differences to identify how the real steam cycle differs from
the theoretical cycle.

6. Identify the improvements which can be made to steam

plants, encouraging the learner to be able to summarise and
then briefly explain them.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. Name the three (3) classifications of steam use aboard ship, and give an example of
each.

Example Answer
Main steam - for supplying steam to the propulsion turbine.
Auxiliary steam - for supplying steam to a turbo-alternator.
Domestic steam - for accommodation heating.

2. a) Using a simple sketch, identify the four basic main steam plant components,
explaining the purpose of each component.
.
b) Show the steam plant cycle on a pressure-volume diagram, labelling all
processes and indicating the cycle direction.

Example Answer
a)

• Boiler Ö steam is generated from water by the heat energy

from combustion of fuel.
• Turbine Ö steam is used in an application to provide
heating/electrical generation/main propulsion.
• Condenser Ö waste steam is condensed back into water.
• Feed Pump Ö Water is returned to the boiler.

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b)

1 to 3: Boiler
(1 to 2, economiser and boiler, 2 to 3 superheater)
3 to 4: Turbine
4 to 5: Condenser
5 to 1: Feed Pump

3. The main reason for using an economiser in a main steam plant is:
a) To provide a surge tank to cope with sudden boiler water level changes.
b) To improve the thermal efficiency of the steam plant by preheating air for
combustion.
c) To minimise undercooling of condensed water in the condenser.
d) To improve the thermal efficiency of the steam plant by using waste heat energy
of combustion exhaust gas.

Example Answer
(d)

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Section 2: Main Boilers

Learning Outcome 2

Describe the types of main boilers utilised at sea, and state typical operating pressures and
temperatures.

Assessment Criteria

2.1 Identify the advantages of water tube boilers compared to smoke tube boilers for main
propulsion purposes.
2.2 Describe the types of main boilers used at sea.
2.3 Describe the basic construction, and materials of construction, of main boilers used at
sea.
2.4 Explain, with sketches, steam, water and gas circulation within a running main boiler,
giving typical operating parameters.
2.5 Discuss the advantages of using superheated steam for main propulsion, describe the
methods used to create superheated steam.
2.6 Describe the internal fittings of water tube boilers, illustrating their location within the
boilers, and explain the reasons they are fitted and how they function and explain how
final temperature is controlled.
2.7 List the common defects of a main boiler and state how these may be repaired,
including any test procedures after repair.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Explain the development of the main propulsion steam • Learner’s Guide

boiler from its earliest use to modern times. • appropriate vessel
• boiler models and
2. Identify the basic constructional differences between Scotch
diagrams
type and watertube boilers, and encourage the learner to be
• appropriate
able to explain the advantages and disadvantages of
machinery and
watertubes boilers compared to Scotch type boilers.
procedural manuals
3. Introduce the components of watertube boilers to assist the
learner in comprehending the constructional layout of these
boilers.

4. Describe how steam, water, and gas circulation occur within

a main boiler, encouraging the learner to understand how
and why steam and water circulation occurs.

5. Encourage the student to understand the importance of

steam and water circulation within a watertube boiler.

6. Discuss the essential methods of creating superheated steam.

7. Identify the need for controlling superheated steam

temperature, and explain different methods of controlling
this steam temperature.

8. Identify the purposes of desuperheating steam, and explain

how desuperheating is achieved.

9. Introduce construction concepts of watertube boilers,

starting from early inclined header boilers through to the D
type/bent tube designs.

10.Discuss the construction of each of the major components of

a watertube boiler, including typical materials used.

11.Identify different tube arrangements, including tangent tube

and monowall construction of boilers.

12.Introduce different watertube boiler types, encouraging the

learner to be able to make simple labelled sketches of each
boiler type.

13.Encourage the learner to learn typical pressures and

temperatures that occur in a running boiler.

14.Discuss the fittings within a watertube boiler, identifying

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 Training and Assessment Guide

the purpose of each fitting.

15. Explain the purpose and advantages of steam to steam

generation in a main steam plant, and encourage the learner
to be able to use a simple labelled sketch to explain how
steam to steam generation is achieved.

16. Identify the five basic causes of boiler defects.

17. Encourage the learner to understand the principles of boiler

defect rectification, and build upon this by identifying
typical defects and their typical repairs/post repair testing.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. a) Briefly explain two (2) advantages of a watertube boiler compared to a Scotch

type boiler for main propulsion purposes.
b) Briefly explain two (2) disadvantages of a watertube boiler compared to a
Scotch type boiler for main propulsion purposes.

Example Answer
a)
1. higher pressures and temperatures possible
The maximum practical pressure limit for the Scotch type boiler is around 21
bar, while a main watertube boiler can have an operating pressure of 60 bar.
This also enables higher steam temperatures to be used (since the dry saturated
steam temperature is related to pressure).

2. saving in weight and space

A watertube boiler will give a weight saving of 1:3 when compared to an
equivalent Scotch boiler. A relatively small watertube boiler, due to its high
steam output, will give a smaller steam plant than one using a Scotch type
boiler (with its lower steam output).

b)
1. complex water level control system required
Due to its smaller size and larger steam production rates, changes in the water
level of a watertube boiler will be rapid and must be controlled effectively.
This means a complex water level control system is needed.

2. better water quality and feed system required

Contaminants in boiler and feed water cause greater problems at the higher
pressures of watertube boilers, and they can precipitate out (ie, form scale)
more easily at higher temperatures and evaporation rates. Also, the smaller
tubes of a watertube boiler are more easily blocked/choked; and there is little
allowance for corrosion in the relatively thin tubes. Inspection of the internal
components of a watertube boiler is more difficult than with a Scotch type
boiler.
All this means that the quality of the water and feed system (feed systems can
affect water quality) must be improved.

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2. Make a simple, labelled sketch of a main watertube boiler, and identify its
important features.

Example Answer

• Two drums and water wall headers.

• Bent tube construction of waterwalls enclosing furnace.
• External downcomers connect steam drum to water drum and waterwall
headers.
• Refractories cooled by waterwalls - plastic chrome ore on stud tubes.
• Superheater protected from radiant heat by screen tubes, and supported by
water-cooled support tubes.
• The superheated steam temperature is controllable within certain limits by
fitting an attemperator, and a desuperheater can be fitted for auxiliary
purposes.
• Main generating bank of small tubes after superheater.
• Mud drum on waterwall.

3. The main reason for controlling superheated steam temperature is:

a) To provide desuperheated steam for auxiliary purposes when the ship is in port.
b) To prevent overheating of services such as the turbines.
c) To prevent overheating of superheater tube elements.
d) To prevent excessive cooling of combustion gas products, increasing the
possibility of low temperature (dew point) corrosion.

Example Answer
(c)

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Section 3: Boiler Combustion

Learning Outcome 3

Explain how combustion occurs in a main boiler, and note safety precautions which must
be undertaken.

Assessment Criteria

3.1. Principles of combustion are established.

3.2. A typical fuel system, including components and safety arrangements, for a main
boiler is discussed.
3.3. Different types of main boiler burner arrangements are discussed, noting their
relative advantages and disadvantages.
3.4. Problems that fuel combustion products cause within a boiler and uptakes are
discussed, and how these problems may be catered for are explained.
3.5. The importance of purging a boiler prior to light-off, and other safety precautions are
identified.
3.6. The construction and operation of forced and induced draft fans are described.
3.7. Automatic combustion control for a main boiler is explained.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. • Learner’s Guide
Introduce the basic principles of combustion, discussing:
a) why atomisation of fuel oil is necessary; • appropriate vessel
b) the suspended flame of combustion; • appropriate
c) air/fuel ratio and the effect of varying this ratio; machinery and
d) factors that can affect the suspended flame/combustion. procedural manuals
• examples of typical
2. Discuss boiler fuel oil systems, encouraging the learner
fuel oil burners
to learn the typical components (and their
purposes/functions) which are found in such systems.

3. Define the purposes of fuel oil burners.

4. Define and discuss the turn down ratio of a burner, and

discuss the significance of turn down ratios to boiler
operation.

5. Encourage the learner to be able to identify typical boiler

fuel oil burners, use sketches to explain how these
burners operation, and to identify the main features of
such burners. Explain the relative advantages and
disadvantages of the burners identified.

6. Discuss burner air register purposes and typical

arrangements.

7. Emphasise the dangers and resultant safety measures

associated with combustion, including:
a) Burner isolation;
b) Flame detection;
c) Ignition failure;
d) Furnace explosions;
e) Purging; and
f) Alarms and trips associated with combustion.

8. Discuss typical draft arrangements which are used in

boiler combustions, encouraging the learner to study the
construction of forced draft/induced draft fans and
principles of air flow control. The learner should also be
able to identify the purposes of heating combustion air
and how this heating may be achieved.

9. Identify typical products of combustion, encouraging the

learner to be able to describe the relevant effects of these
products on the boiler and uptakes.

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10. Explain basic concepts of automatic combustion control,

and describe a simple combustion control system.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. a) State the fundamental purpose of an automatic combustion control system.

b) For the automatic combustion control system shown in the diagram below,
explain how the system responds to a drop in steam pressure.

Example Answer
a) To regulate combustion to maintain steam production demand.

b) Drop in steam pressure Ö increased firing required

• The steam pressure signal is sent to a master controller. This is compared
to the set value. Since steam pressure is lower than set point, the controller
will send a signal to the slave controller actuating the fuel control valve.
• Fuel flow rate is increased.
• Fuel flow sensor sends the new fuel flow rate to the air/fuel ratio
comparator (marked A/F RATIO). This value is then sent to the air/fuel
ratio controller.
• Since the fuel flow rate has increased but the air flow has not, the air/fuel
ratio controller sends a signal to the FD fan damper actuator.
• Air flow rate is increased, restoring correct air/fuel ratio at the new fuel
flow rate.

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2. a) Make a simple sketch of a fuel oil settling tank. Indicate on this sketch at least
twelve (12) important features of this tank.

b) Make a simple labelled sketch of a steam assisted pressure jet burner tip. State
a typical turn down ratio for this burner and briefly explain how fuel
atomisation occurs with this burner.

Example Answer
a)

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Training and Assessment Guide

b)

Turn down ratio typically 20 to 1

Oil is atomised by spraying it into the path of a high velocity jet of steam. The
steam then flows through a skewed convergent/divergent nozzle. This gives a
high velocity jet of steam. Oil is delivered to the nozzle throat, is entrained
into the steam jet, is torn to shreds and so atomised.

3. Low temperature corrosion of boiler uptakes is due to the formation of which of

the following:
a) Carbonic acid, as too much excess air creates CO2 as well as cooling flame
temperature.
b) Sulphuric acid, as the condensation temperature of 50OC is reached.
c) Sulphuric acid, as the dewpoint temperature is reached.
d) Hydrochloric acid, which forms as exhaust gas products dissolve in condensed
water vapour in the exhaust gas.
.

Example Answer
(c)

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 Training and Assessment Guide

Section 4: Boiler External Mountings

Learning Outcome 4

List and discuss the various external fittings mounted on main boilers.

Assessment Criteria

4.1. Mountings commonly found on main boilers, including those required by

Authorities, are listed.
4.2. The construction and operation of high pressure local water level
indicators are described.
4.3. The effects of blockages in water, steam, and drain valves/cocks of water
level indicators will be recognised.
4.4. Common operating routines of high pressure water level indicators,
including clearing blockages and overhaul procedures, are described.
4.5. Methods of remotely indicating boiler water level are discussed.
4.6. Types of high pressure safety valves, as well as their operation,
construction, and overhaul, are described.
4.7. Other fittings of a high pressure boiler are described.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• practical assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Encourage the learner to be able to make a list of external • Learner’s Guide

mountings that are found on main boilers, and explain to the • appropriate vessel
learner why these mountings are necessary. • appropriate
machinery and
2. Discuss the necessity of local boiler water level indicators,
procedural manuals
and describe the construction and operating principles of
• examples of fittings
typical high pressure boiler gauge glasses and their relevant
such as boiler gauge
components.
glasses
3. Outline the factors which affect the water level in gauge
glasses.

4. Discuss methods of testing boiler gauge glasses,

emphasising the importance of ensuring correct level
indication and correct procedures. The learner should also
be able to identify why excessive testing can damage high
pressure gauge glasses.

5. Discuss the principles of overhauling gauge glasses and

clearing blockages. The learner should also be able to
explain how to warm through a gauge glass and return it to
service. Emphasise the dangers involved with such
procedures.

6. Explain how remote indication of boiler water level may be

achieved.

7. Identify functions of safety valves and state the locations

that safety valves will be found on a main boiler. Encourage
the learner to be able to state and explain definitions
associated with safety valves.

8. Describe the construction, operating principles, and

overhaul of typical high pressure safety valves and their
relevant components.

9. Describe other external fittings of high pressure boilers.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written and practical assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those
that can be used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

38 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. a) List at least eleven (11) different mountings that will be found on a main
watertube boiler.
b) Explain the following terms with respect to safety valves:
• Blowdown pressure
• Accumulation of pressure
• feathering

Example Answer
a)
• 2 safety valves;
• 1 steam stop valve;
• 2 independent feed check valves;
• 1 pressure gauge;
• 1 salinometer cock/valve;
• 2 blow down valves in series;
• 2 independent water level indicators (at least one local);
• 1 low water level alarm;
• 1 extra low low water level alarm and trip;
• 1 high water level alarm;
• 1 air vent.

b)
Blowdown pressure
This is the pressure at which the valve shuts after it has opened. This pressure
is normally limited to be slightly less than set pressure (3 to 5% less for
example). Excessive blowdown leads to a waste of steam (and unnecessary
loss of water) and so in most high capacity valves, blowdown can be adjusted.

Accumulation of pressure
Even with a correctly sized safety valve, the pressure of the boiler will increase
as the safety valve is operating. This is called accumulation of pressure, and is
due to the spring force of the valve increasing as the valve opens, so requiring
boiler pressure to increase as well.

Feathering
Feathering is when the valve is not quite closed, causing steam leakage which
leads to water loss and erosion of the valve and valve seat.

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2. With the aid of a labelled sketch, explain how a full lift steam safety valve opens.
.
Example Answer

When the steam pressure in the boiler reaches the set pressure, the valve begins
to open against the resistance of the spring. This opening is small at first, but
once the released steam is able to exert its pressure over the full area of the
valve face, the valve opens further. As it does so, the face of the valve enters
the valve guide, which deflects the steam downwards, so setting up a reaction
effect which fully opens the valve.

3. Which of the following statements concerning safety valve easing gear is incorrect?
a) The easing gear may be used to quickly reduce steam pressure in the event of a
shipboard emergency such as flooding.
b) It is not necessary to fit easing gear on the steam drum safety valves as long as the
superheater safety valve is fitted with easing and the boiler is operating in the
UMS mode.
c) Easing gears can be operated by using pulleys and wire ropes from a remote
position.
d) The safety valve spindle has a slot to let the valve open without interference from
the easing gear if the easing gear is not actuated.

Example Answer
(b)

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Practical Assessment Task

1. Demonstrate the procedure for testing or blowing down a high pressure boiler
gauge glass.
.

Example Answer
The procedure should include the following steps:
1. Shut steam cock.
2. Shut water cock.
3. Warm through drain cock by slightly opening the valve.
4. Open drain cock.
5. Slightly open steam cock and wait for emission of steam through the drain -
steam line is clear.
6. Slightly open water cock and wait for emission of water though the drain -
water line is clear. There will be steam coming out of the drain due to the
water flashing off as it encounters atmospheric pressure and temperature.
7. Shut drain.
8. Open water cock fully. Water should rise to the top of the gauge glass.
9. Open steam cock fully. Water should drop smartly down to the correct
level. Slowness of water level movement indicates a restriction in either the
steam or water lines.

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Section 5: Main Boiler Operation

Learning Outcome 5

Describe the operation of a main boiler in normal and emergency situations.

Assessment Criteria

5.1 The method by which automatic water level control is achieved is described.
5.2 The flash up of a main boiler from cold to on-line is described.
5.3 The removal of a main boiler from services and its shut down is described.
5.4 The steps needed for laying up a boiler for short and long periods is described.
5.5 The necessity and procedure of isolating a main boiler after shut down is explained.
5.6 Emergency situations which will affect main boiler operation are identified.
5.7 The symptoms, causes, effects, and actions to be taken with a main boiler in the
emergency situations of 5.6 above are discussed.
5.8 The mechanism and causes of economiser fires are stated, and the actions to prevent
and control such fires are explained.
5.9 Alarms and shut downs of a main boiler are listed, and their purposes described.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Discuss why simple on/off automatic water level control is • Learner’s Guide
inadequate for main watertube boilers. Encourage the • appropriate vessel
learner to be able to explain the phenomena of shrink and • appropriate
swell. machinery and
procedural manuals
2. Explain the operating principles of two and three element
• boiler steam raising
automatic water level control for boilers.
charts
3. Describe steam raising and coupling principles and
procedures, from cold, for a main watertube boiler.
Emphasise to the learner the dangers and resultant safety
precautions which must be remembered during such
procedures.

4. Describe decoupling and shut down principles and

procedures for a main watertube boiler. Emphasise to the
learner the importance of correct isolation and proper safety
checks that should be followed.

5. Explain why an idle boiler should be laid up, and describe

layup procedures for both long and short terms.

6. Identify general principles of dealing with emergency

situations which will affect main boiler operation.
Encourage the learner to apply these principles to specified
emergencies and be able to describe procedures for typical
emergency situations.

7. Encourage the learner to be able to list typical boiler alarms

and trips. Emphasise to the learner that the
watchkeeper/duty engineer and alarms and trips are
complementary to one another.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. Answer the following questions in relation to main boiler operation:

a) When should the superheating circulating/vent valves be open?
b) What normally happens to boiler water level (depending on boiler design) as the
boiler flashes up from cold?
c) What is the purpose of purging the furnace?
d) State two defects that may occur if boiler pressure (and temperature) is increased
too quickly.
e) Briefly describe how a boiler may be prepared for a long lay up. Identify at least
one safety hazard in regard to a laid up boiler.

Example Answer
a) Whenever there is a flame in the furnace (ie, hot gases are
passing over the superheater) and the boiler is not supplying steam to any
services.
b) It will rise due to swell.
c) Purging clears the furnace of accumulated fuel oil vapours. It
minimises the possibility of a furnace explosion.
d) Cracking; leaking at tube ends.
e) For lay up periods greater than about one month, the boiler
furnace and gas paths are washed with fresh water. Ashes may contain
sulphur, tend to collect moisture, acids form which can corrode the external
components of the boiler. The boiler, superheater, desuperheater, and
economiser are emptied of water, cleaned, and then completely dried out
using heating stoves in the drums and hot air blowers to pass hot air
through the tubes. When these components are dry, all valves and cocks
are shut tight, all doors shut (with new joints) and the boiler is sealed. This
prevents moisture laden air entering the boiler. Drying agents, called
desiccants, are placed in trays are inserted in the boiler before sealing. The
desiccants absorb any moisture from the atmosphere inside the boiler. A
laid up boiler should be treated as a confined space. Confined space entry
procedures must be followed.

2. Make a simple, labelled sketch of a two element boiler water level control system,
identifying the two elements measured.

Example Answer

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The two elements measured are water level and stem flow out of the boiler.

3. Which of the following statements are correct?

a) Purging should occur, with at least 75% air flow, only through the air register
which is fitted with the light off burner tip.
b) When lighting off manually, the fuel should be opened before the igniters are
operated to ensure ignition will occur.
c) A watertube may be brought up to pressure, from cold, in approximately four to
five hours.
d) Simmering is a method which can be used to maintain a small amount of heating
in an off duty boiler. Simmering also keeps the gas side of the boiler warm and
dry.

Example Answer
(c) and (d)

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Section 6: Steam Distribution

Learning Outcome 6

Illustrate typical configurations of, and describe operating principles applying to, various
steam distribution systems found aboard a steam ship.

Assessment Criteria

6.1. A typical main superheated steam range is illustrated and described, and
the services normally obtained from a main superheated steam range are indicated.
6.2. A typical auxiliary superheated steam range is illustrated and described,
and the services normally obtained from an auxiliary superheated steam range are
indicated.
6.3. A typical desuperheated steam range is illustrated and described, and the
services normally obtained from a desuperheated steam range are indicated.
6.4. A typical exhaust steam range is illustrated and described, and the services
normally obtained from an exhaust steam range are indicated.
6.5. A typical bled steam range is illustrated and described, and the services
normally obtained from a bled steam range are indicated.
6.6. Typical pressure reducing and pressure control valves for steam services
are illustrated and described.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Introduce the section to the learner by discussing general • Learner’s Guide

concepts which can be applied to steam piping. • appropriate vessel
• appropriate
2. Encourage the learner to be able to identify the services that
machinery and
are supplied with boiler pressure superheated steam and
procedural manuals
make a simple sketch of a superheated steam range.

3. Encourage the learner to be able to identify the services that

are supplied with desuperheated steam and make a simple
sketch of a desuperheated steam range.

4. Encourage the learner to be able to identify the services that

are supplied with exhaust or bled steam and make a simple
sketch of an exhaust or bled steam range.

5. Describe the purposes and operating principles of typical

steam traps.

6. Describe the purposes and operating principles of typical

steam pressure reducing valves.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. a) List at least four (4) services that are supplied from the high pressure steam
range.
b) List at least four (4) services that are supplied from the desuperheated steam
range.
c) State one (1) important reason for fitting steam traps to steam piping.
d) State two (2) reasons for insulating or lagging steam pipework.
.

Example Answer
a) Main propulsion turbine, turbo alternators, turbo feed pumps,
desuperheater.
b) Whistle steam, atomising steam for burners, air ejectors, make
up to exhaust/bled steam range.
c) To minimise the possibility of water hammer.
d) To minimise heat energy loss from the steam; to protect
personnel from injury.

2. Make a simple, labelled sketch of a thermodisc steam trap, and explain its
operating cycle.

Example Answer

• Water pressure at the inlet causes the disc to rise from the seat, allowing
discharge of water through to the outlet.
• Once steam starts passing through the trap, it creates a low pressure under
the disc (due to the high speed of the steam as it passes through the trap).
At the same time, steam leaks around the disc and pressure builds up in the
steam chamber.
• Steam pressure in the steam chamber, acting on the full face of the disc,
forces the disc down against the pressure of the incoming steam until the
disc closes on the inner ring of the seat. The disc has also closed off the
outer ring of the seat, so the steam in the chamber is trapped, keeping the

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disc shut.
• Condensation of the steam in the steam chamber reduces the chamber
pressure. The disc is moved up by the incoming pressure and the cycle
begins again.

3. Which of the following pipes contains boiler feed water?

Example Answer
(b)

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Section 7: Condensate/Feed Systems

Learning Outcome 7

Describe typical feed systems for main boilers, including all components found in such
systems.

Assessment Criteria

7.1 Open and closed feed systems are explained.

7.2 Why closed feed systems are superior for high pressure systems is explained.
7.3 A typical closed feed system is illustrated, showing any interconnections and
control functions.
7.4 Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of main and
auxiliary condensers are described.
7.5 Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of condensate
extraction pumps are described.
7.6 Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of air ejectors are
described.
7.7 Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of feed heaters are
described.
7.8 Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of a deaerator are
described.
7.9 Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of a main feed
pump are described.
7.10 Purposes, construction, materials of construction, and operation of other feed
system components are described.
7.11 Symptoms, causes, effects, and consequential actions of defects with the
components above are described.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

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Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Identify the functions of a feed system, and discuss open • Learner’s Guide
and closed feed systems and their components. • appropriate vessel
Encourage the learner to be able to illustrate these • appropriate
systems and explain why closed feed systems are machinery and
superior for high pressure steam plants. procedural manuals
2. Describe the purposes, construction, materials of
construction, and operation of the major components of a
closed feed system. These components include:
a) Main and auxiliary condensers,
b) Condensate extraction pumps,
c) Air ejectors,
d) Feed heaters,
e) Deaerators,
f) Main feed pumps, and
g) Other such components.

3. Discuss the symptoms, causes, effects, and consequential

actions related to typical defects of closed feed systems
and their components.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. a) State three (3) functions of a feed system.

b) State two (2) functions of a condenser.
c) What is vacuum locking of the condensate extraction pump?
d) State the first action that should be performed by the watchkeeper if the mian
feed pump fails.
.
Example Answer
a)
• Change waste steam to condensate;
• Pre-heat the feed water;
• Remove gases from the feed water.

b)
• Fully condense waste steam from the main turbine;
• Create a vacuum to maximise turbine work.

c)
This is when the water flow through the pump stops due to the pump
attempting to suck water from the condenser which is already at a very low
pressure.

d)
The watchkeeper should start the standby feed pump, or check that the standby
feed pump has automatically started and is operating correctly.

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2. Make a simple, labelled sketch of a steam operated air ejector, and explain its
operating principles.
.
Example Answer

Steam passes through a nozzle and enters a venturi. The high velocity of the
steam creates a suction which draws air and some steam vapour from the
condenser. The mixture then passes into a condensing unit through which
feedwater is passing. The mixture is cooled and most of the steam is
condensed. This condensed vapour is returned to the main condenser via a
loop seal. The remaining gases and vapours are then drawn into the next stage
where the process is repeated. Any remaining gases are released to the
atmosphere through a vacuum retaining valve (ie, a non-return valve).

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3. Rearrange the following feed system components in their correct order, starting
from the main condenser:
a) high pressure feed heater
b) gland condenser
c) low pressure feed heater
d) main feed pump
e) air ejector
f) deaerator

Example Answer
Air ejector, gland condenser, low pressure feed heater, deaerator, main feed
pump, high pressure feed heater.

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Section 8: Steam Turbines

Learning Outcome 8

Illustrate and describe the principles and construction of main and auxiliary steam turbines.

Assessment Criteria

8.1. The action of nozzles in a steam turbine is explained.

8.2. The concepts of impulse and reaction turbines are explained.
8.3. Velocity and pressure compounding of impulse turbines are explained.
8.4. The construction of typical steam turbines, including materials used, blade design
and fixing techniques, are described.
8.5. Turbine casing construction, including materials, is described.
8.6. Expansion allowances between rotor and stator, and turbine and ship structure are
described.
8.7. The purpose and operation of turbine gland sealing is explained.
8.8. Methods of turbine control, including governing and safety devices, are described.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Briefly summarise the advantages and disadvantages of • Learner’s Guide

steam turbines compared to diesel engines. • appropriate vessel
• appropriate
2. Explain the essential components of a steam turbine - the
machinery and
nozzles and blades. The learner should be encouraged to
procedural manuals
understand and be able to explain basic turbine definitions.

3. State the two main types of steam turbine, and explain their
principles of operation and basic construction arrangements.
Encourage the learner to be able to use simple sketches to
show these principles.

4. Define what compounding of steam turbines means, and

explain the different methods of compounding that are used.

5. Describe the construction of steam turbines, including

materials used, static and rotating components (such as
nozzles, casings, diaphragm, rotors, blades and blade
fixing). Identify the need for drains and other arrangements
(such as stellite strips) for protection against water damage.

6. Identify the need for expansion between steam turbine

components, and describe typical expansion arrangements
between rotor and casing and casing and the ship’s
structure.

7. State the purposes of gland sealing. Describe labyrinth

gland arrangements. Explain how and why a combination
of labyrinth glands and a gland steam system is used.
Encourage the learner to be able to sketch and describe a
gland steam system for a steam turbine.

8. Discuss methods of turbine control and protection.

Encourage the learner to be able to list turbine protection
devices and explain their basic principles of operation.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. a) State three (3) advantages of steam turbines compared to diesel engines.

b) State three (3) disadvantages of steam turbines compared to diesel engines.
c) Give an example of a high pressure turbine rotor material.
d) State two (2) purposes of a gland sealing system.

Example Answer
a)
Pure rotary motion - no reciprocating parts
No rubbing or friction apart from bearings
Low centre of gravity in ship.

b)
Requires a steam boiler and other steam plant components
Less efficient than a diesel engine
Low starting power

c)
Chrome molybdenum alloy steel.

d)
To stop high pressure steam leaking out of the turbine; to stop air leaking into
the low pressure regions of the turbine.

2. Using a sketch, explain the principle of operation of an impulse turbine.

Example Answer

Steam passes through the nozzle where it reduces in pressure and increases in
velocity. The jet of steam from the nozzle is directed into the impulse blades
and leaves in a different direction. The angle of entry of the steam to the

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blades is such that there is minimum shock to the blades. This change of
direction results in a force on the blades. Blade passages are parallel giving no
pressure drop across the moving blades, but steam velocity decreases. Fixed
nozzles in the casing redirect the steam flow after the blade.

3. Identify the incorrect statement from the following list:

a) A velocity compounded impulse turbine is also known as a Rateau turbine.
b) A more correct term for a reaction turbine is impulse-reaction.
c) One method of compounding is the splitting up, into two or more stages, of the
steam pressure or velocity change through a turbine.
d) A diaphragm is a stationary disc fitted between each row of rotor blades, one
function of the diaphragm is to provide a mounting for the stationary nozzles.

Example Answer
(a)

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Section 9: Lubrication of Steam Turbines

Learning Outcome 9

Describe and evaluate methods of lubricating the principle components of a marine steam
turbine and its associated gearing, and evaluate common faults.

Assessment Criteria

9.1. Lubrication requirements to a marine steam turbine and its associated gearing are
identified.
9.2. A typical steam turbine lubricating oil system, including all components normally
found therein, is described.
9.3. Normal operating pressures and temperatures of a steam turbine lubrication system
are stated.
9.4. The distribution of lubricating oil to the bearings and gearing of a steam turbine is
described.
9.5. Common lubrication faults, symptoms, causes, and responsive actions are identified
and evaluated.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Introduce this section by identifying the purposes of a • Learner’s Guide

lubricant for steam turbines and their associated gearing. • appropriate vessel
State additional requirements of oil when used as the • appropriate
lubricant (such as resisting mixing with and water present). machinery and
Identify typical additives of oil used to enhance or change procedural manuals
its properties.

2. Encourage the learner to identify the components of steam

turbines and gearing which require lubrication.

3. Discuss the three basic types of lubrication systems and the

typical components found in such systems. Use actual
systems from vessels to build upon the simple sketches
given in the Learner’s Guide. Encourage the learner to be
able to sketch and describe a typical lubrication system they
are familiar with, including indication of typical pressures
and temperatures which should be expected.

4. Identify typical lubrication faults which can occur with

steam turbines and gearing. Discuss basic concepts of
action regarding these faults. Identify typical defects and
their typical repairs and/or responsive actions.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. a) State four (4) purposes of a lubricant for steam turbines and gearing.
b) List three (3) major components of a turbine lubricating oil system.
c) What action should be taken if lubrication to the turbine and gearing fails?

Example Answer
a)
Lubricate, cool, clean, provide hydraulic power.

b)
Pumps, coolers, filters.

c)
The turbine must be stopped as soon as possible.

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2. Make a labelled sketch of a combined lubricating oil system and describe its
operation.

Example Answer

A pump is driven mechanically from the gearbox, so that oil is being pumped
whenever the turbine and gearing is rotating. When the turbine and gearing is
not rotating, or is rotating at low speeds (during manoeuvring for example),
auxiliary electric pumps supply oil. Oil is delivered to the system from the
pump. At the same time, the gravity tank is kept full by a delivery/overflow
arrangement. If pump delivery fails, the turbine will be automatically tripped;
the steam supply to the turbine will be shut off. The gravity tank supplies
enough oil to the turbine and gearbox to allow time for the rotation of the
turbine to stop. This is known as the run down time. A non-return valve stops
oil flowing back through stopped pumps. Orifice plates to and from the gravity
tank regulate oil flows. The pump delivery is adjusted so that there is a
continuous overflow return from the gravity tank to the sump. A sight glass is
placed in this overflow line.

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3. Answer true or false to the following questions:

a) Cooling seawater passes through the tubes of a shell and tube oil cooler while the
oil to be cooled flows around the tubes.
b) A duplex filter has two filters in series to provide additional cleaning for control
oil.
c) A purifier (centrifugal separator) will remove a certain amount of water from the
lubricating oil.
d) The only chemicals added to oil used in gearing systems are used to keep the oil
chemically stable and so prevent oxidation.

Example Answer
a)
True

b)
False

c)
True

d)
False

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Training and Assessment Guide

Section 10: Steam Turbine Operation

Learning Outcome 10

Describe normal, transient, and emergency operation of a steam turbine powered ship.

Assessment Criteria

10.1. The need for warming through and shut down procedures is explained.
10.2. Warming through and shut down procedures are described.
10.3. Routine turbine operating checks are described.
10.4. Normal operating parameters, with the main turbine shut down and running, are
stated.
10.5. Emergency operating procedures of a steam turbine are described.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Introduce the general principles of steam turbine operation • Learner’s Guide

and encourage the learner to understand them rather than • appropriate vessel
memorise them. • appropriate
machinery and
2. State the short and long term results of incorrect operation.
procedural manuals
3. Identify the objectives of warming through and cooling
down of a steam turbine.

4. Describe the preparations of and procedures for warming

through a steam turbine.

5. Describe operating principles and checks for standby and

manoeuvring, including astern operation.

6. Describe procedures and checks for full away operation.

7. Describe procedures and checks for turbine shut down.

8. Describe operating principles and checks for prolonged

operation at reduced load.

9. Encourage the learner to be able to state typical operating

procedures for a steam turbine they are familiar with,
including typical operating parameters and their values.

10.Discuss the concepts which should be considered in any

emergency situation. Identify typical emergency situations
and their typical repairs and/or responsive actions.

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Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. a) List six (6) general principles of steam turbine operation.

b) Briefly explain the effects of incorrect turbine operation.
c) You notice unusual vibration of the main turbine while at sea. State the actions
you would follow in response to this.

Example Answer
a)
• Lubrication must be provided;
• The turbine must be warmed through correctly;
• Turbine drains must be open during warming through;
• Supply steam must be at the correct pressure and temperature and free
from water carry over;
• The propeller must be free to turn;
• The condenser must be circulated with water and at correct vacuum.

b)
Incorrect operation may show its consequences immediately in the form of
turbine damage. It will have an adverse effect on the turbine and cause
undesirable internal stresses, permanent distortion and other defects which will
eventually reduce the service life of the turbine.

c)
• If excessive/abnormal vibration occurs, contact Chief Engineer (or
Second Engineer, depending on ship’s procedures) and follow
instructions.
• Contact and inform Bridge of the situation.
• Reduce speed until vibration reduces.
• Maintain this reduced speed for 15 minutes.
• Increase speed slowly, check for vibration.
• If vibration occurs again, reduce speed for a further period of time.
• Slowly increase speed again.
• If vibration persists, follow Chief Engineer’s instructions.

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2. With the aid of a sketch, explain how an astern guardian valve gives protection
against incorrect steam admission.

Example Answer

This valve provides double shut off to the astern turbine. If the ahead
manoeuvring is open, pilot steam will be admitted to the piston of the guardina
valve. This piston will actuate and the guardian valve will be shut. Even if the
astern valve leaks or is opened, steam will not be admitted to the astern turbine.

3. Identify which of the following statements is incorrect:

a) Allowing the turbine and steam piping to warm or cool slowly reduces the internal
stresses of thick sections of metal.
b) A recommended warming through rate for a turbine is that the temperature at
the low pressure turbine inlet belt should be raised to about 80oC in 25 to 30
minutes.
c) The main engine should not have a rapid increase in astern load after it has been
run ahead for more than 30 continuous minutes.
d) If the high pressure turbine is damaged, special piping can be fitted to enable the
low pressure turbine to be operated at reduced load. Astern turbine operation
will however not be possible.
.

Example Answer
(c) and (d)

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 Training and Assessment Guide

Section 11: Auxiliary Diesel Engines

Learning Outcomes 11 & 12

Describe the safety features of auxiliary diesel engines; and describe the operation of
auxiliary diesel engines.

Assessment Criteria

11.1. The uses of an auxiliary diesel engine aboard a steam ship are identified.
11.2. The need for safety features in the design and construction of auxiliary diesel
engines and their systems is identified.
11.3. Common safety features incorporated in the design and construction of auxiliary
diesel engines and their systems are listed.
11.4. Pre-start, start, and shut down procedures and checks for an auxiliary diesel engine
are described.
11.5. Operational procedures and checks for a running auxiliary diesel engine and its
systems are described.
11.6. Procedures for emergency operation of an auxiliary engine are described.

Conditions and Methods of Assessment

This section may be assessed on and off-the-job. Competence may be assessed in the
following situations: classroom; laboratories; and appropriate vessels.

Knowledge based criteria will be satisfied through a combination of written and oral
assessments.

Skill based criteria will be satisfied through practical exercises.

Assessment may be by a combination of:

• written assessment
• assignments
• oral assessment

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Delivery Strategy

Delivery Methods Resources Required

1. Introduce the basic concepts of diesel engine operation. • Learner’s Guide

Encourage the learner to understand how diesel engines • appropriate vessel
operate and to be able to explain/identify basic definitions • appropriate
such as piston, crankshaft, and other such machinery and
terms/components. procedural manuals
2. Summarise the uses of diesel engines aboard a steam ship.
Encourage the learner to be able to list typical items which
are powered by a diesel engine.

3. Identify the need for incorporating safety features in the

design and construction of diesel engines. State typical
safety features that the learner should expect to find on a
diesel engine.

4. Describe typical pre-start, start, and shut down procedures

and checks for an auxiliary diesel engine.

5. Describe typical procedures and checks relating to a running

auxiliary diesel engine.

6. Discuss general principles for emergency operation of

auxiliary diesel engine. Identify typical emergency
situations and their typical repairs and/or responsive actions.

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 Training and Assessment Guide

Assessment Strategy

• Ensure the assessments reflect the assessment criteria for the given learning outcome.

• A combination of written and practical assessment tasks can be used to assess a given
assessment criterion.

• Each written and practical assessment task can assess more than one assessment
criterion.

• The written assessment tasks given in this section are examples of those that can be
used to assess the competence of the learner.

• Assessment areas must comply with the current national Workplace Health and Safety
Regulations.

• Supervision will be required whenever practical assessments are carried out.

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Written Assessment Tasks

1. a) State an auxiliary diesel shut down procedure.

. b) List four (4) general uses of auxiliary diesel engines aboard a steam ship.
c) List four (4) safety features that may be found on an auxiliary diesel engine.

Example Answer
a)
• Ensure that it is safe to shut the engine down.
• Ensure that the correct engine is being shut down.
• Take engine off load.
• Allow the engine to cool. This can take about ten minutes. Alternatively,
monitor exhaust gas temperatures and watch for temperatures to stabilise at
a specified value (200O C for example).
• Shut engine down. Ensure that the engine has stopped.
• Check sump levels.
• Check water levels.
• Check fuel level.
• Shut manually operated dampers on radiator.
• Ensure that engine is set correctly for remote or local starting/running for
the next time it is to be started.

The engine is now shut down.

b)
• Supplementary electrical generation
• Emergency electrical generation
• Emergency prime mover for pumps and compressors
• Lifeboat engines

c)
• Overspeed protection
• Lubricating oil system protection
• Jacket cooling water system protection
• Protection of personnel from rotating components

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2. With the aid of a sketch, explain one method by which a diesel engine can have an
overspeed trip.
.

Example Answer

A spring loaded mass is mounted in the crankshaft or camshaft of the engine.

At normal engine speeds, the mass is held in place by the spring. At excessive
engine speed (eg 110% maximum allowable engine speed), the mass moves
outward due to centrifugal force. The increased radius of the mass strikes a
trip level which acts to move the fuel rack to the shut position. A limit switch
may also be actuated by the mass to set off an alarm.

3. What is the appearance of diesel engine exhaust gas emissions if there is excessive
lubricating oil leakage into the engine cylinders.
a) Light brown/grey haze
b) Blue smoke
c) White smoke
d) Dark grey smoke.

Example Answer
(b)

80 SPC 115, Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)