9/15/2020

TOPIC 1:
WHAT IS CURRICULUM?

E-TUTORIAL 1
DR LIM PECK CHOO
[email protected]

TOPIC OUTLINE

• Definition of curriculum
• Hidden curriculum
• Three approaches to curriculum
• Foundations of curriculum
• Curriculum development
• Curriculum and instruction

THINK ABOUT IT

• How do you define curriculum?

• Compare the differences between curriculum as

content, process and product.

• How do the foundations of education influence

curriculum?

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DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM
It is a statement of:
• what students should know (knowledge),
• what students should be able to do (skills),
• how it is taught (instruction),
• how it is measured (assessment), and
• how the education is organized (context)

What is hidden curriculum?

HIDDEN CURRICULUM
• What is taught in schools is more than the sum total
of the curriculum. School should be understood as
a socialisation process where students pick up
messages through the experience of being in
school, not just from things that they are explicitly
taught (Philip Jackson, 1968)
• The hidden curriculum is taught by the school, not
by any teacher...something is coming across to the
pupils which may never be spoken in the English
lesson… . They are picking-up an approach to
living and an attitude to learning (Meighan, 1981).

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM

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APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM
• Curriculum as content- emphasizes on a body
of knowledge to be transmitted

• Curriculum as product- focuses on setting

behavioural or instructional objectives to
achieve certain ends in students

• Curriculum as process – stresses on

interaction between teacher, students and
content

CURRICULUM AS CONTENT
Focus Weakness
• Body of knowledge/content to • A syllabus will not indicate the
be transmitted/delivered to relative importance of its topics
students by the most effective or the order in which they are to
teaching methods be studied
• Teacher-centred instruction • Limit instruction to acquisition
of facts, concepts and principles
prescribed in the syllabus
• People who equate curriculum
with a syllabus are likely to limit
their planning to a consideration
of the content or the body of
knowledge that they wish to
transmit

CURRICULUM AS PRODUCT
Focus Weakness
• equip students with • Too technical and sequential
knowledge/skills/ and values to  objectives are set,
function effectively in society  a plan drawn up, then applied,
 the outcomes measured.
• have the instructor bring about • Too much emphasis on the plan
significant changes in the /programme which overlooks
students' pattern of behaviour the needs of the students
(hence emphasis on objectives) • limits creativity and turns
educators into technicians
• formulate behavioural objectives • Success of a curriculum is
- providing a clear notion of dependent ONLY on
outcome so that content and occurrence of pre-specified
method may be organized and the changes in the behaviour of
results evaluated (Tyler, 1949) learners

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CURRICULUM AS PRODUCT
Focus Weakness
• The focus on pre-specified goals
may lead both educators and
learners to overlook learning that
is occurring as a result of their
interactions, but which is not
listed as an objective.
• Due to emphasis on
measurement, things have to be
• The dominant modes of describing and managing
broken education
down into smallerare today
and
couched in the productive form. smaller units resulting in long
lists of often
• Education is most often seen as a technical trivialObjectives
exercise. skills or are
competencies
set, a plan drawn up, then applied, and the outcomes-sidelining
(products)the role
measured. of overall judgment.

CURRICULUM AS PROCESS
Focus Weakness
• Interaction between teachers, • It is a problem for those who want
students and knowledge; and the some greater degree of uniformity
context in which the process occurs in what is taught.
(particular schooling situations)
• Meaning-making and thinking are at • It can lead to very different means
its core and treats learners as subjects being employed in classrooms and
rather than objects a high degree of variety in content
because meaning-making and
thinking are emphasized.
• The fact that teachers enter the • Examinations would be difficult to
classroom with a more fully worked- conduct due to the lack of
through idea of what is about to uniformity in student learning.
happen-proposal for action which
sets out essential principles and
features of the educational encounter
-Stenhouse, 1975

CURRICULUM AS PROCESS
Focus Weakness
• Examinations may not pay enough
attention to the context in which
learning takes place
• There is the 'problem' of teachers
because this approach rests upon the
quality of teachers. If they are not
up to much then there is no safety
net in the form of prescribed
curriculum materials. The approach
is dependent upon the cultivation of
wisdom and meaning-making in the
classroom. If the teacher is not up
to this, then there will be severe
limitations on what can happen
educationally.

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PROCESS VERSUS PRODUCT

Process Product
• looks to the world of experimentation. • appeals to the workshop for a model
(Ongoing testing and refining) (finished product)
• each classroom setting is unique • a curriculum package which is designed
i.e. it means that any proposal, even at to be delivered almost anywhere
school level, needs to be tested, and (uniform)
verified by each teacher in his/her
classroom
• content and means develop as teachers • outcomes are the central and defining
and students work together. (interaction feature specifying behavioural
is dynamic) objectives and methods in advance

• the learners are not objects to be acted • has a pre-specified plan

upon. They have a clear voice in the • tends to direct attention to teaching.
way that the sessions evolve.
• the focus is on interactions.
• attention shifts from teaching to
learning.

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
To aid in the all round development of a learner,
curriculum needs to be securely established in:

• philosophy
• psychology
• sociology and history

How do the foundations of education influence

curriculum?

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Philosophy • how people should be educated
• what knowledge is worthwhile
• how curriculum developers should go
about designing curriculum

Psychology • how humans learn

Sociology • curriculum is a reflection of societal

values and beliefs it serves

History • better understand decisions made over

time (the educational focus prevalent
during a particular period or event)

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NATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION MALAYSIA
Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards
further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic
and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who
are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonious based on a firm belief in and
devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce
Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent,
who possess high moral standards and who are
responsible and capable of achieving a high level of
personal well-being as well as being able to contribute to
the betterment of the family, society and the nation at
large.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum Development is a process which includes:
1. Curriculum planning
(identify philosophical beliefs & aims of
education)
2. Curriculum design
(decide on the ‘what’ and ‘how’ to teach)
3. Curriculum implementation
(get people to practice the ideas with support with
materials etc…)
4. Curriculum evaluation

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CURRICULUM AS A DISCIPLINE
Characteristics of a discipline:

• A discipline should have an organized set of

theoretical principles
• A discipline encompasses a body of knowledge
and skills pertinent to that discipline
• A discipline has its theoreticians and
practitioners

Is curriculum a discipline?

CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

• Curriculum is the design, the framework of education
and refers to all the subjects that make up for a course
of study according to a grade in school or college (the
‘what’ of education)
• Instruction is how teachers deliver the curriculum to
the students (the ‘how’ of the system of education)

Note: A curriculum, however good it may be, is ultimately

dependent upon how it is delivered to the students.
Designing curriculum in isolation without taking into
account the instruction part of education can lead to
disastrous results

A CURRICULUM
• Curriculum is a very broad-based concept that different
educators and teachers choose to define differently.
• There is a consensus, however, that it is the content of
the course that has to be taught by the teachers in a
particular manner that forms the curriculum in a course
of study.
• The content of a course is decided by the authorities
who are ultimately bound by the policies of the
government and the legislation passed by the
government in this regard.
• Teacher is the medium through which a curriculum gets
delivered in the manner in which it is intended.

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contd…
• Curriculum is provided to teachers in the form of
text. It is a roadmap, a guide as to what to deliver to
the students and in what manner.
• The speed at which a teacher has to go to let the
students absorb the content of the course in an
optimum manner is also provided along with the
curriculum.
• All the subjects that comprise a course according to
a grade in a school are collectively referred to as
curriculum.
• It is like the skeleton or the framework of a structure
that defines what is to be taught to the students.

INSTRUCTION
• Instruction is the method or way of teaching to
students- teachers or the instructors are in control

• Teachers decide the ‘how’ part of education – to

impart the knowledge decided based upon the
curriculum.

• Instruction is always dependent upon the teaching

skills and the professional attitude of the teachers.

CURRICULUM & INSTRUCTION

Both curriculum and instruction are subsystems of a
larger system called schooling or education.

• Decisions about the curriculum relate to plans or

programs and thus are programmatic.

• Decisions about instruction (and there by

implementation) are methodological.

Oliva & Gordon, 2012

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CURRICULUM–INSTRUCTION
RELATIONSHIP MODELS
Four Models:

1. Dualistic
2. Interlocking
3. Concentric
4. Cyclical

Models of the Curriculum–Instruction

Relationship
Dualistic Model:

Curriculum Instruction

• Curriculum sits on one side and instruction on the other – no

intersection.
• Discussions of curriculum are divorced from their practical
application to the classroom.
• Under this model the curriculum and the instructional process
may change without significantly affecting one another.

Models of the Curriculum–Instruction

Relationship
Interlocking Model:

Curriculum Instruction

• Curriculum and instruction are shown as systems entwined

• Neither is more important than the other
• The separation of one from the other would do serious harm
to both.

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Models of the Curriculum–Instruction

Relationship
Concentric Models:
Curriculum

Instruction

• Mutual dependence is the key feature of concentric models.

• Two conceptions of the curriculum–instruction relationship
that show one as the subsystem of the other.

Models of the Curriculum–Instruction

Relationship
Cyclical Model:

Curriculum Instruction

• Curriculum and instruction are separate entities with a

continuing circular relationship.
• Curriculum makes a continuous impact on instruction and, vice
versa, instruction has impact on curriculum.
• The essential element of feedback is stressed.

Models of the Curriculum–Instruction

Relationship
There is a consensus that:

• Curriculum and instruction are related in different

ways.

• Curriculum and instruction are interlocking and

interdependent.

• Curriculum and instruction may be studied and

analyzed as separate entities but cannot function in
mutual isolation.

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:
TEN GENERAL AXIOMS
1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and
desirable.
Schools and school systems grow and develop in
proportion to their ability to respond to change and adapt
to changing conditions. Society and its institutions
continuously encounter problems to which they must
respond.
2. Curriculum both reflects and is a product of its time.
The curriculum responds to, and is changed by, factors
such as social forces, philosophical positions,
psychological principles, accumulating knowledge, and
educational leadership at its moment in history.

contd…
3. Curriculum changes made at an earlier period of time
can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes.
Curriculum revision rarely starts and ends abruptly.
Changes can coexist and overlap for long periods of time.
Usually curriculum is phased in and phased out on a
gradual basis.

4. Curriculum change depends on people to implement

the change.
People who will implement the curriculum should be
involved in its development. When individuals internalize
and own the changes in curriculum, the changes will be
effective and long-lasting.

contd…
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group
activity.
Significant and fundamental changes in curriculum are
brought about as a result of group decisions. Any
significant change in the curriculum should involve a
broad range of stakeholders to gain their understanding,
support, and input.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process
in which choices are made from a set of alternatives.
Examples of decisions curriculum developers must make
include what to teach, what philosophy or point of view to
support, how to differentiate for special populations, what
methods or strategies to use to deliver the curriculum, and
what type of school organization best supports the
curriculum

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contd…
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process.
Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and
improvement of curricula are needed. No curriculum meets
the needs of everyone. As the needs of learners change, as
society changes, and as new knowledge and technology
appear, the curriculum must change.

8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a

comprehensive process, rather than a “piecemeal”
process.
Curriculum development should not be a hit or miss
proposition, but should involve careful planning and be
supported by adequate resources, needed time, and
sufficient personnel.

contd…
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it
follows a systematic process.
A set of procedures, or models, for curriculum should be
established in advance, and be known and accepted by all
who are involved in the process. The model should outline
the sequence of steps to be followed for the development
of the curriculum.

10. Curriculum development starts from where the

curriculum is.
Most curriculum planners begin with existing curriculum.
Oliva advises planners to "hold fast to that which is good."

(Oliva, 2003, pp. 28-41)

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