Spectral Reflectance Curve

• Spectral reflectance curve shows the relationship of electromagnetic spectrum (distribution

of the continuum of radiant energies plotted either as a function of wavelength or of
frequency) with associated percent reflectance for any given material
• Represents the reflectance characteristics of earth surface features
• Ratio of energy reflected by the surface to the energy incident on the surface
• Measured as a function of wavelength
• Also known as Albedo
• Mathematical representation of spectral reflectance or albedo

ER ( λ )
Rλ =
EI ( λ )
Energy of wavelength λ reflected from the object
= ×100
Energy of wavelength λ incident on the object
 Spectral Reflectance Curve
• Spectral Reflectance Curve

Graphical representation of the spectral response over different wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum
– Gives an insight into the spectral characteristics of different objects

– Used for the selection of a particular wavelength band for remote sensing data acquisition

Essential to interpret and analyze an image obtained in any one or multiple

wavelengths

Source: JPL, NASA

 Albedo of Earth Surface Features

Surface type Albedo %

Grass 25

Concrete 20
Large range is due to the
Water 5-70
specular reflection
characteristics.
Fresh snow 80

Forest 5-10

Thick cloud 75

Dark soil 5-10

Vegetation leaves:
• A chemical compound in leaves is called chlorophyll strongly absorbs radiation in the red
and blue wavelengths, but reflects green wavelengths.
Water:
• Longer wavelength visible and NIR radiation is absorbed more by water than shorter visible
wavelength.
• Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter
wavelengths and darker if viewed at red or NIR wavelengths
• If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers of the water body, then this will
allow better reflectivity and a brighter appearance of the water.
• The apparent colour of the water will show a slight shift to longer wavelengths.
• Suspended sediment can be easily confused with shallow (but clear) water, since these two
phenomena appear very similar
• Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and reflects the green, making
the water appear greener in colour when algae are present
• The topography of the water surface (rough, smoot, floating materials etc.) can also lead to
complications for water related interpretation due to potential problems of specular
reflection and other influences on colour and brightness.
• Depending on the complex make-up of the target that is being looked at and the
wavelengths of radiation involved, we can observe different responses to the
mechanisms of absorption, transmission, and reflection.
• By measuring the energy that is reflected (or emitted) targets on the earth’s surface over
a variety of different wavelengths, we can build a spectral response for that object.
• By comparing the response patterns of different features we may be able to distinguish
between them, where we might not able to, if we compared them at one wavelength only.
• For example, water and vegetation may reflect somewhat similarly in the red band but
are almost always separable in the near infrared.
• Spectral response can be quite variable, even for the same target type; and can also
vary with time and location.
• For example, the ‘greenness’ of a vegetation species may differ in different season; it
may also differ in different location because the health and condition may vary with the
change soil type and weather.
• Knowing where to ‘look’ spectrally and understanding the factors the factors that
influence the spectral response of the features of interest are critical for correctly
interpreting the interaction of EMR with the surface.
• The nature of interaction of EMR with an object can lead to identifying the object.
• The basic property by which an object can be identified is called signature.
• As we know, a person can be identified by his/her signature.
• All the properties of an object help us to identify it.
• For example, golden color of a wheat field indicates that the crop is matured.
• In remote sensing, spatial, spectral, and temporal variations (signatures) are the major
characteristics to identify an object.
• Spatial signatures are the arrangements of terrain features like shape, size, texture etc.
• Spectral signature indicates the change in reflectance of object with different
wavelengths
• Temporal signature is the change in reflectance with time (diurnal/seasonal).
• Therefore, by proper investigation of these three signatures one can get clear
understanding about the object type and its condition.
• Spectral reflectance curve of some of the important earth surface features

Vegetation

Bare soil

Water
 Typical spectral reflectance curves for vegetation, soil and water (Lillesand et al., 2004)

• Average reflectance curves of healthy vegetation, dry barren soil and clear water bodies
– Reflectance of individual features varies considerably above and below the average

– The average curves demonstrate some fundamental points concerning spectral reflectance
 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation
• Spectral reflectance curve for healthy green vegetation exhibits the "peak-and-valley"
configuration
– Peaks indicate strong reflection in the wavelength bands

– Valleys indicate predominant absorption of the energy in the wavelength band

• Good absorption in visible region (0.4-0.7 µm)

• Absorption reduces and reflection increases in the red/infrared boundary near 0.7 µm
• Reflectance is nearly constant from 0.7-1.3 µm
• Reflectance decreases for longer wavelengths

Healthy green vegetation

(Source : Lillesand et al., 2004)

 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…
• Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

Cell structure of a green leaf and interactions with the electro-magnetic radiation
(Gibson, 2000)
 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

• Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

1. Strongly absorbs the energy in the visible region

Visible spectrum and the Chlorophyll pigments

• The palisade cells containing sacs of green

pigment (chlorophyll) strongly absorb energy in
the bands centered at 0.45 and 0.67 µm (blue
and red)
– Causes valleys in the visible portion of the curve

• Reflection peaks for green in the visible region

– Makes our eyes perceive healthy vegetation as
green in colour

– Only 10-15% of the incident energy is reflected in

the green band

Spectral reflectance of healthy vegetation

in the visible and NIR wavelength bands
http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/
 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…
• Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

2. High reflectance in the reflected IR or NIR region

NIR and the Mesophyll Cells

IR radiation penetrates the palisade cells and

reaches the mesophyll cells

Mesophyll cells reflect ~ 60% of the NIR

radiation reaching this layer

At 0.7 µm, the reflectance increases

In 0.7-1.3 µm, ~ 50% of the incident energy is

reflected

Healthy vegetation shows brighter response in the

NIR region compared to the green region

Most of the remaining energy is transmitted

Absorption in this spectral region is
minimum
Spectral reflectance of healthy vegetation
in the visible and NIR wavelength bands
http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/
 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…
• Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

3. At wavelengths beyond 1.3 µm, leaf reflectance is approximately inversely related to

the total water present in a leaf
– Total water is a function of both the moisture content and the thickness of a leaf

• A little to no transmittance of energy beyond 1.3 µm

• Energy beyond 1.3 µm is absorbed or reflected

• Dips in reflectance occur at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 µm

Water in the leaf strongly absorbs the energy at these wavelengths

These wavelength regions are referred to as water absorption bands

• Reflectance peaks occur at 1.6 and 2.2 µm, between the absorption bands

Healthy green
vegetation
 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

• Healthy vegetation

Chlorophyll content in the palisade cells absorbs blue
and red in the visible region

Mesophyll cells strongly reflects the NIR radaition

• Stressed vegetation

Decrease in the chlorophyll content

Less absorption in the blue and red bands

Red and blue bands also get reflected along with the
green band, giving yellow or brown colour

NIR bands are absorbed by the stressed mesophyll

cells

Causing dark tones in the image

(Source: Gibson, 2000)

Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…
Transmittance

Transmittance of electromagnetic radiation is less in the visible region

Transmittance increases in the infrared region

A little to no transmittance of energy beyond 1.3 µm

Transmittance and reflectance

Vegetation canopies display a layered structure

Energy transmitted by one layer is available for

reflection or absorption by the layers below it

Total infrared reflection from thicker canopies
will be more compared to thin canopy cover

From the reflected NIR, the density of the

vegetation canopy can thus be interpreted.

Reflectance from dense forest and thin

vegetation canopies (Gibson, 2000)
 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

Total infrared reflection from thicker canopies

will be more compared to thin canopy cover

Example:

1. For a densely grown agricultural area, the NIR

signature will be more

2. Deciduous and coniferous trees

– Spectral reflectance may be similar in the green
band

– Coniferous trees show higher reflection in the

NIR band
Use of Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing …

Example:
Spectral reflectance within one class is not
unique, and hence the ranges are shown
Generalized spectral reflectance curves for
deciduous and coniferous trees
• Sensor selection to differentiate deciduous
and coniferous trees
– Curves overlap in the visible portion
– Both class will be seen in shades of green
– Deciduous and coniferous trees cannot
be differentiated through visible
Maximum
spectrum
reflectance in
– Spectral reflectance are quiet different in NIR green gives the
green colour
– Deciduous and coniferous trees can be
differentiated through NIR spectrum
Use of Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing …

Panchromatic photograph using reflected sunlight over Black and white infrared photograph using
the visible wavelength reflected sunlight over 0.7 to 0.9 mm wavelength

• Coniferous and deciduous trees are not differentiable • Deciduous trees show bright signature
compared to coniferous trees
(Source: Lillesand et al., 2004)
 Spectral Reflectance of Soil
• Spectral reflectance curve for soil shows considerably less peak-and-valley variation
compared to that for vegetation
– The factors that influence soil reflectance act over less specific spectral bands

• Factors affecting soil reflectance

Moisture content

Soil texture (proportion of sand, silt, and clay)

Surface roughness

Presence of iron oxide and organic matter

• These factors are complex, variable, and interrelated

Dry bare soil

(Source : Lillesand et al., 2004)

 Spectral Reflectance of Soil…
• Dry soil

Coarse texture  Less reflectance  Dark tone

Fine texture  more reflectance  Light tone

• Wet soils display reverse tendency

– Moisture content reduces the reflectance

Coarse texture  better drainage  less moisture content  good reflectance

Fine texture  poor drainage  more moisture content poor reflectance

o Water absorption bands are at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 µm wavelengths

Clay soils have hydroxyl ion absorption bands at 1.4 and 2.2 µm.

Surface roughness reduces the reflectance

Presence of organic matter reduces the soil reflectance

Presence of iron oxide significantly decreases soil reflectance, at least in the visible region
 Spectral Reflectance of Water
• Water provides a semi-transparent medium for the electromagnetic radiation

• Electromagnetic radiations get reflected, transmitted or absorbed in water

• Spectral responses varies with

– Wavelength of the radiation

– Physical and chemical characteristics of the water

• Water in liquid phase

– High reflectance in the visible region between 0.4µm and 0.6µm

– Wavelengths beyond 0.7µm are completely absorbed.

• Water in solid phase (ice or snow)

– Good reflection at all visible wavelengths

Water

(Source : Lillesand et al., 2004)

Spectral Reflectance of Water…

• Reflectance from a water body can

be from

An interaction with the water's
surface (specular reflection)

An interaction with material

suspended in the water

An interaction with the bottom

surface of the water body

Complex spectral response from a water body

(Gibson, 2000)

106
 Spectral Reflectance of Water…

• Liquid water

High reflectance in the visible region between 0.4µm and 0.6µm

Wavelengths beyond 0.7µm are completely absorbed.

• Clear water appears darker in tone in the NIR image

• Mapping of water bodies with remote sensing data is done in reflected infrared wavelengths

Part of the Krishna River Basin in different bands of the Landsat ETM+ imagery

• The water body appears in dark colour in all bands and displays sharp contrast in the IR bands.
 Use of Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing …

A part of the Krishna River Basin as seen in different bands of the Landsat ETM+ imagery

• Reflectance from water, vegetation and fallow lands are different in different bands
• A combination of more than one spectral band helps to attain better differentiation of these features
 Spectral Reflectance of Water…

• Reflectance properties of a water body also depends on the materials present in water

• Clear water
– Absorbs relatively little energy having wavelengths shorter than 0.6 µm.

– High transmittance typifies these wavelengths with a maximum in the blue-green portion of the
spectrum.

• Turbidity : Presence of suspended sediments increases visible reflectance

• Chlorophyll : Decrease blue wavelength reflection and increase green wavelength

reflection

• Dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and salt concentration

– Cannot be observed directly through changes in water reflectance

– Correlation between these parameters and observed reflectance is used

More details on the remote sensing applications for monitoring water quality parameters
can be found in Nagesh Kumar and Reshmidevi (2013)
 Spectral Reflectance of Water…

• Variation in the spectral reflectance in the visible region can be used to differentiate
– Shallow and deep waters

– Clear and turbid waters

– Rough and smooth water bodies

• Reflectance in the NIR range are generally used to

– Delineate the water bodies

– To study the algal boom and phytoplankton concentration in water

Further details on the spectral characteristics of vegetation, soil, and water can be found in

Swain and Davis (1978)

Spectral Reflectance of Some Natural Features
 Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing

Multi spectral remote sensing

• Multiple sensors are used to sense the reflectance in different wavelength bands

• Reflectance recorded in multiple bands are analysed to find spectral reflectance

variation with wavelength

• Using the average spectral reflectance curves as the basic information, the spectral
reflectance variation is used to identify the target features.
Multi Spectral Remote Sensing-Example

Aerial photographs of a stadium normal colour Aerial photographs of a stadium in colour IR

Artificial turf inside the stadium and the natural
Artificial turf appears dark, whereas the natural
vegetation appears in the same colour vegetation shows high reflectance in the IR region

(Images are taken from Lillesand et al., 2004)

 Multi Spectral Remote Sensing-Example

• Artificial turf inside the stadium and the natural vegetation appear in the same colour in
the visible region

• Artificial turf appears dark, whereas the natural vegetation shows high reflectance in the
IR region

Spectral reflectance curves of the natural vegetation and the artificial turf (From Lillesand et al., 2004)
Use of Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing…

• Spectral reflectance characteristics of the surface features is used to identify the

features and to study their characteristics

• Requires basic understanding of the general reflectance characteristics of different

features
 INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERE
(While returning the energy from target to sensor)
Four fundamental interactions (as discussed earlier):
1. Absorption

2. Scattering

3. Refraction

4. Reflection
Recording of Energy by Sensor

Path radiance Radiance returned from the area of interest

 Transmission, Reception, and Processing

• Remotely sensed data may be collected using onboard aircraft sensors/cameras and/or
onboard satellite remote sensors
• Aircraft remote sensing system may also be referred to as suborbital or airborne or
aerial remote sensing system.
• Satellite remote sensing system may also be referred to as orbital or satellite-borne
remote sensing system
• Aircrafts and satellites are known as sensor platforms
• Data obtained during airborne remote sensing missions can be retrieved once the
aircraft lands.
• It can then be processed and delivered to the end-user.
 Transmission, Reception, and Processing

A. Real-time data transmission

B. On-board recording (for later transmission)
C. Relay transmission