08 - Chapter 2 PDF
08 - Chapter 2 PDF
Microgrid
2.0. Introduction
The modern micro grid, that receives much attention today, stems from the concept of
original power system constructed by Edison in 1882 [16]. The electrical pioneer created
the earliest power systems, i.e. Edison’s first Pearl Street station in New York City. This
power delivery system served with DC power to just a few blocks of the city. It had a
total generating capacity of initially less than 1 MW. By 1886, fifty-eight direct current
(DC) micro grids were installed by Edison’s firm [17]. The early power industry began
16
during 1880 – 1910 and was basically DG systems implemented in micro-grid
architectures. By today’s standards, a microgrid power delivery system exactly matches
the size and range of distributed generation, over a given limited area, i.e. the Pearl Street
Station. A distributed generator in a microgrid of range of 100 kW was then called as
Jumbo Dynamo by Edison. During end of 1918 most of the customers, in towns and small
cities, use to receive their power from small-scale isolated power systems. These small-
sized plants were well under 10 MW in capacity. The areas served were less than a few
square miles. The power systems during 1880-1910 in individual towns were not
interconnected with each other, which is alike or similar to an independent islanded mode
micro-grid. During the first two decades of the twentieth century, micro-grids were the
dominant form of electric power system. Many small-scaled power generating plants
were applied in different individual hotels, commercial offices, and business houses.
However, the power delivery system became unreliable since earlier micro grids were
designed to supply energy as only one power plant.
The early power plant based systems use to have total energy efficiency of less than 25%
when waste heat was not utilized. Moreover, early power systems were generally rated
for supplying power to light loads. Furthermore the power generations were also time
dependent such as the evening hours, since it was uneconomical to operate generators
during periods of low usage time. The cost of energy was often more than $1 per kWh,
which resulted in a cost-ineffective system. During earlier times, most of the systems
were DC while few others were with various frequencies between the approximate values
of 25 Hz and 100 Hz [18]. Due to lack of standardization of frequency, many systems
were not easily inter-connectable. Again, in consideration to improve reliability in early
days, the power system engineers implemented interconnection of two adjacent towns’
power generating systems. The idea helped in achieving improved load factor and more
economical operation of the generation plants through a gain of greater diversity of load.
This concept led people to consider the interconnection of isolated micro-grids into a
larger system. The barriers in interconnection of different remote power plants were
mainly due to dearth of methods of synchronization, protection, and control. During 1910
and 1920, technological innovations and other developments set the stage for a move
away the early micro-grid system towards an increasingly larger scale central-power-
station-based power delivery approach where generating units were interconnected with
transmission lines [19]. Shortly thereafter, a relatively large amount of power used to be
17
transmitted efficiently over significant distances with a transmission voltage of about 150
kV. However, after this period, the electric services industry gradually evolved to a state-
regulated monopoly market, thus removing incentives for microgrid developments.
However due to its inherent strength microgrids are gaining a lots of attention these days.
Microgrids generally operate in two modes; i.e. islanded mode and grid-connected mode.
In both the cases the loads and distributed generators are located within close
geographical proximity of each other. When microgrid operates in islanded mode, the
isolation from grid is made at PCC, and then the loads are supplied from the embedded
distributed generation only. In these cases, microgrid usually employs a battery storage
system. In grid-connected mode, the Microgrid remains connected to the main grid either
totally or partially, and receive or deliver power from or to the main grid. The control is
done carefully where loads are allowed to draw power, in order to balance supply with
demand. Moreover, fluctuations in the renewable generation due to the changes in
weather conditions are balanced by careful charging and discharging of the batteries
under the supervision of other microgrid control system [21].
Besides, using distributed generators for production of power, microgrid system allows
the DG to provide several other functions. By-product heat of combined heat and power
generator is utilized by some heat entail client. Hence, microgrids are capable of
providing both electrical and heat loads for a small community such as an academic or
public community, a suburban locality, a housing estate or a university or school, a
commercial area, a trading estate or an industrial site, or a municipal region. Microgrids
constitute dynamic load control system. It also includes the use of multiple grid-
connected inverters. Microgrid system is basically an active distribution network because
it combines different DG systems of various loads at distribution voltage level [22].
Technically microgrids are best en suite for supplying power to remote areas or localities
of any country where supply from the national grid system is very difficult to avail either
due to the topology or frequent disruption caused by severe climatic conditions or man-
made events.
19
2.2.1 The Key Features of Microgrid Power Delivery System
The main characteristic features a microgrid should posses are as follows:
Micro-energy resources are of much smaller capacity in comparison with the large
generators in conventional power plants.
Electrical or heat loads can be efficiently supplied with negligible line losses by
microsources which are normally installed close to the customers’ premises.
Microgrid is operated as a single controlled entity within the power system from
grid point of view.
Microgrid has easy controllability and compliance with grid rules and regulations
without hindering the reliability and security of the power utility.
Microgrids are beneficial for meeting electrical loads and heat requirements
locally.
The uninterruptible power supply improves local reliability, reduces feeder losses
and provides local voltage support.
20
Environmental benefits through utilization of low-carbon technology are achieved
by microgrid systems
21
delivers power to the priority load by disconnecting the entire microgrid by opening the
circuit breaker. Here all the micro-sources feed all the loads in both priority and non-
priority feeders. During fault condition, microgrid can also operate in islanded mode by
disconnecting priority feeders through opening of circuit breakers connected to the
priority feeders. In this case, some feeders supply power to the priority loads and the
other feeder delivers through the disturbance.
The microgrid power delivery in both islanded and grid-connected mode operates under
different types of controller along with management and protection unit, which are
explained below:
22
2.4.2 Central controller (CC)
The key function of central controller (CC) is to perform an overall control of microgrid
operation and protection through the MCs. It also provides the power dispatch and
voltage set points for all the MCs. Central controller maintains the voltage and frequency
through power-frequency (P-f) and voltage control at a specified value at the load end
[23]. Besides, it also controls energy optimization for a microgrid. Though the central
controller usually operates in automatic mode but it is designed with a provision for
manual intervention as and when required. The central controller (CC) performs its
operation by two functional modules, namely, Energy Management Module (EMM) and
Protection Co-ordination Module (PCM). The operations of these functional modules are
described below:
During the occurrence of minor faults, protection co-ordination module allows the
microgrid to ride through in the grid-connected mode for some time and it continues to
23
operate when the temporary fault is removed. While, on the other hand, when fault occur
at main grid PCM immediately switches over the Microgrid to stand-alone mode for
supplying power to the priority loads. Moreover, if any grid fault endangers the stability
of the microgrid, then PCM disconnects the microgrid fully from all main grid loads
through the non-priority feeder. This leads to ineffective utilization of the microgrid in
delivering power. In case of faults occurring within a portion of microgrid feeders, more
specifically, the priority feeder, the small faulty zone of that feeder is eliminated to
maintain proper supply to the healthy parts of the feeders.
The under-frequency and under-voltage protection schemes with bus voltage support are
used for protecting the sensitive loads. PCM monitors closing of suitable feeder during
switching microgrid from isolated to grid connected mode of operation. It also helps
microgrid to re-synchronize with main grid after the initiation of switchover [23].
The central controller functions differently in two different operating modes. In grid
connected mode CC monitors the system which collects information from various micro-
sources. It evaluates the appraisal for security, state performance, and economic
generation. In this mode of operation, CC ensures the synchronized operation of
microgrid with the main or conventional grid through maintenance of proper power
exchange at priori contract points. On the other hand, during islanded mode, the central
controller maintains stable voltage and frequency at load ends. This is done by controlling
active and reactive power of the micro-sources. It performs demand side management
with storage device support along with the adoption of load interruption or load shedding
strategies [23]. Bus voltage and power balance are thus maintained. PCM switches
microgrid from one mode to other, i.e. islanded mode to grid- connected mode or vice-
versa, without hampering the stability of either grid. It guarantees the improvement in
reliability and continuity of service after initiating a local black start. With different types
of controlling features available, sophisticated microgrids are available these days with
higher degree of flexibilities.
24
involved in a sophisticated microgrid include a diverse range of generation types on the
generation side. This allows the microgrid to take advantage of the availability of various
generation sources along with their typical characteristics such as solar, wind, or fuel
generators. On the demand side, some discretionary ability is present which is activated
when needed. This provides flexibility to the microgrid in scheduling demand to match
generation [21]. To aid the balance of supply and demand some form of thermal,
electrical or mechanical energy storage such as heat retained in the walls of an air-
conditioned building, batteries or flywheels is present in microgrid. Inspite of having no
central point of grid, an advanced high-speed control methods are required to maintain
microgrid stability and to provide intelligent and dynamic operation. A sophisticated
sensing communication and control system is also included to link all the microgrid assets
together. Integrated communications systems present in a sophisticated microgrid link the
various resources in the microgrid in order to ensure the reliable operation even during
typical communication outages. The technology involves an advanced sensing,
diagnostics forecasting, and adaptation methodologies to provide the control system with
detailed and up-to-date information on the status of the microgrid [21]. Moreover, a
minimum number of sensors and advanced materials are used in order to minimize the
total capital outlay. Finally, high-performance energy storage devices, such as batteries or
flywheel technologies facilitate microgrid of growing complexity and size.
25
a key issue in the operation and management of both the grids. Microgrids are needed to
be designed properly to take care of their dynamic impacts on main grid in the context of
better operational feature of microgrid in grid-connected mode [23]. As a result, through
operational management the overall stability and reliability of the whole system is
improved significantly.
26
2.5.1.4 Proper Power demand supply balance
Power supply with respect to load demands should not be disrupted for any minor
reasons. Temporary mismatch between generation and load can be eased through proper
load forecasting and demand side management. Again shifting of loads might help
through flattening of the demand curve to reduce storage capacity. However, the
maintenance of power quality, active and reactive power balance can be maintained
within the Microgrid on a short-term basis. Hence suitable planning for power generation,
supply and storage with respect to load demand should be made, on the basis of long-term
energy balance.
Microgrid is promisingly beneficial for any application requiring reliable electric energy.
The merits of microgrid are mentioned below:
27
2.6.3 Power Quality Issue:
Reliable power supply is achieved from decentralized or distributed energy resources
which are the microsources of microgrid. This improves the power quality in distributed
power generations. A reliable power supply is achieved due to the reduction of the impact
of large-scale transmission and generation outages. This leads to a better match of supply
and demand. Finally, the quality of power supplied can also be improved by minimizing
downtimes and enhancing the restoration process through black start operations of micro-
sources [23].
Expenses can be minimized in microgrid by the utilization of waste heat in CHP mode of
operation. Moreover, substantial infrastructure is not required for heat transmission since
the CHP sources are usually located close to the customer loads. Again, the running costs
of renewable energy sources are nil in microgrids. The transmission & distribution costs
are drastically reduced or eliminated as several integrated microsources are locally placed
in plug-and-play mode. The generated electricity can be shared locally among the
customers, which again reduce the need to buy and sell power from or to the main grid
over longer feeders. A total energy efficiency of more than 80% is achieved as compared
to a maximum of 40% for a conventional power system [23].
28
good market participation. A reduction in long-term electricity customer prices may occur
by appropriate economic balance between network investment and DG utilization [24].
Even with all the key features related to configuration, operation, control, back-up
protection, as discussed in this chapter, an appropriate microgrid fails to operate without a
power generating system. Again, since microgrids integrate the power generation unit and
power consumption unit, i.e. consumers within close vicinity, so it utilizes small
distributed or decentralized generation for power generation instead of conventional
power plant. A detail picture of different types of DERs and their operational features has
been presented in the next chapter.
30