ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a

type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles. The
electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed of electric fields and
magnetic fields. In 1831, Faraday discovered that whenever the number of magnetic lines
of force, or magnetic flux, passing through a circuit changes, an emf is produced in the
circuit. If the circuit is closed, current passes through it. The emf and the current so
produced are called 'induced emf' and 'induced current' and last only while the magnetic
flux is changing. This phenomenon is known as ‘electromagnetic induction'.

These magnetic flux through a circuit can be changed in a number of ways e.g.
i) by moving a magnet relative to the circuit,
ii) by changing current in a neighboring circuit,
iii)by hanging current in the same circuit,
iv) by rotating a coil in a magnetic field.
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
Faraday's law stats that when the magnetic flux through a circuit is changing, an induced
emf is set up in the circuit whose magnitude is equal to the negative rate of magnetic flux.
This is also known as 'Neumann's law'.

For a loop of wire in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux ΦB is defined for any surface Σ
whose boundary is the given loop. Faraday’s law states that the EMF is also given by the
rate of change of the magnetic flux:

For a tightly wound coil of wire, composed of N identical turns, each with the same ΦB,
Faraday's law of induction states that

where N is the number of turns of wire and ΦB is the magnetic flux through a single loop.

Lenz's Law: It states that the current induced in a circuit due to a change in a magnetic
field is directed to oppose the change in flux and to exert a mechanical force which opposes
the motion. The direction of the current induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic
field is such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial
changing magnetic field.

Lenz's law is contained in the rigorous treatment of Faraday's law of induction.

Direction of Induced Current:
Fleming's right-hand rule (for generators) shows the direction of induced current when a
conductor attached to a circuit moves in a magnetic field. The current in the wire can have
two possible directions. Fleming's right-hand rule gives which direction the current flows.

The right hand is held with the thumb, index finger and middle finger mutually
perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as shown in the diagram. The thumb is
pointed in the direction of the motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field. The
first finger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field. (north to south) Then the
second finger represents the direction of the induced or generated current within the
conductor.
INDUCED CURRENT AND INDUCED CHARGE

If in a coil of N turns the rate of change of magnetic flux ΔΦ/ Δt, then the induced emf in
the circuit is

If the coil be closed and the total resistance of its circuit be R, then the induced current in
the circuit will be

This equation indicates that the induced current in the circuit depends upon the resistance
(whereas the induced emf is independent of resistance). The charge flowed through the
circuit in a time-interval Δt will be given by
MOTION OF A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC
FIELD

The diagram shows a straight conductor of length l moving with constant velocity v through
a uniform magnetic field directed into the paper. The conductor is moving perpendicularly
to the magnetic field.

Steps for electromagnetic induction:

Electrons in the conductor will experience a force of magnitude FB= qvB downwards.
(Use Fleming’s Left Hand Rule)
Hence, free electrons will move to the lower end causing a net negative charge there and a
net positive charge at the upper end.
An electric field is being set up within the conductor. The charges at the ends will build up
until the downward magnetic force on the electrons is balanced by the upward electric
force
FE=qE.

At equilibrium, the charges stop flowing. Hence,

FB=FE
qvB =qE
E =vB
Since the electric field is constant, the potential difference set up across the ends is given
by ΔV =El =Blv.
EXPLAINATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION IN
TERMS OF LORENTZ LAW: PROOF OF FARADAY LAW

The four Maxwell's equations (including the Maxwell–Faraday equation), along with
Lorentz force law, are a sufficient foundation to derive everything in classical
electromagnetism. Therefore, it is possible to "prove" Faraday's law starting with these
equations.

The starting point is the time-derivative of flux through an arbitrary surface Σ (that can
move or be deformed) in space:

(by definition). This total time derivative can be evaluated and simplified with the help of
the Maxwell–Faraday equation and some vector identities; the details are in the box below:

The result is:

where ∂Σ is the boundary (loop) of the surface Σ, and vl is the velocity of a part of the
boundary.

In the case of a conductive loop, EMF (Electromotive Force) is the electromagnetic work
done on a unit charge when it has traveled around the loop once, and this work is done by
the Lorentz force. Therefore, EMF is expressed as

is EMF and v is the unit charge velocity.

In a macroscopic view, for charges on a segment of the loop, v consists of two components
in average; one is the velocity of the charge along the segment vt, and the other is the
velocity of the segment vl (the loop is deformed or moved). vt does not contribute to the
work done on the charge since the direction of vt is same to the direction . Mathematically,

Now we
can see that, for the conductive loop, EMF is same to the time-derivative of the
magnetic flux through the loop except for the sign on it. Therefore, we now reach the
equation of Faraday's law (for the conductive loop) as

where With breaking this integral,

is for the transformer EMF (due to a time-varying magnetic field) and
is for the motional EMF (due to the magnetic Lorentz force on
charges by the motion or deformation of the loop in the magnetic field).
MUTUAL AND SELF-INDUCTION
In electromagnetism, inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a
change in the electric current flowing through it. The changing current induces a voltage in
the conductor. This induced voltage is in a direction which tends to oppose the change in
current (as stated by Lenz's law), so it is called a back EMF. Due to this back EMF, a
conductor's inductance opposes any increase or decrease in electric current through it.

Self-inductance is defined as the property of the coil due to which it opposes the change of
current flowing through it. Inductance is attained by a coil due to the
self-induced emf produced in the coil itself by changing the current flowing through it.

If the current in the coil is increasing, the self-induced emf produced in the coil will oppose
the rise of current, that means the direction of the induced emf is opposite to the applied
voltage.
 If the current in the coil is decreasing, the emf induced in the coil is in such a direction as
to oppose the fall of current; this means that the direction of the self-induced emf is same
as that of the applied voltage. Self-inductance does not prevent the change of current, but
it delays the change of current flowing through it.

This property of the coil only opposes the changing current (alternating current) and does
not affect the steady current that is (direct current) when flows through it. The unit of
inductance is Henry (H).

You can determine the self-inductance of a coil by the following expression

The above expression is used when the magnitude of self-induced emf (e) in the coil
and the rate of change of current (dI/dt) is known.
Mutual Inductance between the two coils is defined as the property of the coil due to
which it opposes the change of current in the other coil, or you can say in the
neighboring coil. When the current in the neighboring coil changes, the flux sets up in
the coil and because of this, changing flux emf is induced in the coil called Mutually
Induced emf and the phenomenon is known as Mutual Inductance.
Let us understand the phenomenon of Mutual Inductance by considering an example as
shown in the above figure.

Two coils namely coil A and coil B are placed nearer to each other. When the switch S is
closed, and the current flows in the coil, it sets up the flux φ in the coil A and emf is
induced in the coil and if the value of the current is changed by varying the value of the
resistance (R), the flux linking with the coil B also changes because of this changing
current.

Thus this phenomenon of the linking flux of the coil A with the other coil, B is called
Mutual Inductance.

For determining the Mutual Inductance between the two coils, the following expression is
used

This expression is used when the magnitude of mutually induced emf in the coil and the rate
of change of current in the neighbouring coil is known.

If em = 1 volt and dI1/dt = 1 ampere then putting this value in the equation (1) we get the
value of mutual inductance as M=1 Henry

Hence, from the above statement, you can define Mutual Inductance as “the two coils are
said to have a mutual inductance of one Henry if an emf of 1 volt is induced in one coil or
say primary coil when the current flowing through the other neighbouring coil or
secondary coil is changing at the rate of 1 ampere/second”.

Mutual inductance can also be expressed in another way as shown below

Equating equation (2) and (3) you will get

The above expression is used when the flux linkage (N2φ12) of one coil due to the

current (I1) flowing through the other coil are known.

SOME EXAMPLES OF THE EFFECTS OF SELF-INDUCED
CURRENT

(i) In resistance-boxes the coils are doubly-wounded:

there are a number of coils of wire in a resistance-box . they have different
resistances. To prepare these coils a doubled wire is wound on the wooden
cylinders. Thus the current at every place in the circuit flows in two opposite
directions. Hence the magnetic flux linked with the coil remains almost zero.
This is called non-inductive winding of the coils. Its advantage is that the effect
of self-inductance in the coil becomes negligible. So when the resistance box is
connected in a circuit and the current in the circuit is
increased or decreased , then no induced current is produced in the circuit.

(ii) In the Wheatstone’s bridge experiment, the cell-key is pressed first and then
the galvanometer-key: this phenomenon is taken to avoid the effect of self-
inductance of the coils of the bridge.
If we first press the galvanometer-key and then on pressing the cell-key
,momentary currents will be induced in the coils of different arms of the bridge
,due to which the main current will takes some time to reach its steady value . So,
even if the bridge is exactly balanced, there will be a momentary deflection in
the galvanometer. It can confuse us that the bridge is not balanced. To escape
this confusion ,the cell key is always pressed first. When the cell key is fully
pressed, the induced current disappear. So now, on pressing the galvanometer
key, there is no confusion. Similarly after noting the reading ,first the
galvanometer key is released and then the cell key.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS

1) Kumar|Mittal. ISC PHYSICS Class 12, Nageen Prakashan Publication

INTERNET SITES

1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction

2) https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/electromagnetic-induction.htm l

3) https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Wheatstone-bridge-for-measuring-self-inductance
 INDEX
Serial Number Topic Page
Number

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1

2. INTRODUCTION 2

3. FARADAY’S LAWS OF 3-4

ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

4. INDUCED CURRENT AND 5

INDUCED CHARGE

5. MOTION OF A STRAIGHT 6
CONDUCTOR IN A UNIFORM
MAGNETIC FIELD

6. EXPLAINATION OF 7-8
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION IN
TERMS OF LORENTZ LAW: PROOF
OF FARADAY LAW
7. MUTUAL AND SELF-INDUCTION 9-13

8. SOME EXAMPLES OF THE EFFECTS 14

OF SELF-INDUCED CURRENT

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY 15
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mrs.
Mukta Ma’am as well as our principal Mrs. Shivani Singh Ma’am who gave
me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic (Write
the topic name), which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came
to know about so many new things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a
lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Last but not the least I would like to thank my teammates who have helped
me a lot .

Aman Verma
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mrs.
Mukta Ma’am as well as our principal Mrs. Shivani Singh Ma’am who gave me
the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic (Write the
topic name), which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to
know about so many new things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a
lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Last but not the least I would like to thank my teammates who have helped
me a lot .

Saad Mohammad Akbar

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mrs.
Mukta Ma’am as well as our principal Mrs. Shivani Ma’am who gave me the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic (Write the topic
name), which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to know
about so many new things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a
lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Last but not the least I would like to thank my teammates who have helped
me a lot .

Arsh Jeet Singh

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mrs.
Mukta Ma’am as well as our principal Mrs. Shivani Singh Ma’am who gave me
the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic (Write the
topic name), which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to
know about so many new things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a
lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Last but not the least I would like to thank my teammates who have helped
me a lot .

Prasoon Patel
ASSESSMENT SHEET

NAME: AMAN VERMA

CLASS: 12-G
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
TOPIC: ELECTROMAGNETISM
SESSION: 2020-21
INTERNAL EXAMINER: _______
EXTERNAL EXAMINER: _______
ASSESSMENT SHEET

NAME: SAAD MOHD. AKBAR

CLASS: 12-G
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
TOPIC: ELECTROMAGNETISM
SESSION: 2020-21
INTERNAL EXAMINER: _______
EXTERNAL EXAMINER: _______
ASSESSMENT SHEET

NAME: PRASOON PATEL

CLASS: 12-G
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
TOPIC: ELECTROMAGNETISM
SESSION: 2020-21
INTERNAL EXAMINER: _______
EXTERNAL EXAMINER: _______
ASSESSMENT SHEET

NAME: ARSH JEET SINGH

CLASS: 12-G
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
TOPIC: ELECTROMAGNETISM
SESSION: 2020-21
INTERNAL EXAMINER: _______
EXTERNAL EXAMINER: _______