Building Materials and Construction 15CV36

Module – 4

Doors, Windows and Ventilators

Structure
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Objective
4.1.3 Important considerations for Doors
4.1.4 Technical terms
4.1.5 Types of Doors
4.1.6 Windows
4.1.7 Types of Windows
4.1.8 Ventilators
4.1.9 Questions
4.1.10 Outcomes
4.1.11 Future study

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4.1.1 Introduction

A door may be defined as an openable barrier secured in a wall opening. It serves as a

connecting link between the various internal partitions of a building.

Basically a door consists of two parts

1. Frame
2. Shutter

4.1.2 Objectives
1) To study the terms used in doors and windows
2) To study the types of doors and windows
3) To gain the knowledge on wide uses of types of doors and windows

4.1.3 Important considerations for Doors

I. Location of Doors

A. The location of a door should meet functional requirements of ROOM. It should not be
located in the centre of the length of a wall. A door should preferably be located near the
corner of a room, nearly 20cm away from the corners.

B. The number of doors in a room should be kept minimum due to the fact that more number of
doors will cause obstruction and reduce the effective usable carpet area of the room.

C. If there are two doors in a room, the doors should preferably be located in opposite walls,
facing each other, so as to provide good ventilation and free air circulation in the rooms.

II. Size of Doors

The size of a door should be such that it would allow the movement of largest object or tallest
person likely to use the door.

The common width-height relations, used in India are

1. Width=0.4 to 0.6 height
2. Height = (width-1.2) meter

The following are the generally adopted sizes of doors for various types of buildings. Doors of
residential buildings

1. External door- (1.0 m x2m) to (1.1 x 2m)

2. Internal doors-(0.9m x 2m) to (1m x 2m)
3. Doors for bathrooms and water closets-(0.7m x 2m)to (0.8m x 2m)
4. Garages for cars-2.25m x 2.25m

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5. Doors of public buildings like school, hospitals, library etc-1.2m x 2.0m

4.1.4 Technical terms

1. Frame: This is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members, forming an enclosure, to

which the shutters are fixed.
2. Shutters: The entire assembly of styles, panels and rails is known as the shutters. Style: It is
the outside vertical member of the shutter of a window.
3. Head: The top or uppermost horizontal part of frame is known as head.
4. Top rail: This is the top most horizontal member of a shutter.
5. Lock rail: This is the middle horizontal member of a door shutter to which locking
arrangement is fixed.
6. Bottom rail: This is the lowermost horizontal member of the shutter.
7. Panel: This is the area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails.
8. Horn: These are the horizontal projections of the head and sill of a frame to facilitate the
fixing of the frame on the wall opening. The length of horns is kept about 10 to 15cm.
9. Holdfast: This is generally in holdfasts are the form of a mild steel flat bar of section 30mm x
6mm and of length 200mm. The three numbers of such hold fasts are provided on each side of
the door frame and two numbers of such holdfasts are provided on each side of the window-
frame. They keep the frame position.
10. Rebate: The depression made inside the door frame to receive the door shutter is known as
the rebate.
11. Mullion
12. Putty

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4.1.5 Types of Doors

Doors commonly used in building are classified into following types, depending upon For small
opening a door is provided with one leaf or shutter and such a door is known as Single leaf door. In
case of wider opening the door should have twp leaves and such a door is termed as double leaf door.
Framed and Paneled door

These types of doors are widely used in almost all types building since they are strong and give better
appearance compared to other types of doors. This door consists of a framework of vertical members
(called styles) and horizontal members, called rails which are grooved along the inner edges of the
frame, to receive the panels. The panels are made from timber, black board, or glasses. Various forms
of paneled doors are as shown in fig. in which the doors can have one panel, two panels or multiple
panels.

Glazed or Sash Doors

In order to admit more light, in addition to that coming

from the windows, the fully glazed or partly paneled and
partly glazed doors are used. In the partly glazed and partly
paneled case, the ratio of glazed portion to paneled portion
is kept 2:1, the bottom one-third height is paneled and the
top two-third height is glazed. The glass is received into
rebates provided in the wooden sash bars and secured by
“rails putty” or by wooden beads fixed to the frame.

Flush Doors
With the large scale production of plywood flush doors are becoming
increasingly popular these days, because of their pleasing appearance,
simplicity of construction, less cost, better strength and greater
durability. They are used both for residential as well as public and
commercial buildings.
These doors consist of solid or semi-solid skeleton (core) covered on
both sides with plywood, face reneers etc, presenting flush and joint
less surface which can be neatly polished.
Flush doors are of two types:
Solid core flush door or laminated core flush door. Hollow and cellular core flush doors

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Collapsible and Rolling shutters

Such doors are used in go downs, workshops, sheds, public

buildings etc, for providing increased safety and protection
to property. Collapsible steel doors are commonly
recommended in situations where light and ventilation are
desired even when the opening in closed. It acts like a steel
curtain which can be opened or closed by horizontal flush.
The door is fabricated from vertical double channels (20 x
10 x 2 mm) joined together with the hollows on the inside,,
so that a vertical gap is created. Such channel units are
spaced at 100 to 120mm apart and are braced with flat iron
diagonals 10 to 20mm wide and5mm thick. These diagonals allow the shutter to open out or get
closed. The shutter operates between two iron rails of T-shape, one fixed to the floor and other to
the lintel. Rollers mounted on horizontal piece are provided both at the top and the bottom ends
of vertical pieces.

Rolling Steel Shutter Doors

These doors are commonly used for garages, go downs, shops fronts show windows etc, since
they are quite strong and offer proper safety to the property. The doors consists of a frame, a
drum and a shutter of thin steel plates (known as laths or slates), about 1 to 1.25mm thick and
inter locked together. The frame has steel guides on the sides in which the shutter more and then
coils in the drum. The diameter of the drum varies from 200 to 300mm.A horizontal shaft and
springs are provided in the drum, due to which the shutter is opened or closed by small push or
pull.
Rolling shutters are of two types
i. Pull-push type shutters
ii. Mechanical gear type shutters
When the area of door opening does not exceed 10 m2, the door shutter can be easily opened or
closed by pushing it up or down manually. The door in such a case is known as push pull type
rolling shutter door.
When the area of door opening is more than 10 m2 the shutter is generally opened or closed by
means of reduction gear operated by connecting rod and winding handle or by means of chain
pulley blocks. The door in such a case is known as mechanical type rolling shutter door.

Louvered doors (Venetian Doors)

Louvered doors permit free ventilation through them, and at

the same time maintain the privacy of the room. In this type
of doors, the shutters are provided with louvers, either fully
or partly. The louvers are arranged at such an inclination that
vision is obstructed while they permit free passage of air.
This is achieved by fixing the upper back edge of a louver
higher than the lower front edge of the louver just above it.
The louvers may be movable or fixed. In case of movable
louvers, a vertical piece of timber is provided to which the

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louvers are attached through hinges. The movement of louvers is actuated by the vertical piece of
timber.
Louver may be made of either timber or glass or plywood. They are used for sanitary blocks of
public buildings, residential buildings etc.

Revolving Doors

A revolving door essentially consists of a centrally placed mullion or pivot in a circular opening.
The revolving shutter or leavers which are four in number are radically attached to the pivot.
The shutter may be fully glazed, fully paneled or partly paneled and partly glazed. The central
pivot is provided with ball bearing at the bottom and bush bearing at the top so that its rotation is
smooth and without any jerk, fiction and noise. At the rubbing ends of shutter, the vertical rubber
piece is provided which prevent a draught of air. The arrangements are made such that the
shutter can be folded when traffic is more and the opening can be locked when not in use.
A revolving door simultaneously provides entrance on one side and exit on the other end. It
keeps the opening automatically in closed position, when not in use. It also grants protection
against the wind brought and it is therefore found to be of much help at places subjected to
strong winds during most of the part of the year. They are provided in big hotels, banks, offices,
theatres, hospitals etc.

Sliding doors

In this type of doors, the shutter slides on the sides with the help of runners and guide. The
shutter may be of one or several leaves and can slide either on one side or both the sides. The
cavities may be provided in the wall to receive the door in an open position or it may simply lie
touching the wall.
A sliding door does not cause any obstruction during movement and is used for entrances of
gowdowns, sheds, shops etc.

Swing Doors

A swing door is provided with special hinges known as the double action hinges and thus the
shutter of the door are held in closed position when the door is not in use.
As the return of the shutter is with force, it is desirable to provide glazed shutter of or
alternatively a peep hole should be provided at the eye level to avoid the accident to the door
users. The closing edge of the meeting styles should not be rebated and they should be made
segmental. This type of door is widely used in passages of public buildings such as govt. offices,
banks etc. When the door is to be used, a slight push is made and then the action of spring brings the
shutter in closed position.

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Windows
4.1.6 Introduction

A window may be defined as an opening made in a wall for the purpose of providing day light,
vision and ventilation. Construction of window is identical to that of door. It is comprised of two
parts. 1) Frame 2) shutter. They are normally provided with two leaves.

The selection of size, shape, location and the number of windows to be provided in a room
depends upon the following considerations.
i. Size of the room
ii. Location of the room and its utility
iii. Direction of wind
iv. Climatic considerations of the site such as humidity, temperature, variation etc. Architectural
treatment to the exterior of the building

Based on the above factors, the following thumb rules are in use:

1. Breadth of windows=1\8(width of room +ht of room)

2. The total area of window opening should normally vary from 10 to 20% of the floor area of
the room depending upon climatic conditions.
3. For sufficient natural light, the area of glazed panels should at least be 8 to 10%of the floor
area.

4.1.7 Types of Windows

Depending upon types of materials used, nature of operational movements of the shutter,
location and the manner in which they are fixed, windows can be broadly classified as under
1. Fixed windows
2. Bay windows
3. Dormer windows
4. Pivoted windows
5. Glazed windows
6. Sliding windows
7. Corner windows
8. Casement windows
9. Double hung window

Glazed windows or Sash Windows

A glazed window is a type of window in which the panels are fully

glazed. The frame of each shutter consists of two vertical styles,
top rail and a bottom rail. The space between the top and bottom
rails is divided into small panels by means of small timber
members placed horizontally and vertically. These timber
members known as mullion. Similarly, if the height of window

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opening is more the window frame may have horizontal member called transom.

Bay Window

Bay windows project outside the external wall of the room. This
projection may be triangular, circular, rectangular and polygonal in
plan. Such an window provides an increased area of opening for
admitting greater light and air. They also provide extra space in the
room and improve the overall appearance of the building.

4.1.8 Ventilators
Ventilators are small size windows in which panels are fully glazed and provided with steel rods
for the purpose of protection usually provided above the doors and windows in order to admit
more light and air to the room.

It is not mandatory to provide above the windows and anywhere else but it should be provided in
between lintels and ceiling.

4.1.9 Questions

 Briefly explain the terms used in doors and windows?

 Explain the types of doors and windows?
 Explain the uses of doors and windows?
4.1.10 Outcomes
 Able to study the terms related to doors and windows
 Able to distinguish different types of doors and windows
 Will be able to know the types of doors and windows.
4.1.11 Future Study

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STAIRS

STRUCTURE

4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Objectives
4.2.3 Technical terms
4.2.4 Types of Stairs (Classification)
4.2.5 Requirements of a good stair
4.2.6 Questions
4.2.7 Outcomes
4.2.8 Future Study

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4.2.1 Introduction

 A stair may be defined as series of steps suitably arranged for the purpose of connecting
different floors of a building.
 It may also be defined as an arrangement of treads, risers, and stringers, handrails so designed
and constructed as to provide an easy and quick access to the different floors, rendering
comfort and safety to the users.
 The room or enclosure of the building, in which the stairs is located, is known as stair-case.
The opening or space occupied by the stair is known as stairway.
 Stairs may be made from various materials like timber, stones, bricks, steel, plain concrete or
reinforced concrete.

4.2.2 Objectives
 To study the terms used in Stairs
 To study the types of stairs
 To gain the knowledge on wide uses of stairs
4.2.3 Technical terms

1. Baluster: It is the vertical member of wood or

metal, supporting the hand rail.
2. Flight: It is defined as an unbroken series of
steps between the landings.
3. Going of step: It is the horizontal distance
between two successive riser-faces.
4. Hand rail: The inclined rail over the strength is
known as a hand rail. It serves as a guard rail
and it should be provided at a convenient height
so as to give grasp to the hand during ascent and
descent.
5. Header Room: It is the minimum clear vertical distance between the tread and overhead
structure (i.e ceiling)
6. Landing: The horizontal platform between two flights of a stair is known as the landing. A
landing facilitates change of direction and provides an opportunity for taking rest during the
use of a stair.
7. Newel post: This is the vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to connect the
ends of strings and handrails.
8. Nosing: the outer projecting edge of a tread is termed as nosing. Nosing is usually rounded to
give good of architectural effect to the treads and makes the staircase easy to negotiate.
9. Pitch or Slope: The angle of inclination of the stairs with the floor is known as pitch.
10. Riser: It is vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread.

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11. Rise: It is the vertical distance between two successive tread faces.
12. Run: The total length of a stair in a horizontal plane is known as the run and it includes the
length of landings also
13. Soffet: The under surface of a stair is known as the soffet.
14. Steps: A portion of a stairway comprising the tread and riser which permits ascent and
descent from one floor to another.
15. Tread: It is the upper horizontal portion of a step upon which the foot is placed while
ascending or descending.
16. String: These are the sloping members which support the steps in a stair. They run along the
slope of the stair.

4.2.4 Types of Stairs (Classification)

The stairs are classified as follows

1. Straight stairs
2. Turning stairs
a) Quarter turn
b) Half turn stair (dog-legged and open-well)
c) Three quarter turn stairs
d) Bifurcate a turn
3. Circular or helical or spiral stairs
4. Geometrical stairs

1. Straight Stairs:

In case of a straight stair, al steps lead in one direction only. This stair runs straight between the
two floors. These are used when the space available for staircase is long but narrow in width.
The stair may consist of either one flight or more than one flight.

2. Turning stairs:
A stair turning through one right angle is known as a quarter-turn stair. The turn being affected either
by introducing a quarter-space landing or by providing winders.

Half turn stair: A stair turning through two right angles is known as a half-turn stair. A half turn stair
may be of dog-legged type or open newel type.

Dog-legged Stair

In this type, the flights run in opposite direction

and there is no space between them in plan.
These stairs are used for space available for the
staircase is equal to twice the width of steps. The
name is given because of its appearance in
sectional elevation.

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Open Newel half turn Stairs

In this type, there will be a well or hole or opening between the

flights in plan. These stairs are useful where available space for
staircase has a width greater than twice the width of steps. If the
width of the stairs case hall is such that it comes difficult to
accommodate the number of steps in the two flights, without
exceeding the maximum allowable limit of steps in each flight, a
short-flight of 3 to 6 steps may be provided along the width of the
hall.

Three quarter Turn Stairs

A three quarter turn stairs has its direction changed three times with its upper flight crossing the
bottom one. It may either be newel type or open newel type. Such type of stair is used when the
length of the stair room is limited and when the vertical distance between the two floors is quite
large.

Bifurcated Stairs

This type of stair is commonly used in public building at their entrance hall. The stair has a
wider-flight at the bottom, which bifurcate into two narrows flights, one turning to the left and
other to the right at the landing.

Continuous Stairs

These are those which do neither have any landing nor any intermediate newel post. They are
therefore, geometrical in shape. They may be of the following types.
1. Circular stairs (similar to geometrical stairs)
2. Spiral stairs
3. Helical stairs

Spiral stairs

It is usually made either of R.C.C. or metal and is employed at a location where there are space
limitations. All the steps are winders. The stair is therefore, not comfortable.

4.2.5 Requirements of a good stair

Stair is the vertical transportation between the floors. It should, therefore, be designed so as to
provide easy, quick and safe mode of communication between the floors.

Following are the general requirements which a stair should fulfill.

A. Design of layout: The height of floor is generally known. The procedure for determining the
number of treads and risers is as follows

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1. The position of first and last risers is determined with regard to the position of doors, window
or varandahs etc.
2. A convenient height of the riser is assumed
3. Number of risers = total height of floor / Height of riser
4. Number of treads in a flight =number of risers =1
This is due to the fact that the surface of the upper floor forms the tread for the top step

B. Treads and Risers:

For comfortable ascent and descent, the rise and tread of a step should be well proportioned.
The following thumb rules are followed
(Rise in cm) + (going in cm) =40 to 45
(Rise in cm) x (going in cm) =410 to 450 approximate
(2 x rise in cm)+ (going in cm) =60approximately
Adopt Rise = 1.4cm and Going = 30 cm as standard, then for every 20mm(2cm)subtracted from
going add 10mm(1cm) to the rise.
Thus other combination of rise and going would be
15cm x 28cm: 16cm x 26cm: 17cm x 24cm.

The staircase in a residential building should 270mm. For public buildings, it is desirable to have
a rise of not more than 180mm and a going of not less than 270mm. The wider the going, the less
should be the riser and greater the rise, the less should be the going.

C. Width: The width of a stair should be sufficient for two persons to pass on it simultaneously
and for furniture etc. to be carried up and down the stair. The minimum width of a stair is
taken as about 800mm
D. Pitch: The inclination of a stair to the horizontal should be limited to 30o to 45o
E. Flight: It is not desirable to provide a flight with more than 12 or at the most 15 steps and not
more than 3 steps. Suitable landings should be provided to give comfort and safety to the
users of the stair.
F. Headroom: The provision of adequate headroom is necessity in a good stair. It should
preferably not less than 2m.
G. Hand rail: When a flight consists of more than 3 steps, a hand rail at least on one side is
considered to be necessity. The wide stairs should be provided with hand rails on both the
sides. Very wide stairs, as required for public buildings, should be provided with residential
hand rail. The height of hand rail above should be approximately 800mm.
H. Winders: These are to be avoided as far as possible if winders are unavoidable, they should
be at the bottom rather than at the top of the slight.

I. Location: The stairs should be so located that are well lighted and well ventilated and have
sufficient and spacious approaches.
J. Materials and workmanship: The stair should be constructed and materials and good
workmanship so as to impart utility and strength to the stair.

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4.2.6 Questions

1. Briefly explain the terms used in stairs?

2. Explain the types of stairs?
3. Explain the uses of stairs?

4.2.7 Outcomes
 Able to study the different types of stairs
 Able to study the terms used in stairs
 Will be knowing the types of and uses of stairs

4.2.8 Future Stud

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STRUCTURE

4.3.1 Introduction to Form work

4.3.2 Objective
4.3.3 Shoring
4.3.4 Underpinning
4.3.5 Scaffolding
4.3.6 Assignment
4.3.7 Outcomes
4.3.8 Future study

4.3.1 Introduction

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 The formwork or shuttering is a temporary ancillary construction used as a mould for the
structure, in which concrete is placed and in which it hardens and matures.
 The construction of formwork involves considerable expenditure of time and materials.
 The cost of construction of formwork may be up to 20-25% of the cost of structure in building
work and even higher in bridges.
 Whenever concrete is placed, it is in a plastic state. It requires to be supported by temporary
supports and casing of desired shape till it becomes sufficiently strong to support its own
weight. This temporary casing is known as form work.

 Forms are classified as wooden, plywood, steel, combined wood-steel bed so on. Timber is
most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage of wooden formwork is the
possibility of wrapping, swelling and shrinking of the timber. However, the defects can
overcome by applying impermeable coatings to the shuttering. The coating also prevents the
shuttering from adhering to concrete and hence makes the stripping easier.

 Steel shuttering is used for major work where everything is mechanized.

 Steel formwork has many advantages such as follows:

1) It can be put to high number of uses.

2) It provides ease of stripping.
3) It ensures even and smooth concrete surface.
4) It possesses greater rigidity.
5) It is not liable to shrinkage.

4.3.2 Objectives
 To study the form works used in construction
 To study the types formworks
 To gain the knowledge on removal of form work

Formwork details for RCC columns

The column formwork consists of a box prepared from four separate

sides. It consists of the following main components:
1. Sheeting all round the column periphery
2. Side yokes and end yokes
3. Wedges
4. Bolts with washers

The side yokes and end yokes consists of two numbers each and are
suitably spaced along the height of the column. The side yokes are

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comparatively of heavier section, and are connected together by two long bolts of 16mm dia.
Four wedges, one at each corner are inserted between the bolts and the end yokes. The sheathing
is nailed to the yokes.

The important features of the formwork for RCC columns are:

1. The formwork should be the quick filling of the concrete.

2. The spacing of yokes is about one meter. But it should be carefully determined by working
out the greatest length of the formwork which can safely resist the load coming on the
formwork.
3. Depending upon the shape the column, the box can be suitably prepared.
4. A wash of water is given to the inside of the form work just before starting the laying of
concrete.
5. A hole is generally provided at the bottom of the formwork of column to remove the debris
which might have fallen before concrete is placed. This hole is termed as the cleanout hole
and washout hole and it is filled up before placing of the concrete starts.

Formwork details for Beams

Fig. shows the formwork for beam and slab floor. The slab is continuous over a number of
beams.
The slab is supported on 2.5cm thick sheathing laid parallel to the main beams. The sheathing is
supported on wooden battens which are laid between the beams, at some suitable spacing. The
side forms of the beam consist of 3cm thick sheathing. The bolt from sheathing of the beam form
may be 5 to 7cm thick. The ends of the battens are supported on the ledges which is fixed to the
cleats throughout the length, cleats 10cm x 2cm to 3m are fixed to the side forms at the same
spacing as that of battens, so that battens may be fixed to them.

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Requirements of a Good Formwork

1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead, live loads, such as self weight.
Weight of reinforcement, weight of wet concrete, load due to workmen, construction
equipment, other incidental loads and forces caused by placement and consolidation of
concrete, imposed upon i.e. during and after curing of concrete.
2. It should be rigidity constructed and efficient propped and braced, so as to retain its shape
without undue deflection.
3. Joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.

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4. Material of formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for reuse
several times.
5. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line exposed to sun, rain or water during
concreting.
6. Formwork should rest on a firm base.
Removal of Formwork

The operation of removing of the formwork is commonly known as stripping. The forms which
can be conveniently re-used are known as the panet forms. The forms which cannot be re-used
because of their non-standard shapes are known as stationary forms.

4.3.3 Shoring

Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support temporarily an unsafe structure.

These provide lateral support to the walls.

Some of the circumstances under which the shoring is required are as follows.

1. When the cracks developed due to unequal settlement of foundation in a wall are to be
repaired.
2. When a wall shows signs of bulging out due to bad workmanship.
3. When the adjacent structure is to be dismantled.
4. When the defective walls of a building are to be dismantled and rebuilt and support is
necessary to the floor and roofs connected to that wall.
5. When the large openings are required to be made in the main walls of an existing building.

Types of shoring

1. Raking or inclined shores

2. Flying or horizontal shores
3. Dead or vertical shores

1. Raking or inclined shores

In this arrangement the inclined supports are given to the external walls from the ground as
shown in fig.3.9. In this method, inclined members, called rakers are used to give lateral support
to the wall.
A raking shore consists of the following components
i. Rakers or inclined members
ii. Wall plate
iii.Needles
iv. Cleats
v. Bracing

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vi. Sole plate

The wall plate, about 20 to 25cm wide and 5 to 7.5cm thick is placed vertically along the face the
wall and is secured by means of needles of 10cm x 7.5cm section which penetrate into the wall
for a distance of about 150mm. In order that the needles do not get sheared off due to the thrust
of the rakes, the needle are further strengthened by means of cleats which are nailed directly to
the wall plate.
Rakers are placed against the needles in such a way that the centre line of the raker and the wall
meet at the floor level. Thus, there will be one raker corresponding to each floor. These rakers
are inter-connected by streets to prevent their building. At their base (or feet) the rakers are
supported by a sole piece or sole plate embedded into the ground by means of iron dog.
In places where more rakers are provided, they are bound together by means of hoop iron or
braces. The inclination of the outer raker to the ground should vary between 60 to75.The sets
shores should placed at 3 to 4.6m centre to center length.

Flying or Horizontal Shores

In this arrangement the horizontal supports are given to parallel walls which have become unsafe
due to the removal or collapse of the intermediate building.
All types of arrangements of supporting the unsafe structure in which the shores do not reach the
ground fall under this category. If the walls are quite near to each other (distance up to 9m),
single flying shore can be constructed (fig 3.10).
It consists of wall plates, needles, cleats, streets, horizontal shore, straining pieces and folding
double flying shore may be provided.
In this system, the wall plates are placed against the wall and secured to it. A horizontal street is
placed between the wall plates and is supported by a system of needle and cleats. The inclined
streets are supported by the needle at their top and by straining pieces at their feet.

Dead or Vertical Shores

This type of shoring consists of vertical members known as dead shores supporting horizontal
members known as needles.
The needles transfer the load of the wall etc. to the dead shores. Such shoring is provided to save
the following purposes or under the following circumstances.
1. The lower part of the wall has become defective
2. The lower part of the wall is tobe rebuilt or reconstructed.
3. The large openings are to be made in the existing.
The dead shore consists of an arrangement of beams and posts which are required to support the
weight of the structure above and transfer the same to the ground on firm foundation below.
When openings in the wall are to be made, holes are cut in the wall at such a height so as to
allow sufficient space for insertion of the beam or girder that will be provided permanently to
carry the weight of the structure above.

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Distances at which the holes are cut depend upon the type of masonry and it varies from 1.2m
centre to 1.8m centre. Beams called needles are placed in the holes and are supported by vertical
props called dead shores at their ends on either side of the wall.
The needle may be of timber or steel and are of sufficient section to carry the load from above.
The props are tightened up by folding wedge provided at their bases while the junction between
the prop and the needle is secured with the help of dogs.

4.3.4 Underpinning

The placing of new foundation below an existing foundation in the process of strengthening the
existing foundation is known as the underpinning of foundations.

Underpinning may be required to save the following purposes.

1. To strengthen the shallow foundation of existing building when a building with deep
foundation is to be constructed adjoining it.
2. To strengthen the existing foundation which has settled and caused cracks in the wall
3. To deepen the existing foundation (resting on poor strata) so as to rest it on deeper wet strata
of higher bearing power.
4. To construct a basement in the existing building.

Methods of Underpinning

Following are the methods of underpinning.

1. Pit method
2. Pile method

1. Pit method:

In this method, the entire length of the foundation to be underpinned is divided into sections of
1.2 to 1.5m length. One section is taken up at a time. For each section, a hole is made in the wall,
above the plinth level, and needle is inserted in the hole. Needles may be either of stout timber or
steel section‟
Bearing plates are placed above the needle to support the masonry above it. Needle is supported
on either side of the wall on crib supports (wooden blocks) with screw jacks. The foundation pit
is then extended upto the desired level and new foundation is laid.
When the work of one section is over, work on next to next section is taken up i.e, alternate
section are underpinned in the first round, and then the remaining sections are taken up.

If the wall to be underpinned is weak, raking shores may be provided. Following precautions are
necessary:

 One section should be excavated at a time.

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 The alternate section should be taken in succession.

 If the length of wall is more, the underpinning is started from the middle and it is then
extended in both the directions.
 The proper timbering should be provided for the drench.
 It is desirable to carry out the new foundation work in concrete.
 If space to support needle on outside is not needles may be adopted.

2. Pile Method

In this method, piles are driven at regular interval along both the sides of the wall. Generally
bore holes piles or under piles may be used. The piles are connected by concrete or steel needles,
penetrating through the wall. These beams incidentally act as pile caps also. This method is very
much useful in clayey soils, and also in water-legged areas.

4.3.5 Scaffolding

Scaffold is a temporary rigid structure having plate forms raised up as the building increases in
height i.e, when the height above floor level exceeds about 1.50m a temporary structure, usually
of timber, is erected close to the work to provide a safe working platform for the workers and to
provide a limited space for the storage of building materials. It is useful in construction,
demolition, maintenance or repair works.

Types of Scaffolding

1. Cantilever or needle scaffolding

2. Single scaffolding
3. Suspend scaffolding
4. Trestle scaffolding
5. Steel scaffolding
6. Patented scaffolding
4.3.6 Questions
1. Briefly explain the terms used in form works?
2. Explain the types of form works for RCC and slab?
3. Explain the types of scaffoldings?

4.3.7 Outcomes
 Able to study the form works in detail
 Able to distinguish different types of form works for different types of construction

4.3.8 Further readings

https://www.vssut.ac.in/lecture_notes/lecture1424085991.pdf1

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