Changing the way of learning…

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 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Types of sections, grades of steel, strength characteristics, IS

Code, Connections, Design of tension and compression
members, steel roof truss, beams, column bases.

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 2

1. Pure iron (non alloy)
IRON
• It is natural metal available directly in the Earth Ores
• Silvery white in colour
• It is very soft solid (such that it can be cut by knife) having high
ductility
• It is not used in any structural element since it directly reacts with
oxygen and to form rust and reacts with moist air
• It is available in Fe2+ and Fe3+ forms
2. Pig Iron:
• Basic Raw iron is called Pig iron (transported in the form of bricks)
• It is also not used in any structural element since it is composed of
highest carbon content 5%)
• The pig iron can be converted into structural iron by removing
excess carbon content and by adding oxygen or chemicals in molten
stage

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 3

 IRON
3. Cast Iron
• It is the structural element (in specified shape from molten pig
iron having almost same properties of pig iron)
4. Wrought Iron
• Lowest Carbon content (0.0-0.1%) of structural iron
• It has high ductility, easily converted in specified shape
• Largely used to make thin wires
5. Steel
• Steel is an alloy of
(iron+carbon+chromium+copper+magnesium+nickel+silica)
• The structural element used to resist any type of load

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 4

 Carbon Content
𝑃𝑖𝑔 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 (4−5%)
> 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛(2−4.5%)
> 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (>2%)
> 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2%)
> 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (0.6−1.4%)
>𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛(0.25−0.6%)
>𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0.25%)
> 𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 (𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0.1%)
>𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 (0%)

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 5

 INTRODUCTION
• Steel is an alloy of Fe + Carbon
➢MILD STEEL ( Carbon content – 0.23%)
➢ When carbon content is increased in steel then strength, hardness and
brittleness will increase but ductility will decrease.

➢STAINLESS STEEL
➢ Alloy of iron and chromium
➢ Chromium is 18% and nickel is 8%
➢ Young’s modulus of steel ‘E’ is equal to 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐌𝐏𝐚 or 200 GPa
𝟏
➢𝑬𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 ≃ 𝑬
𝟑 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍
➢𝑬𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 ≃ 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐌𝐏𝐚 or 70 GPa

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 6

 INTRODUCTION
➢Density of Steel
𝝆𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 = 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
➢𝝆 = ቐ 𝝆
𝝆𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 = 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝟑

➢Modulus of Rigidity (G)

➢ G = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐌𝐏𝐚

➢Poisson’s Ratio (𝝁)

𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
➢𝝁 =
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

➢ 𝝁 for mild steel = 0.286

➢ In Elastic range: 0.3
➢ In Plastic range: 0.5

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 INTRODUCTION
➢Deflection/Increase in length
𝑷𝑳
➢ 𝚫𝑳 =
𝑨𝑬
𝟏
➢ 𝜹𝑳 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 = (𝜹𝑳)Al
𝟑

➢Thermal coefficient
➢ 𝜶𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 = 𝜶𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ℃−𝟏
➢ 𝜶𝑨𝒍 = 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ℃−𝟏
➢ Steel is ductile while concrete or rubber are brittle
➢Note: Rubber is a very brittle material, there is very little plastic
deformation beyond elastic range

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 Some Important Codes
• IS 456: 2000 RCC
• IS 800: 2007 Steel (2007-LSM, 1984-WSM)
• IS 1343 Pre Stress Concrete
• IS 10262 Design Mix
• IS 383 Fine and Coarse Aggregate
• IS 875 Design Load for buildings and structures

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 9

STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTION

𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙
Compression Flange

Web 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙

Tension Flange
𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 10

STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTION
y-axis
i. ISLB 300
• Indian standard light beam where overall
depth is 300mm. Flange
• Maximum bending stress is resisted by flange
and maximum shear stress by web
• Generally used in roof beam
ii. ISMB
• Indian Standard Medium flange beam generally
used in floor beams
• High moment of inertia about x-axis, so lateral x-axis Web
buckling occurs about y-axis
iii. ISWB
• Indian standard wide flange beam generally
used in column
• High moment of inertia about y-axis, so they
have buckling strength about y axis
iv. ISJB
• Indian standard junior beam
v. ISHB
• Indian standard heavy beam
Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 11
STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTION
Equal Angle section
2. ANGLE SECTION
i. Equal angle section
• ISA - 10010010
Where 10mm is the thickness of angle
section
100
100100 both legs are same 10
ii. Unequal angle section
• ISA - 15010010
100
Where 10mm is the thickness of angle
section
150100 both legs are different Unequal Angle section
150

10

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STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTION
3. T SECTION
i. ISHT - Indian
standard wide
flange T section
ii. ISST - Indian
standard long ISHT
legged T section

ISST

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani

STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTION
4. CHANNEL SECTION
• They are used as Purlins or
columns(Purlin is a beam in a roof
truss which supports the roof
covering material)
i. ISJC – Indian Standard Junior

300mm
Channel Section
ii. ISLC - Indian Standard Light
Channel Section
iii. ISMC 300 - Indian Standard
Medium Channel Section where
300 is the overall depth of
channel section
iv. ISSC - Indian Standard Special
Channel Section

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani

STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTION

5. BOX SECTION – used in column

6. Flat SECTION –
BOX SECTION
• ISF – Indian Standard Flat Section Used in columns
• Generally used in the design of lacing
and batten
• Eg. 50 ISF 8
Here 50 is width of plate
And 8 is thickness of plate

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani

 Uniaxial Tension Test
• This test is of static type i.e. the load is
increased comparatively slowly from
zero to a certain value.
• UTM or Tensile Testing Machine is used

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani

 Uniaxial Tension Test
(i) The ends of the specimen's are
secured in the grips of the testing
machine.
(ii) There is a unit for applying a load
to the specimen with a hydraulic or
mechanical drive.
(iii) There must be a some recording
device by which you should be able
to measure the final output in the
form of Load or stress.

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani

 True Stress & Nominal Stress
1. Nominal stress – Strain OR
Conventional Stress – Strain diagrams:
Stresses are usually computed on the basis of the
original area of the specimen; such stresses are often
referred to as conventional or nominal stresses.
2. True stress – Strain Diagram:
Since when a material is subjected to a uniaxial load,
some contraction or expansion always takes place.
Thus, dividing the applied force by the
corresponding actual area of the specimen at the
same instant gives the so called true stress.

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani

 Stress – Strain Curve for Mild Steel
Lower Yield Point
Upper Yield Point
Necking Region
Elastic Limit. Yield Plateau
𝝈ult E
C
B F
A 𝝈f
C’ D
𝝈 Proportional Limit.
Strain Hardening

Stress

Elastic Plastic Region

Region
O Strain 𝜺
Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani
 Stress – Strain Curve for Mild Steel
Lower Yield Point

• OA is Proportionality limit Upper Yield Point

• OB is Elastic limit but OB is Yield Plateau

Elastic Limit.
Non linear 𝝈ult E
• The slippage of the carbon C
atom within a molecular fe B F
mass leads to drop down of fy A 𝝈f
stress marginally from C to C’ C’ D
• C is upper yield point 𝝈 Proportional Limit.
Necking Region
• C’ is lower yield point (also Stress
known as Yield Stress fy)
• For exp Fe-250 =>
fy=250N/mm2
• C’D is constant stress region
called Yield Plateau
O Strain 𝜺
Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani
 Stress – Strain Curve for Mild Steel
Lower Yield Point
• DE is Strain Hardening region,
material starts offering Upper Yield Point
resistance against deformation Necking Region
• EF is Necking region where Elastic Limit. Yield Plateau
drop down of stresses occur 𝝈ult E
upto Failure point C
B F
• Necking region exists only in 𝝈
ductile material A f
• In mild steel, ABC are closer to C’ D
each other, therefore it is 𝝈 Proportional Limit.
Strain Hardening
known as Linear Elastic Metal,
and Yield stress and elastic Stress
stress is taken as 250N/mm2
• The Fracture or Failure in mild
steel depends upon
Percentage of carbon present
in a steel O Strain 𝜺
Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani
PERMISSIBLE STRESS IN STEEL STRUCTURES
𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒚
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚
• It is the maximum load carried by the member without
deformation
• In working stress method, it is assumed that members can
carry load up to elastic limit, hence members will be designed
such that they can resist less loads as compared to the
resistance of maximum capacity by proper factor of safety to
whole Permissible Stress
• 𝑭𝑶𝑺 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝑨𝑿𝑰𝑨𝑳 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
• 𝑭𝑶𝑺 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
• Since in axial loading all fibers reach maximum stresses, but in
bending only extreme fibers will reach maximum stresses.
Hence FOS will be less for bending
Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 22
 Working Stress Method
• In the field there are always worst combination of loads (DL , LL, EL,
WL, etc) hence members will be designed such that they can resist
more and more loads of actually we needed.
• Ultimately size and cross section area of the member increases adn
hence working/failure stress decreases
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
• 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Or
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑦
• 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐹𝑂𝑆

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 23

 Working Stress Method
• Merits of WSM:
• The members can not be failed in future having large life span
• The design is very simple
• Demerits:
• Weight of the structure increases, hence it is uneconomical

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 24

 Plastic state or Limit State Method
• The design of the members may touch the plastic range i.i FOS will be
desired for each loads by considering load combinations and strength
and servicibility requirements.
• Hence it is called as Partial Factor of Safety
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
• 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 25

PERMISSIBLE STRESS IN STEEL STRUCTURES
1. As per WSM
i. Maximum permissible AXIAL stress in compression is
given by
𝝈𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 𝒇𝒚
• Used in the design of columns and struts.
• Column is a compression member where bending moment exists
while in case of struts, also being a compression member, bending
moment is zero. Because strut is a component of roof trusses and
roof trusses are pin jointed connection having bending moment
equal to zero.
ii. Maximum permissible AXIAL stress in tension is given by
𝝈𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 𝒇𝒚
It is used in design of tension members

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 26

 PERMISSIBLE STRESS IN STEEL STRUCTURES
1. As per WSM
iii. Maximum permissible bending stress in compression is given
• Used in design of flexural (bending) member that is beam, built up beam, plate
girder etc.
𝝈𝒃𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 𝒇𝒚

iv. Maximum permissible bending stress in tension is given

• Used in the design of beams
𝝈𝒃𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 𝒇𝒚
v. Maximum permissible average shear stress is given by
𝝉𝒗 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝒇𝒚 FOS=2.5 for average shear stress

vi. Maximum permissible Maximum shear stress is given by

𝝉𝒗 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝒇𝒚 FOS=2.2 for maximum shear stress

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 27

PERMISSIBLE STRESS IN STEEL STRUCTURES
1. As per WSM
vi. Maximum permissible bending stress is given by
𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒇𝒚

Increase of permissible stress

• When wind and earthquake load are considered, the permissible stresses in
steel structure are increased by 33.33%.
• When wind and earthquake load are considered, the permissible stresses in
connections (rivet and weld) are increased by 25%.

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 28

 PERMISSIBLE DEFLECTION IN STEEL
STRUCTURES
• Maximum permissible horizontal and vertical deflection is given by
𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝛅 = 𝟑𝟐𝟓 as per WSM.

• Maximum permissible horizontal and vertical deflection is given by

a) If supported elements are not susceptible to cracking
𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝛅=
𝟑𝟎𝟎
b) If supported elements are susceptible to cracking
𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝛅=
𝟑𝟔𝟎

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 29

 PERMISSIBLE STRESS IN GANTRY GIRDER
Gantry girders are laterally unsupported beams to carry. heavy loads from place to place at the
construction sites

1. For manually operator crane, the maximum permissible deflection

is
𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝛅=
𝟓𝟎𝟎
2. For electrically operator crane, the maximum permissible deflection
for a capacity upto 50T or 500kN
𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝛅=
𝟕𝟓𝟎
3. For electrically operator crane, the maximum permissible deflection
for a capacity more than 50T or 500kN
𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝛅=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 30
 FACTOR OF SAFETY FOR DIFFERENT STRESSES
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑦
Factor of Safety = =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓

𝑓𝑦
1. For axial stress, F.O.S. = = 1.67
0.60𝑓

𝑓𝑦
2. For bending stress, F.O.S. = = 1.50
0.66𝑓

𝑓𝑦
3. For shear stress, F.O.S. = = 2.50
0.40𝑓

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 31

 P
IMPORTANT TERMS
1. PITCH – It is the distance between two P
consecutive/continuous rivets measured
parallel to the direction of force. It is 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
denoted by ‘𝒑’.
2. END DISTANCE – It is the distance
between centre of rivet and edge/end of 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆
the plate element, measured parallel to
the direction of force.
3. GAUGE DISTANCE - It is the distance
between two continuous rivets
measured perpendicular to the force of
direction. 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆
4. EDGE DISTANCE - It is the distance 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒅
between centre of rivet and edge/end of 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
the plate element, measured
perpendicular to the force of direction.
32
 Types of Stresses
1. Direct Stress
a) Direct Tensile Stress
b) Direct Compressive Stress
c) Direct Shear Stress
2. Indirect Stress
𝑴 𝝈𝒃 𝑬
a) Bending Stress = =
𝑰 𝒚 𝑹
𝝉 𝑻
b) Torsional Shear Stress =
𝒓 𝑰𝒑

33
Bearing Stresses: The Bearing Stress is nothing but compressive
stresses developed at the surfaces of two different materials
Or “Compressive force divided by characteristic area perpendicular to
it”

𝒅
P
𝒕
P
Shearing Stresses:
Two forces, equal and opposite in nature,
when act tangential to the resisting section,
as a result of which the body shear off across
the section is known as Shear Stress.

34
 TYPE OF JOINTS
1. LAP JOINT: P
• It is the least efficient joint
P
as the lines of action of two
forces are not same.
• In lap joints, the rivets are
subjected to single shear P P
and bearing.
• These forces form couple
and additional bending
stresses are developed in
the rivets

35
2. BUTT JOINT
TYPE OF JOINTS
• SINGLE COVER BUTT JOINT:
➢ The line of action of two forces is same therefore eccentricity is
eliminated completely which existed in Lap Joint hence this joint
is more efficient in carrying the force as compared to lap joint.
➢ But the connection is not symmetrical
➢ The rivets are subjected to single shear and bearing.
➢ tcover ≥ tmain (so that the joint does not fail)
COVER PLATE

MAIN PLATE
P P

36
 TYPE OF JOINTS
2. BUTT JOINT
• DOUBLE COVER BUTT JOINT:
➢ It is the most efficient joint because the line of action of two
forces is same and connection is symmetrical w.r.t applied
load.
➢ The rivets are subjected to double shear and bearing.
➢ Sum of thickness of cover plate ≥ tmain

COVER PLATE

MAIN PLATE
P P

37
 CONNECTIONS
• In steel structure, various types of elements are connected together
using various types of connections like:
1. Riveted connections
2. Bolted connections
3. Welded connections

38
 Strength of Plate
Section 1-1 → Tearing strength of plate
Section 2-2 → Bearing strength of plate
Section 3-3 → Shear strength of plate
2 1

P
3 3
P

2 1
39
 Failure of Rivetted Joint
𝑭𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒕𝒔
1. Shearing Failure of Rivets
• In a shearing failure, Rivet gets cut into two or more pieces

2. Bearing failure of Rivet

• In a bearing failure, rivet cross section changes from circular
to elliptical

40
 Failure of Rivetted Joint
𝑭𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔
1. Shearing Failure of Plate P P
• In this failure, cracks are developed parallel to
the applied forces direction
2. Splitting failure of Plate P
• Splitting failure occur due to diagonal tension P
in the plate at the rivet level
3. Bearing Failure of the plate
• This plate is pushed forward by the rivet. This
type of failure occurs generally due to P P
insufficient end distance
4. Tearing/Tension Failure of the plate
• The cracks are developed perpendicular to the
direction of applied force P
41
 Failure of Plate
NOTE –
i. Shear, bearing and splitting failure of 2 1
plate are due to insufficient end distance.
ii. By providing the proper end distance,
these three failure can be prevented. P
3 3
iii. In the design of riveted joint which P
should consider the remaining three
failure only, i.e., Shear and Bearing
failure of rivets and Tearing failure of 2 1
plate.
iv. In the design of riveted joint, we have to
ensure that, shear strength and bearing
strength of rivets is more than the
tearing strength of plate because rivet
failure is more dangerous than the plate
failure.
42
 Strength of Revited Joint
• Plate
• Shearing
• Bearing Insufficient End Distance

• Splitting
• Tearing
• Rivet
• Shearing
• Bearing

43
 CONNECTIONS
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• In the Riveted connection, rivets are inserted in the hole
made to join the two members together and hammering is
done to make head on other side.
head

shank

• Rivets are made of mild steel. The riveting can be hot

riveting (or) cold riveting.
• Cold riveting is not adopted for dia > 10 mm.
• In cold riveting there is no gripping action but strength is
better due to cold working.
44
 CONNECTIONS
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• When hot rivet is used, it becomes plastic, it expands
and fill the rivet hole completely in the process of
forming a head at the other end. On cooling, the rivet
shrinks in the length and diameter due to shortening
of rivet shank length.
• The connected part becomes lighter consequently
resulting in tension of unpredictable amount in a
shank length and some compression in plates that are
connected
• Due to reduction of diameter of shank on cooling, this
small amount of space available on cooling is
provided for temperature variation of unpredictable
amount

45
 CONNECTIONS
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• In hot riveting, rivets are heated to 550–1000°C and
hammering is done on other side to make head.
According to the type of hammering we have
i. Power driven rivets
ii. Hand driven rivets
• Power driven rivets have better quality control and hence have a
higher permissible stress.
• Riveting can be done in the factory (or) in the field and
accordingly in these hop riveting & field riveting thus we have;
i. Power shop rivets
ii. Power driven field rivets
iii. Hand driven field rivets
Note: For shop rivet
For field rivet

46
 CONNECTIONS
i. Power shop rivets
ii. Power driven field rivets
iii. Hand driven field rivets

N/mm2 Axial Shearing Bearing

Tension
PDS 100 100 300
PDF 90 90 270
HDF 80 80 250

47
 CONNECTIONS
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS: 𝟏. 𝟔 ∅
• The nominal dia of rivet is said to be shank head
dia under cold condition, and gross dia of 𝟎. 𝟕∅
rivet is taken as dia of hole. ∅ = 𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒂
• The strength of a rivet is based on its gross shank
diameter under the assumption that rivet
fills the hole completely.
• For ease in connection dia of hole is taken
larger than nominal dia of rivet thus as per
IS: code: ∅
• For nominal dia ≤ 25 mm
• Gross dia = nominal dia + 1.5 mm,
𝒅𝒊𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 = ∅ + 𝟏. 𝟓
• For nominal dia > 25 mm
• Gross dia = nominal dia + 2 mm,
𝒅𝒊𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 = ∅ + 𝟐
48
 CONNECTIONS
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• Due to many demerits, riveted connection is not in
practice in modern steel instruction.
• Design of Riveted connection is same as that of
bolted connection but with the following differences:
• The diameter of rivet to be used in the calculation is
dia of hole, whereas for Bolted connection it is the
nominal dia.
• The design stresses are different (IS : 800 : 1984) the
permissible stress are reduced for bolts.

49
 CONNECTIONS
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• Strength of riveted joint
• It is taken as minimum of shear strength, bearing strength and tearing
strength.
• FOR LAP JOINT:
1. FOR ENTIRE PLATE
a) SHEAR STRENGTH OF RIVETS P B P
𝝅 𝟐
𝑷𝒔 = 𝒏 × 𝒅 𝑭𝒔
𝟒
Where n → total number of rivets at joint
Fs → permissible shear stress in rivets
Fs = 100MPa (WSM)
Fu = ultimate shear stress in rivet
𝑭𝒖
so in LSM =
 1.25
𝟑
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter)
Gross dia = nominal dia + 1.5 mm, for nominal dia ≤ 25 mm
Gross dia = nominal dia + 2 mm, for nominal dia > 25 mm
50
 CONNECTIONS 1
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• FOR LAP JOINT:
1. FOR ENTIRE LENGTH P B P
b) BEARING STRENGTH OF ALL RIVETS
𝑷𝑩 = 𝒏 × 𝒕𝒅 𝑭𝒃
1
Where n → total number of rivets at joint
t → thickness of thinner main plate
Fb → permissible shear stress in rivets (300MPa in WSM)
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter)
Gross dia = nominal dia + 1.5 mm, for nominal dia ≤ 25 mm
Gross dia = nominal dia + 2 mm, for nominal dia > 25 mm
c) TEARING STRENGTH OF PLATE
𝑷𝒕 = 𝑩 − 𝒏𝟏𝒅 𝒕𝑭𝒕 B
Where n1 → total number of rivets at critical section 1-1
t → thickness of thinner main plate
B → width of plate
Ft → permissible tensile stress in rivets (Axial = 0.6fy = 0.6250 = 150MPa) 1 1
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter)
Gross dia = nominal dia + 1.5 mm, for nominal dia ≤ 25 mm
Gross dia = nominal dia + 2 mm, for nominal dia > 25 mm
51
 CONNECTIONS
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS: 1
• LAP JOINT:
2. FOR GAUGE LENGTH/PITCH LENGTH P g P
a) SHEAR STRENGTH OF RIVETS
𝝅 𝟐
𝑷𝒔𝟏 = 𝒏 × 𝒅 𝑭𝒔
𝟒
1
Where n → total number of rivets at joint in crossed gauge
length
Fs → permissible shear stress in rivets
Fs = 100MPa (WSM)
Fu = ultimate shear stress in rivet so in
𝑭𝒖
LSM =
 1.25
𝟑
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter)
Gross dia = nominal dia + 1.5 mm, for nominal dia ≤ 25 mm
Gross dia = nominal dia + 2 mm, for nominal dia > 25 mm

52
 CONNECTIONS
1 SECOND PLATE
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• LAP JOINT: P g P
2. FOR GAUGE LENGTH/PITCH LENGTH
b) BEARING STRENGTH OF RIVETS
𝑷𝑩𝟏 = 𝒏𝟏 × 𝒕𝒅 𝑭𝐛 FIRST PLATE
Where n → total number of rivets at joint in crossed gauge length 1
t → thickness of thinner main plate
Fb → permissible shear stress in rivets (300MPa in WSM)
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter)

c) TEARING STRENGTH OF PLATE

𝑷𝒕𝟏 = 𝒈 − 𝒅 𝒕𝑭𝒕 B
Where g → gauge length
t → thickness of thinner main plate
Ft → permissible tensile stress in rivets (Axial = 0.6fy = 0.6250 = 150MPa)
1 1
When pitch distance is given then
𝑷𝒕 = 𝑷 − 𝒅 𝒕𝑭𝒕
g
53
 CONNECTIONS

MAIN PLATE
P P
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• DOUBLE COVER BUTT JOINT:
1. FOR ENTIRE WIDTH OF PLATE
• SHEAR STRENGTH OF RIVETS
𝝅 𝟐
𝑷𝒔𝟏 = 𝟐𝒏𝟏 × 𝒅 𝑭𝒔
𝟒
Where n → total number of rivets at joint
Fs → permissible shear stress in rivets
Fs = 100MPa (WSM) 1
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter)
2 → Double shear P B P

1
54
 CONNECTIONS
MAIN PLATE
P P
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• DOUBLE COVER BUTT JOINT:
1. FOR ENTIRE WIDTH OF PLATE
• BEARING STRENGTH OF RIVETS
𝑷𝑩 = 𝒏 × 𝒕𝒅 𝑭𝒃
Where n → total number of rivets at joint
t → min of (thickness of thinner main plate,
sum of cover plate thickness)

1
Fb → permissible bearing stress in rivets
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter)
P B P

1
55
 CONNECTIONS
MAIN PLATE
P

1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• DOUBLE COVER BUTT JOINT:
1. FOR ENTIRE WIDTH OF PLATE
• TEARING STRENGTH OF PLATES
𝑷𝒕 = 𝑩 − 𝒏𝟏𝒅 𝒕𝑭𝒕
Where n1 → total number of rivets at critical section 1-1
t → min of (thickness of thinner main plate,
sum of cover plate thickness) 1
B → width of plate
Ft → permissible tensile stress in rivets
P
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter) B P

1
56
 CONNECTIONS
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS: 1
• DOUBLE COVER BUTT JOINT:
2. FOR GAUGE LENGTH P g P
B
a) SHEAR STRENGTH OF RIVETS
𝝅 𝟐
𝑷𝒔𝟏 = 𝟐 × 𝒏 × 𝒅 𝑭𝒔
𝟒
1
Where n → total number of rivets at joint in crossed gauge
length (here 2)
Fs → permissible shear stress in rivets
Fs = 100MPa (WSM)
Fu = ultimate shear stress in rivet so in
𝑭𝒖
LSM =
𝟑  1.25
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter)

57
 CONNECTIONS
1
1. RIVETED CONNECTIONS:
• DOUBLE COVER BUTT JOINT: P g P
2. FOR GAUGE LENGTH/PITCH LENGTH
b) BEARING STRENGTH OF RIVETS
𝑷𝑩𝟏 = 𝒏𝟏 × 𝒕𝒅 𝑭𝐛
1
Where n → total number of rivets at joint in crossed gauge length
t → min (thickness of thinner main plate, sum of cover plate thickness)
Fb → permissible shear stress in rivets (300MPa in WSM)
d → gross diameter of rivet (hole diameter)

c) TEARING STRENGTH OF PLATE

𝑷𝒕𝟏 = 𝒈 − 𝒏𝟏𝒅 𝒕𝑭𝒕
Where g → gauge length
t → thickness of thinner main plate
Ft → permissible tensile stress in rivets (Axial = 0.6fy = 0.6250 = 150MPa)
n → total number of rivets at in critical section 1-1 in crossed gauge length (here 1)

58
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
• Number of Rivets required at a joint=
𝑅𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹
𝑛=
𝑅𝑣
• Efficiency of joint
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑃𝑠 , 𝑃𝑏 , 𝑃𝑡
𝜂= × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑃𝑠 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑃𝑏 = 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

59
• Efficiency for entire plate
• We have to ensure that 𝑃𝑡 is less because rivet failure is more dangerous
• For Entire PLATE:
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑃𝑠 , 𝑃𝑏 , 𝑃𝑡
𝜂= × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐵 − 𝑛1 𝑑 × 𝑡 × 𝐹𝑡
⇒𝜂= × 100
𝐵 × 𝑡 × 𝐹𝑡

𝐵 − 𝑛1 𝑑
⇒𝜂= × 100
𝐵
For Gauge Length:
𝑔 − 𝑑 × 𝑡 × 𝐹𝑡
⇒𝜂= × 100
𝑔 × 𝑡 × 𝐹𝑡
𝑔−𝑑
⇒𝜂= × 100
𝑔

60
 Arrangement of Rivets
Rivets in a riveted joint are arranged in two forms, namely,
1. Chain riveting, 2. Diamond riveting.

61
 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
P
• In chain riveting the rivets are
arranged as shown
• 1-1, 2-2 and 3-3 shows sections on
either side of the joint P
• Section 1-1 is the critical section for 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
Main plate
• Section 3-3 is the critical section for
Cover plate
• Critical Section for main plate will
be outer most section
• Critical Section for cover plate will
be inner most section
• Strength for main plate
• 𝑷𝟏−𝟏 = (𝑩 − 𝟑𝒅) × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕
• 𝑷𝟐−𝟐 = 𝑩 − 𝟑𝒅 × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕 + 𝟑𝑹𝒗
• 𝑷𝟑−𝟑 = 𝑩 − 𝟑𝒅 × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕 + 𝟔𝑹𝒗

62
• In Diamond pattern of riveting,
section 1-1, section 2-2 and so on
has to be checked for main plate in
carrying a required load, but for
cover plate the last section is
checked for carrying a required load
• Strength for main plate
• 𝑷𝟏−𝟏 = (𝑩 − 𝒅) × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕
• 𝑷𝟐−𝟐 = 𝑩 − 𝟐𝒅 × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕 + 𝑹𝒗
• 𝑷𝟑−𝟑 = 𝑩 − 𝟑𝒅 × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕 + 𝟑𝑹𝒗
• Strength for cover plate
• 𝑷𝟑−𝟑 = (𝑩 − 𝟑𝒅) × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕
• 𝑷𝟐−𝟐 = 𝑩 − 𝟐𝒅 × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕 + 𝟑𝑹𝒗

63
• In Triangular Square Pattern of
Riveting, section 1-1 and the
section 2-2 is checked for main
plate in carrying a required load
• And for cover plate, 4-4 (main
plate) or first section for cover
plate is supposed to be checked
for cover plate , also section 3-3
and 2-2 is also checked for safety
• Strength for main plate
• 𝑷𝟏−𝟏 = (𝑩 − 𝒅) × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕
• 𝑷𝟐−𝟐 = 𝑩 − 𝟐𝒅 × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕 + 𝑹𝒗
• 𝑷𝟑−𝟑 = 𝑩 − 𝟐𝒅 × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕 + 𝟑𝑹𝒗
• 𝑷𝟒−𝟒 = 𝑩 − 𝒅 × 𝒕 × 𝑭𝒕 + 𝟓𝑹𝒗
64
 SPECIFICATIONS AS PER IS 800 - 1984
• MINIMUM END AND EDGE DISTANCE
• This recommendation is provided to prevent three types of
failure in plates:
i. Splitting failure of plate
ii. Shearing failure of plate
iii. Bearing failure of plate
• Edge distance and end distance(minimum)
• = 1.5  gross dia of rivet (machine cut element)
• The above provision is valid for the end distance and edge
distance is done by machine cut element.

65
 SPECIFICATIONS AS PER IS 800 - 1984
• MINIMUM END AND EDGE DISTANCE
• Edge distance and end distance(minimum)
• = 1.7  gross dia of rivet (hand driven elements)
• The above provision is valid for the end distance and
edge distance is done by hand driven elements.
• But for analysis and design purpose, we adopt edge
distance and end distance(minimum)
• = 2.0 gross dia of rivet.

66
 SPECIFICATIONS AS PER IS 800 - 1984
• PITCH
• Minimum pitch of rivet is 2.5  nominal dia of rivet.
• Maximum pitch of rivet or weld
• IN COMPRESSION
• The maximum pitch provision is provided to ensure the
prevention of buckling between the connections
• Maximum pitch = min(12t or 200mm) where t is thickness for
thinner plate
• IN TENSION
• The maximum pitch provision is provided to ensure the
prevention of separation of plates between the connections
• Maximum pitch = min(16t or 200mm) where t is thickness for
thinner plate

67
 SPECIFICATIONS AS PER IS 800 - 1984

• NOTE :
• If the rivets are staggered (not in the same line)and of the
gauge distance smaller than 75mm, then above
recommended values in compression and tension zone for
maximum pitch are increased by 50%, i.e.,
• For compression –
• Maximum pitch = 18t or 300mm (minimum of the two)
• For tension –
• Maximum pitch = 24t or 300mm (minimum of the two)

68
SPECIFICATIONS AS PER IS 800 - 1984
• Gauge length (g) should not be more than 𝟏𝟎𝟎 +
𝟒𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
• Maximum Edge distance should not exceed 𝟏𝟐𝝉𝜺
𝟐𝟓𝟎
Where 𝜺 = 𝒇𝒚
• When the member are exposed to corrosion, then
maximum edge distance should not be greater than
𝟒𝟎 + 𝟒𝒕

69
 TACK RIVETS
• They are the rivets used to make the structural
component as a single unit.
• They don’t carry any load because we consider
tack rivets not as a structural unit i.e., provided at
the location of gussete plate.
• The maximum pitch provided in the case of tack
rivet when two angle sections are placed back to
back to gussete plate as STRUCTURAL RIVETS TACK RIVETS
• 1000mm in case of tension
• Less than 600mm in case of compression
• The above recommendations are valid for both
angle and channel section. gussete plate filler plate
• When two plates are attached to a gussete plate
back to back, then the maximum pitch is taken as
• 32t or 300mm (whichever is minimum)

70
 Unwin’s formula
• It is used when diameter of rivet is not known
∅ = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟒 𝒕
Where t is thickness of thinner plate

71
Que: A 12mm thick plate is connected to two 8mm plate on either side
through 16mm diameter of rivet. Fs=90MPa, Fb=250kN, F=250kN. Find
number of rivets required to resist the load? 8mm

12mm

72
Que: A 12mm thick plate is connected to two 8mm plate on either
side through 16mm diameter of rivet. fs=90MPa, fb=250kN,
F=250kN. Find number of rivets required to resist the load?

Gross dia d=16+1.5 =17.5mm

𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝑠 = 2 × × 𝑑2 × 𝑓𝑠 = 2 × × (17.5)2 × 90 = 43273 N or 43.273 kN
4 4

𝑃𝑏 = 𝑑 × 𝑡 × 𝑓𝑏 = 17.5 × 12 × 270
= 56.7kN

𝑅𝑣 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑏 = 43.273 𝑘𝑁 8mm

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑛=
43.272 12mm

250
⇒𝑛 = = 5.77 𝑖. 𝑒. 6 𝑅𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑠
43.272
73
Que. A 6mm thick angle section is jointed to a 10mm thick gusset plate,
the angle is supporting a load of 55kN. Find out the number of rivets
for 16mm dia power driven rivet.

74
Que. A 6mm thick angle section is jointed to a 10mm thick gusset plate,
the angle is supporting a load of 55kN. Find out the number of rivets
for 16mm dia power driven rivet.
Sol.
d = 16+1.5 = 17.5mm (25mm)
𝝅
𝑷𝒔 = 𝒅𝟐𝑭𝒔
𝟒
𝝅
𝑷𝒔 =  𝟏𝟕. 𝟓 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟎𝟐𝒌𝑵
𝟒
𝑷𝒃 = 𝒕𝒅𝑭𝒃
𝑷𝒃 = 𝟔𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 31.5kN
RIVET VALUE = minimum of 𝑷𝒔 and 𝑷𝒃 = 24.02kN
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 55
n= = = 2.28  3
𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 24.02

75
Que. The maximum c/c distance b/w rivet in a direction parallel to
force in a tension member of thickness t=10mm.

76
Que. The maximum c/c distance b/w rivet in a direction parallel to
force in a tension member of thickness t=10mm.
Sol. Maximum pitch = 16t or 200mm
= 16  10 or 200mm
= 160mm or 200mm
Hence maximum c/c distance b/w rivets =160mm

77
NOTE:
1. For field rivet, the permissible stress is reduced by 10%.
2. The permissible stress in rivet under wind load condition as per
IS800 can be increased by 25%.
3. The permissible stress in rivet under wind and earthquake load
condition as per IS800 can be increased by 25%.
4. When thickness of cover plate is not given, then the thickness of
𝟓
cover plate should not be ≮ 𝒕𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏(𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓)
𝟖

78
ASSUMPTIONS IN DESIGN OF RIVETED JOINT
1. The applied axial load is assumed to be shared by all the
rivets equally.
2. The tensile stress(0.6𝒇𝒚 ), shear stress(0.4𝒇𝒚 ) and bearing
stress at their respective centres are assumed to be uniform.
3. The effect of bending stress is neglected.
4. Grip length is the sum of thickness of two plates
1. Grip length 𝒍𝒈 ≯ 5 (LSM)
2. Grip length 𝒍𝒈 ≯ 8 (WSM)
5. The friction force b/w the plates is neglected.
6. 𝒈 − 𝒅 𝒕𝑭𝒕  n𝑹𝒗 (MOST IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION)
79
 CONNECTIONS
2. BOLTED CONNECTIONS:
• A bolt is a metal pin with a head at one end and a
shank threaded at the other end to receive a nut.
• Various type of Bolts are: Shank area (Asb)
• Black bolt / ordinary bolt/ unfinished bolts
• It is the least expensive bolts, used for light structures
subjected to static loads and for secondary members such
as purlins, bracings etc.
• They are not recommended for connections subjected to
impact load, vibration and fatigue.
• The bolts are available from 5 mm to 36 mm in diameter Area at the root of
and are designated as M 5 to M 36 thread (Anb=0.78 Asb)
• Bolt of property class 4.6 means :
i) Ultimate strength of bolt (fub) = 400 MPa
ii) Yield strength of bolt (fyb)= 0.6×400 = 240Mpa

80
 CONNECTIONS
2. BOLTED CONNECTIONS:
• Various type of Bolts are:
• Turned bolts / Close tolerance bolts
• It has small tolerances and are used in no slip connection. They are mainly
used machines and under dynamic loading conditions.
• High Strength bolts
• They are available from 16 mm to 36 mm in diameter.
• The most commonly used bolts are of 8.8s (or) 10.9s property class, where ‘s’
stands for high strength.
• This bolts may be tightened until they have many high tensile stresses so that
the connected parts are tightly clamped together between the bolt head and
nut and friction develops between the plate surfaces subjected to clamping
force.
• The high strength bolts with specified initial tension are known as High
Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) Bolt.

81
 TYPES OF BOLTED JOINTS
1. Lap joint
1. Single bolted lap joint
2. Double bolted lap joint

2. Butt joint
1. Double cover single bolted butt joint
2. Double cover double bolted butt joint
3. Single cover single bolted butt joint

82
 TYPES OF BOLTED JOINTS
1. Lap joint
1. Single bolted lap joint

e – eccentricity of lap joint

83
 TYPES OF BOLTED JOINTS
1. Lap joint
2. Double bolted lap joint

e – eccentricity of lap joint

84
 TYPES OF BOLTED JOINTS
2. Butt joint
1. Double cover single bolted butt
joint

85
 TYPES OF BOLTED JOINTS
2. Butt joint
2. Double cover double bolted
butt joint

86
 TYPES OF BOLTED JOINTS
2. Butt joint
3. Single cover single bolted butt
joint

87
 TYPES OF BOLTED JOINTS
• Double cover butt joint eliminates the eccentricity hence bending
is eliminated.
• The load in the lap joint has eccentricity hence a couple is formed
which causes undesirable bending in the connection and bolts may
fail in tension.
• To minimize the effect of bending in lap joints atleast two bolts in a
line must be provided.

88
 LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM
• Load transfer from one connected part to another depends
on the type of connection.
• In bearing type connection, using ordinary bolts, the load transfer
is by shearing and bearing.
• In slip critical/slip resistant connection, using HSFG bolts, the load
transfer is by friction.

89
 LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM
• Transfer of forces in lap joint and butt joint
1. Lap joint, bolts are in single shear

bearing
shearing
P bearing
P
shearing
P P
bearing P
P

bearing

90
 LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM
• Transfer of forces in lap joint and butt joint
2. Butt joint, bolts are in double shear

P/2 P/2 Shear plane

P P P/2
P Shear plane
P/2
P/2
P/2 Shear plane

91
 LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM

• Transfer of forces in lap joint and butt joint

• Bolts with single shear plane and double shear plane are called
‘single shear bolt and double shear bolt’ respectively.
• Shear capacity of a bolt in a double cover butt joint is double that
of a bolt in a lap joint because of two shear planes.

92
 FAILURE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
1. Shear failure of bolts

2. Shear failure of plate

P P

93
 FAILURE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
3. Bearing failure of bolts

4. Bearing failure of plate

P P

94
 FAILURE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
5. Tension failure of bolts

6. Tension failure of plate

P P

95
FAILURE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
7. Block shear failure
• It is a limit state that
combines tension failure on
P one plane and shear
failure on another plane
• Block shear failure may
Shear Failure
occur when material
bearing strength and bolt
shear strength is high

P
Tension Failure

96
 SPECIFICATIONS OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
1. Diameter of bolt holes
• Under normal situation, dia of bolt hole is made larger than the shank area to
facilitate erection.

NOMINAL DIA 12mm 14mm 16mm 20mm 24mm 30mm 36mm

OF BOLT
DIA OF HOLE 13mm 15mm 18mm 22mm 26mm 33mm 39mm

+1 mm +2 mm +3 mm

97
 SPECIFICATIONS OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
2. PITCH(p) AND GAUGE(g)
• Minimum pitch and gauge = 2.5d
• Where d is nominal dia of bolt
• Pitch is the distance between two consecutive
bolts in the direction of force
• Gauge is the distance between two consecutive
bolts perpendicular to the direction of force P P
g
• Bolts are kept apart at a sufficient distance and a p
minimum pitch is ensured due to:
• To prevent bearing failure of members between the
two bolts.
• To permit effective installation of bolts.

98
 SPECIFICATIONS OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
2. PITCH(p) AND GAUGE(g)
• Maximum pitch:
• It is desirable to place the bolts sufficiently close
together for the following reasons:
• To reduce the length of connection & gusset plate
i.e., to have a compact joint.
• To have uniform stress in the bolts.
P P
• Note: *p
* For wide plates, pitch is defined as centre to centre
distance of bolts measured along the length of the *g
connection

99
SPECIFICATIONS OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
1. For tension member
• 𝒑 ≯ 𝟏𝟔𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
2. For compression member
• 𝒑 ≯ 𝟏𝟐𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
3. For rows near the edge
• 𝒑 ≯ 𝟒𝒕 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
4. Staggered pitch
• When the gauge does not exceed 75mm, the pitches in 1.,2. and
3. may be increased by 50% when bolts are regularly staggered.
5. Maximum gauge
• 𝒈 ≯ 𝟑𝟐𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
100
 SPECIFICATIONS OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS

2. PITCH(p) AND GAUGE(g)

• Maximum pitch:
• It is assumed that the load on the joint is shared
equally among all the bolts, in short length joints
the force in the bolts will be redistributed by P P
plastic action and hence the bolt will share load
equally. g
p
• However in long joints (> 15 times dia of both)
the shear deformation is not uniform.
• The bolts at the ends of the joints are heavily
stressed resulting in a progressive failure called
“unbuttoning.” Thus a compact joint is desirable

101
SPECIFICATIONS OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
𝒆𝟐 - edge distance
3. EDGE AND END DISTANCE 𝒆𝟏 - end distance
• Distance from the centre of bolt hole to the
adjacent edge of the member at right
angles to the direction of stress is called
edge distance.
• Distance from the centre of bolt hole to the P P
adjacent edge of the member in the 𝒆𝟏
direction of stress is called end distance.
• Bolt holes should not be placed too near 𝒆𝟐
the edges due to:
• The failure of plate in tension may take place
• The steel of the plate opposite to the hole may
bulge and crack.

102
SPECIFICATIONS OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
𝒆𝟐 - edge distance
3. EDGE AND END DISTANCE 𝒆𝟏 - end distance
• Minimum end or edge distance = 1.7𝒅𝟎
(for sheared or hand flame cut edges)
• Minimum end or edge distance = 1.5𝒅𝟎
(for machine cut and plained edges)
Here 𝒅𝟎 is dia of bolt hole P
P
• Maximum end or edge distance = 12t𝜺 𝒆𝟏
Where t is thickness of thinner plate
𝒆𝟐
𝟐𝟓𝟎
And 𝜺 is equal to
𝒇𝒚

• When the members are exposed to corrosive

environment, maximum edge distance
• MAXIMUM EDGE DISTANCE≯ 𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒎 + 𝟒𝒕
103
 TACKING BOLTS
• Maximum pitch = 32t or 300mm
(When plates are not exposed to weather)
• Maximum pitch = 16t or 200mm
(When plates are exposed to weather)
• For two members placed back to back, the maximum
pitch of tacking bolts ≯ 1000mm

104
 ASSUMPTIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE
BOLTED JOINTS
1. Friction between the plates is neglected and load is
resisted by bolts, in bearing and shearing.
2. In case of bolts if threads occurs in the plane of
shear, the effective area resisting shear is taken as
the area at the root of thread. However if threads
do not occur in plane of shear, effective area is the
cross-section area of the shank.
3. The applied load is equally resisted by all the bolts.
4. Distribution of stress on the portion of plate
between the bolt holes is uniform, i.e., stress
concentration around the holes is neglected.
5. This assumption is made for ease in calculation,
However at the time of collapse this assumption
would be actually valid:
• The bending stress in the bolt is neglected.
• Bearing stress is assumed to be uniform over the nominal
contact area between the plate and the bolts.

105
 STRENGTH OF BOLT IN BEARING TYPE
CONNECTION
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ቊ
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑽𝒅𝒔𝒃
𝑽𝒅𝒃 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏 ቊ𝑽
𝒅𝒑𝒃 Nominal shear strength of bolt 𝑽𝒏𝒔𝒃
𝑽𝒏𝒔𝒃 Nominal bearing strength of bolt 𝑽𝒏𝒑𝒃
𝑽𝒅𝒔𝒃 =
𝜸𝒎𝒃
𝑽𝒏𝒑𝒃 Partial safety factor for material 𝜸𝒎𝒃 =1.25
𝑽𝒅𝒑𝒃 = Factor shear load in one bolt 𝑽𝒔𝒃
𝜸𝒎𝒃
for safety, 𝑽𝒔𝒃 ≤ 𝑽𝒅𝒃(also called bolt value)

106
 STRENGTH OF BOLT IN BEARING TYPE
CONNECTION
A. Shear strength of bolt
𝒇𝒖𝒃
𝑽𝒅𝒔𝒃 = 𝒏𝒏 𝑨𝒏𝒃 + 𝒏𝒔 𝑨𝒔𝒃 𝑩𝒍𝒋 𝑩𝒍𝒈 𝑩𝒑𝒌
𝟑𝜸𝒎𝒃
where
𝑨𝒏𝒃 is Net tensile area of bolt (𝒐𝒓) Area at the root of thread
𝑨𝒏𝒃 = 0.78𝑨𝒔𝒃
𝑨𝒔𝒃 is nominal shank area of the bolt
𝒏𝒏 is no. of shear planes with threads intercepting the shear plane
𝒏𝒔 is no. of shear planes without threads intercepting the shear plane
𝒇𝒖𝒃 is ultimate strength of bolt
𝜸𝒎𝒃 = 1.25
𝑩𝒍𝒋 𝑩𝒍𝒈 𝑩𝒑𝒌 are Reduction factors taking into the effect of long joints, large grip
length & packing plates.

107
 STRENGTH OF BOLT IN BEARING TYPE
CONNECTION
1. FOR SINGLE SHEAR CASE:
𝒇𝒖𝒃
𝑽𝒅𝒔𝒃 = 𝟏𝑨𝒏𝒃
𝟑  𝟏.𝟐𝟓
Unless specified 𝑽𝒅𝒔𝒃 would be calculated corresponding to
shear plane intercepting the thread.
2. FOR DOUBLE SHEAR CASE
𝒇𝒖𝒃
𝑽𝒅𝒔𝒃 = 𝟏𝑨𝒏𝒃 + 𝟏𝑨𝒔𝒃
𝟑𝜸𝒎𝒃
Under the assumption that one of the shear plane is
intercepting the root of thread and other is intercepting the
shank.
108
 STRENGTH OF BOLT IN BEARING TYPE
CONNECTION
B. Bearing strength of bolt
𝑽𝒏𝒑𝒃
𝑽𝒅𝒑𝒃 = 𝜸𝒎𝒃
𝟐. 𝟓𝒌𝒃 × 𝒅 × 𝒕 × 𝒇𝒖
𝑽𝒅𝒑𝒃 =
𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
Where d is nominal dia of bolt
t is summation of thickness of plate elements experiencing bearing in
same direction
2.5 is constant whose value corresponds to hole elongation about 6mm
𝒆 𝒑 𝒇
𝒌𝒃 is minimum of , - 0.25 , 𝒖𝒃 and 1
𝟑𝒅𝟎 𝟑𝒅𝟎 𝒇𝒖
Where e is end distance
p is pitch
𝒅𝟎 is dia of bolt hole
𝒇𝒖𝒃 is ultimate strength of bolt
𝒇𝒖 is ultimate strength of plate

109
 STRENGTH OF BOLT IN BEARING TYPE
CONNECTION
B. Bearing strength of bolt
• Bearing failure in the bolts is possible only if the bolts used are of
very low grade and plate joint are of high grade which is not
possible.
• Therefore the bearing strength of bolted connection is a function
of strength of connected plate and the arrangement of bolts
rather than grade of bolts.
• The bearing strength is also a function of bolt hole. The bearing
strength calculated above is for standard bolt holes, for oversized
and short slotted holes it is 0.7 times the bearing strength and for
slotted holes it is 0.5 times the bearing strength

110
 STRENGTH OF BOLT IN BEARING TYPE
CONNECTION
C. Tensile strength of bolt
𝑇𝑛𝑏 0.9 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑛𝑏
𝑇𝑑𝑏 = =
𝛾𝑚𝑏 1.25
Where 𝐴𝑛𝑏 → net tensile area of bolt = 0.78 𝐴𝑠𝑏
𝑓𝑦𝑏 𝐴𝑠𝑏
𝑇𝑑𝑏 <
𝛾𝑚𝑜
𝛾𝑚𝑜 = 1.1

111
 DESIGN STRENGTH OF PLATE
The plate may fail by :
1. Shearing of plate
• It can be avoided by keeping sufficient edge distance

2. Yielding of plate
• For gross section yielding
𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒈
• 𝑻𝒅𝒈 = 𝜸𝒎𝒐
where 𝜸𝒎𝒐 = 1.1
𝑻𝒅𝒈 = design tensile strength in gross section
yielding
𝑨𝒈 = gross area of solid plate
112
 DESIGN STRENGTH OF PLATE
The plate may fail by :
3. Rupture of plate
• For net section rupture
𝟎.𝟗 𝒇𝒖 𝑨𝒏
• 𝑻𝒅𝒏 = 𝜸𝒎𝟏
𝑻𝒅𝒏 = design tensile strength in rupture
𝑨𝒏 = effective net area of section
Factor 0.9 is introduced as there is no reserve
strength beyond ultimate strength

113
 DESIGN STRENGTH OF PLATE
The plate may fail by :
4. Block shear failure
• When a block of material within the bolted
area breaks away from the remainder portion
of the section, the failure is termed as BLOCK
SHEAR FAILURE.
• This occurs along a path involving tension in
one plane and shear on a perpendicular
plane.
• For the block shear failure to occur, one of the
surface(stronger one) fractures while the
other yields.
• Yielding occurs on gross area while fracture
on net area.
114
 DESIGN STRENGTH OF PLATE
The plate may fail by :
4. Block shear failure
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒖𝒑𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑻𝒅𝒃 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏 ቊ
𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒓𝒖𝒑𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒗𝒈 𝟎.𝟗𝒇𝒖 𝑨𝒕𝒏
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒖𝒑𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = +
𝟑𝜸𝒎𝒐 𝜸𝒎𝟏
𝟎.𝟗𝒇𝒖 𝑨𝒗𝒏 𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒕𝒈
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒓𝒖𝒑𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = +
𝟑𝜸𝒎𝟏 𝜸𝒎𝒐

• Block shear failure occurs in joints made with high strength bolts,
where few bolts are required for making the connection.
• When sufficient end distance is not provided, plates may shear out.115
 CONNECTIONS
3. WELDED CONNECTIONS:
1. Butt weld
• This type of weld is used when the members are in
same plane.
• Butt weld is also termed as groove weld.
• The butt weld is used to join structural members
carrying direct compression or tension.
• It is used to make tee-joint and butt-joint.

116
 CONNECTIONS
3. WELDED CONNECTIONS: 𝑨 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝒕𝒕 )
2. FILLET WELD
𝑫 𝒕𝒐𝒆
• This type of weld is used when the Size or leg of weld
members to be connected overlap each
other. 𝑪
• A fillet weld is a weld of approximately
𝑩
triangular cross section joining two Size or leg of weld
surfaces approximately as right angles
to each other in lap joint or tee joint.
• The part of weld which is assumed to be
assumed to be effective in transferring
the stress is called Throat 𝑨
• It is assumed that fillet weld always
offers resistance in the form of the 𝑫
shear
• The design of only is done only for shear
in fillet weld 𝑩 𝑪
𝑨𝑩 𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝑪 = 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅
𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅
𝑩𝑫 = 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝒕𝒕 )
117
 CONNECTIONS
3. WELDED CONNECTIONS: 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝒕𝒕 )
2. FILLET WELD 𝑨
• The effective length of fillet weld should not be 𝑫 𝒕𝒐𝒆
(𝒔) Size or leg of weld
less than 𝟒 × 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅(𝒔) i.e.
• 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟒 × 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅(𝒔)
𝑩 𝑪
• The size of normal fillets shall be taken as the
minimum weld leg size. Size or leg of weld
• Fillet weld should not be used if the angle
between fusion faces is less than 60° and greater
than and greater than 120° or we can say
• In weld, angle should be between 60° to 120°
• 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒕 = 𝐊 × 𝒔(𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅) 𝑨
• 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑲 × 𝒔
𝑫

𝑩 𝑪
𝑨𝑩 𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝑪 = 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅
𝑩𝑫 = 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝒕𝒕 )
118
 CONNECTIONS
3. WELDED CONNECTIONS: 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝒕𝒕 )
2. FILLET WELD 𝑨
• 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒕 = 𝐊 × 𝒔(𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅) 𝑫 𝒕𝒐𝒆
(𝒔) Size or leg of weld
• 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑲 × 𝒔
• If only size of weld is given, 𝑪
𝑩
Size or leg of weld
• Example:
𝒕𝒕 =(s) sin 𝟒𝟓°
⇒ 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝒔
𝑨 𝒕𝒕 =(s) sin 𝟒𝟓°

𝑫
𝟒𝟓°
𝑩 𝑪
𝑨𝑩 𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝑪 = 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅
𝑩𝑫 = 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝒕𝒕 )
119
 CONNECTIONS
3. WELDED CONNECTIONS: standard fillet weld
2. FILLET WELD
• When the cross section of fillet weld is
45˚, isosceles triangle, it is known as a
standard fillet weld.
• When the cross section of the fillet weld
is 30˚ and 60˚ triangle, it is known as a
special fillet weld.
• The standard 45˚ fillet weld is generally
used.
special fillet weld

120
 CONNECTIONS
3. WELDED CONNECTIONS:
2. FILLET WELD
• A fillet weld is termed as concave fillet weld or convex fillet weld or mitre fillet weld
depending on the weld face in concave or convex or approximately flat.
• A fillet weld is termed as normal fillet weld or deep penetration fillet weld
depending upon the depth of penetration beyond the root is less than 2.4 mm or
more respectively.

Concave fillet weld Convex fillet weld Mitre fillet weld

121
 CONNECTIONS
3. WELDED CONNECTIONS:
2. FILLET WELD
1. Side fillet weld
• It is fillet weld stressed in longitudinal shear, i.e.,
a fillet weld, the axis of which is parallel to the
direction of these applied loads. It is also termed
as longitudinal fillet weld.
2. End fillet weld
• It is a fillet weld stressed in transverse shear, i.e.,
a fillet weld, the axis of which is at right angles to
the direction of the applied load. It is also termed
as transverse fillet weld.
3. Diagonal fillet weld
• It is a fillet weld the axis of which is inclined to
the direction of the applied load
• A fillet weld is placed on the sides or end of the
base metal and it is subjected to shear along with
tension or compression and usually bending 122
 IS RECOMMENDATIONS
2. MINIMUM SIZE OF WELD
• It depends upon the thickness of thicker plate.
• If thickness is not given, then we assume s=3mm

THICKNESS OF THICKER PLATE(mm) MINIMUM SIZE OF WELD(mm)

0-10 3
11-20 5
21-32 6
>32 8 { if >50, then 10mm}

123
 IS RECOMMENDATIONS
1. SIZE OF FILLET
• Minimum size of the weld:
• If the thickness of thicker part is up to 10 mm, the minimum size of the welding is
3 mm.
• If the thickness of thicker part is in between 11 mm to 20 mm, the minimum size
of the welding is 5 mm.
• If the thickness of thicker part is in between 21 mm to 32 mm, the minimum size
of the welding is 6 mm.
• If the thickness of thicker part is above 32 mm, the minimum size of the welding is
10 mm.
• When the minimum size of the fillet weld is greater than the thickness of the
thinner part, the minimum size of the weld should be equal to the thickness of
thinner part.
• Where the thicker part is more than 50 mm, special precaution like preheating will
have to be taken.

124
 IS RECOMMENDATIONS
3. MAXIMUM SIZE OF WELD
• It depends upon the thickness of thinner plate.
• CASE 1: In square edge –
Max size of weld = thickness of thinner plate – 1.5mm
• CASE 2: At rounded edge –
𝟑
Max size of weld = t (75% of the thickness of thinner plate)
𝟒

125
 IS RECOMMENDATIONS
4. EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF WELD
• It depends upon the size of weld.
• Effective length of weld = Actual length of weld – 2 x size of weld
• Effective length of weld should not be less than 4 times the size of weld

𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒇
𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅
𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅

126
 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇
IS RECOMMENDATIONS
5. EFFECTIVE CROSS SECTION AREA OF WELD (Throat area)
• Effective cross section area of weld = effective length of weld 
throat thickness 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒆𝒇𝒇
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 × 𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕
6. LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF WELD/SHEAR STRENGTH OF
WELD
• P = Permissible shear stress  effective area of weld
• 𝑷 = 𝑭𝑺 × 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 × 𝒕𝒕
• Fs → permissible shear stress
• Fs = 100MPa (WSM)
Fu = ultimate tensile stress in weld metal
𝑭𝒖
so in LSM = (1.25 for shop weld and 1.5 for field weld)
𝟑  1.25

7. PITCH OF WELD
• For weld in compression zone, max pitch p = 12t or 200mm
• In tension zone, max pitch p = 16t or 200mm

127
 SLOT WELDING • If overlap length is limited,
then the slot welding is
done by making slots in the
connecting plate as shown
𝒘 = 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒕
𝒘 = 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒕
v 𝑷
v
v
𝒘 = 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 ( 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑𝒕)
v
𝑶𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒂𝒑 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

• Que. If thickness of plate is 8mm, what is slot width?

• Solution: 𝒘 = 𝟑𝒕 𝒘 = 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 ( 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑𝒕)
⇒ 𝒘 = 𝟑 × 𝟖 = 𝟐𝟒𝒎𝒎 ⇒ 𝒔𝒐 𝒘 = 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒎 128
 Longitudinal and Transverse Shear
Longitudinal Shear

Transverse Shear

• A Longitudinal Shear in fillet weld, load and length of weld are in same direction
• In Transverse Shear, load and length of weld are perpendicular to each other
Note: Strength of transverse Fillet weld is about 30% more than longitudinal Fillet
weld

129
Que: A fillet welded joint of 6mm size is shown. The welded surface
met at 60° to 90°. Permissible stress in weld is 108MPa. Find safe load
that can be transmitted by the joint
100mm

50mm P

100mm

130
Que: A fillet welded joint of 6mm size is shown. The welded
surface met at 60° to 90°. Permissible stress in weld is 108MPa.
Find safe load that can be transmitted by the joint
100mm
• 𝑡𝑡 = 0.7𝑠
⇒ 𝑡𝑡 = 0.7 × 6 = 4.2𝑚𝑚 50mm P
𝐹𝑠 = 108𝑀𝑃𝑎
• 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑠 × 𝑡𝑡 × 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 100mm
= 108 × 4.2 × 250
= 113.4𝑘𝑁

131
 COMPRESSION MEMBER

• Structural members subjected to axial compression or

compressive forces.
• Their design is governed by strength and buckling.
• Most commonly used compression member is column.
• Other compression members are strut, truss, frame
etc.

132
 COMPRESSION MEMBER
• COLUMN
• It is a structural member mainly subjected to compression.
• Bending moment can also exist in this member.
• Column is used for compression of frame, i.e., RCC frame and steel
frame.
• STRUT
• It is a compression member whose B.M. is zero because it is used
in roof truss as a compression member.
• TRUSS
• It is a structure in which all the members are either subjected to
tension or compression.
• B.M is zero everywhere.
• FRAME
• It is a structure which is subjected to B.M also in addition to
tension and compression
133
 COMPRESSION MEMBER

• STANCHION
• The vertical compression member in RCC building is called
column while for a steel building it is called stanchion.
• BOOM
• The principal compression member in a crane is called boom.

134
 MODES OF FAILURE OF COLUMN
• Squashing
• Local buckling
• Flexural buckling
• Tensional buckling
• Flexural torsional buckling

135
 MODES OF FAILURE OF COLUMN
• Squashing
• When the length is relatively small and the
component plate elements are prevented from
local buckling, then the column will be able to
attain its full strength, i.e., squash load.
• Squash Load = Yield stress  Area of cross section
• LOCAL BUCKLING
• Failure occurs by buckling of one or more
individual plate elements. 𝒚
• Exp: flange or web locally prior to overall buckling
of column 𝒙 𝒙
• FLEXURAL BUCKLING
• In this mode, failure of the member occurs by
excessive deflection in the plane of weaker 𝒚
principal axis
• In the figure, x-x and y-y axis are shown. Ixx > Iyy , 𝑩𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈
so the resistance about y-y axis is less as compared
to x-x axis. Hence buckling will occur about y-y
axis.
136
• TORSIONAL BUCKLING
• This type of failure is caused by twisting about longitudinal axis of member.
It can occur only in doubly symmetrical cross section with very slender cross
sectional elements
• FLEXURAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING
• It is caused by combination of flexural and torsional buckling. The member
bends and twists simultaneously. This type of failure can occur only in
unsymmetrical cross sections and singly symmetrical cross section

137
 Effective Length
• In SOM, we use Theoretical 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝒍 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 𝒍
Value, and in Design we use
IS recommended values 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎 𝒍 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝒍

• For Laced Columns, above

values are increased by 5% 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝒍 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝒍

• For battened column above

values are increased by 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝒍 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎 𝒍
10%
• Effective length in IS Code − 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 𝒍
is slightly larger than the
theoretical value to 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒍 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒍
account for the lack of
100% fixity at support 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒍 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒍
138
 Effective Length as Per End Conditions
1. Both End Hinged 3. One End Fixed and
other is free
L 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 = 𝑳 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟐𝑳
𝝅𝟐𝑬𝑰 𝝅𝟐𝑬𝑰
𝑷𝒄𝒍 = 𝟐 𝑷𝒄𝒍 =
𝑳 𝟒𝑳𝟐

2. Both End Fixed 4. One End Fixed and other is

Hinged
𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝑳/𝟐
𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝑳/√𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝟐𝑬𝑰 𝟐𝝅𝟐𝑬𝑰
𝑷𝒄𝒍 = 𝑷𝒄𝒍 =
𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 139

• Note:
• Load capacity of column depends upon the end condition and strongest
column is both end fixed
• The most efficient cross section in resisting compression is “Thin hollow
circular section” or “4 angle box section” because for a given cross section
area MOI is maximum so load carrying capacity is maximum
• The most efficient cross section in resisting bending moment is I- Section
because for a given cross section area, section modulus and plastic modulus
are maximum for I section
• As per IS 800, the permissible axial compressive stress is given by Rankine’s
merchant formula
0.6 𝑓𝑦
𝑜𝑟
• 𝜎𝑎𝑐 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 0.6 𝑓𝑦
𝑛+ 𝑛 1/𝑛
𝐹𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑦
𝜋2𝐸
• Where Fcc =
𝜆2
• 𝑛 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1.4

140
• Unsupported length of Column
• It is maximum clear distance between bottom of the floor level and top of
beam
• Effective length of column
• It is length of column between points of zero moment or distance between
points of contraflexure

141
 Slenderness Ratio
Given axis Area A
Radius of Gyration
K • It is distance such that its square
multiplied by area gives Moment
CG of inertia about the given axis
𝜸𝟐𝒎𝒊𝒏 × 𝑨 = 𝑰
𝑰
𝜸𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝑨

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑳𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆

Slenderness ratio 𝝀 = 𝝀=
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒚𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝜸𝒎𝒊𝒏

Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 142

 𝑳𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝝀=
𝜸𝒎𝒊𝒏

143
 Effective Length of Strut
• If a strut span between two
joint only, it is called as 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕

Discontinuous Strut
• If a strut span over more than
two joints then it is called as
Continuous Strut
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕

144
• If a single angle discontinuous 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝑳
strut is connected by only one
rivet at each end, then effective
length (𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐿 )and axial
compressive stress 𝝈′𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟖
𝝈𝒂𝒄 i.e. Permissible stress is
reduced by 20%
• If a single angle discontinuous
strut is connected by two or
more rivets or weld, then 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝑳
effective length 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.85𝐿
and 𝝈′𝒂𝒄 = 𝝈𝒂𝒄

145
Local Buckling of Flange and
Web plate of I section 𝒕𝒇
𝒕𝒘 𝒃 𝒃 = 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝒅𝒘 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒃

• Width of outstand is measured 𝒃′

from outer line of rivet to
extreme edge for built up
section

146
• To prevent local buckling due to compression as per IS
800: Specify the following condition:
𝑏
≯ 16 (𝑊𝑆𝑀)
𝑡𝑓 𝑏
≯ 8.4 𝐿𝑆𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑤 𝑡𝑓
≯ 50 (𝑊𝑆𝑀)
𝑡𝑤
• If the flange and web plate dimensions exceed the
above limits, the excess width should be neglected
(Not considering in area calculation)
• Load carrying capacity in compression member
• 𝑷 = 𝝈𝒂𝒄 × 𝑨𝒈 (𝝈𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒇𝒚)

147
 BUILT UP COLUMN
• The size and shapes of rolled section are limited because
of limitations of rolling mills, so when rolled sections do
not furnish the required sectional area or when a special
shape or large radius of gyration is required in two
different directions, built up columns are used
• Built-up columns are widely used in steel construction
especially when the effective lengths are great and the
compression forces light.
• They are composed of two or more parallel main
components interconnected by lacing or batten plates
• The greater the distance between the chord axes, the
greater is the moment of inertia of the built-up cross
section; the increase in stiffness, however, is
counterbalanced by the increased weight and cost of the
connection of members.
• It should be noted that built-up columns (especially
battened built-up columns) are more flexible than solid
columns with the same moment of inertia
 LACINGS 𝑻𝒊𝒆 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆

• Lacing is a system of connecting 𝑰𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

elements in built up column.
• Lacing make the component of 𝒍𝟏
column act as a single unit. 𝑳𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈

• If the component of column are 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆

𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
each very close to each other, 𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟓% 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅

then tack rivets are used to make

them act as a single unit.
• If the spacing of component is 𝜽
more then the rivets are useless
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 − 𝑳𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈
and so we use lacing or batten.
𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 − 𝑩𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏
 LACINGS
• Lacing member are idealised as truss
element, i.e., they re subjected either
to tension or compression.
• B.M. in lacing member is zero, to
ensure that bending moment is zero,
provide only one rivet at each end as
far as possible.
• Maximum slenderness ratio 𝝀 for lacing
member is limited to 145.
• The angle of lacing w.r.t. vertical is 40°
to 70° (welding 60° to 90°)
 LACINGS
• If θ decreases, length of lacing will
increase.
• Effective length
• For single lacing 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝑳𝟏
• For double lacing 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝑳𝟏
• For welded lacing 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝑳𝟏
• Minimum thickness of lacing member
𝒍𝟏
• 𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏 = (for single lacing)
𝟒𝟎
𝒍𝟏
• 𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏 = (for double lacing)
𝟔𝟎
 LACINGS
• Minimum width of lacing member
• It depends upon the nominal dia of rivet.
• In case of welding, width of lacing bar is 50mm
NOMINAL DIA OF RIVET MINIMUM WIDTH OF LACING MEMBER
16mm 50mm
18mm 55mm
20mm 60mm
22mm 65mm
 LACINGS
• To prevent buckling of column component b/w lacing
connection-
• 𝝀 (𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕) ≯ 50
• 𝝀 (𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕) ≯ 0.7 𝝀 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏

• For tack rivets

• 𝝀 (𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕) ≯ 40
• 𝝀 (𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕) ≯ 0.6 𝝀 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏
• At the end of lacing system, at top and bottom, tie plates
are provided (tie plate is called batten plate)
• These batten plate prevent distortion of built up columns.
 Arrangement in A is better than B, because if one rivet fails, spacing of lacing
member does not change in A while in B, spacing will be doubled. Hence there
will be possibility of buckling of connection in B.
𝟐𝑽
𝑭= 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝜽
𝑽 𝑵
𝑭= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝜽 𝑭 = 𝑽𝒄𝒐𝒕𝜽
𝟐

c c

A B
 FORCES IN LACING MEMBER
• Lacing system is designed to resist a transverse shear force
of 𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟓% 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅.
• The transverse shear force 𝑽 is shared by lacing system
both side equally, so the transverse shear force on each
𝑽
lacing bar is
𝟐
• 2 denotes number of parallel planes
• For single lacing system of two parallel force system, the force in
𝑽
each lacing bar 𝐅 = 𝟐 sin 𝜽
𝑽
• For double lacing system 𝐅 =
𝟒 sin 𝜽
 s
BATTENS
• It behave like very small beam
member and subjected to bending
moment. 𝜶
• The effective length of battened
column should be increased by 𝑬𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏 de
10%.
• Minimum number of battens C S
provided = 4 d 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏
• Provide batten on opposite faces
such that one should be the mirror
image of other.

156
 𝑪𝒚𝒚 𝑪𝒚𝒚

BATTENS s
• Effective slenderness ratio
•  = 1.10𝟎 (increases by 10% in battens)
• 𝟎 is maximum actual slenderness ratio

• Effective depth
• Effective depth should not be less than the b 𝜶
distance between centroid component  = 𝐬 + 𝟐𝑪𝒚𝒚
members.
𝒅𝒆 ≮ 𝜶
• Effective depth should not be less than twice
the width of one component in plane of
batten(b).
𝒅𝒆 ≮ 𝟐𝒃
157
 BATTENS
• Thickness of batten (t)
𝜶
• 𝒕≥
𝟓𝟎
• To prevent local buckling of individual
component between the battens, following de
conditions are satisfied
𝑪
• < 𝟓𝟎 C 𝜶
𝒓𝒚𝒚
𝑪
• 𝒓𝒚𝒚
< 𝟎. 𝟕𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 d
• For Intermediate batten,
𝟑
• 𝒅𝒆 > 𝜶
𝟒
• 𝒅𝒆 > 𝟐𝒃
• For END batten,
• 𝒅𝒆 > 𝜶
• 𝒅𝒆 > 𝟐𝒃
158
 Force in BATTENS
• Transverse shear force V is shared by parallel planes (N) equally i.e.
𝑉
Transverse shear force on each batten =
𝑁
• where N=no. of parallel planes
s
s

𝑵=𝟐

𝑵=𝟑 159
 Force in BATTENS
1. Batten should be designed to carry bending
moment and shear force arising from the
transverse shear force, V, which is 2.5% of total
axial load on compression member.
de
2. The transverse shear force is equally divided in 𝑽
all the parallel planes Nin which there are shear 𝟐𝑵 𝑽
resisting elements such as battens or C 𝜶 𝟐𝑵
continuous plates battens
3. Battens should be able to resist the longitudinal d C
shear and moment arising from Transverse
shear V
𝑽 𝑽
• Longitudinal shear (𝑽𝟏 ) 𝟐𝑵 𝟐𝑵
𝑽𝑪
• 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑵𝜶
• where V is transverse shear force(2.5% of P)
• N is number of parallel plates of battens
• Longitudinal moment (M)
𝑽𝑪
• M=
𝟐𝑵
160
 Column Splicing
• Splicing of column is done to increase the
length of column
• The most suitable location for column splicing
𝑯 𝑯
is at a suitable location of 𝒕𝒐 from the top
𝟑 𝟒
and bottom level floor
• When the column end are machined then it is
assumed that 50% of load is transferred by
direct bearing action and remaining 50% of the
load is transferred through splice and its
connection. 𝑷
→ 𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑷 𝟐
𝑷
→ 𝑺𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 161
𝟐
 Column Splicing
• If a column is subjected to a compression 𝑷
𝑃 → 𝑬𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
load P, then is transferred by bearing action 𝟒
2
𝑃 𝑃
and remaining is taken by splicing plate,
2 4
by each splicing plate (since 2 splicing plates
are used) 𝑯 𝑯
𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒆
𝟑 𝟒 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
• If a column is subjected to moment M also,
then splice plate must also resist additional
𝑀 𝑯
force of , so maximum force in splice plate is
𝐻
𝑃 𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = +
4 𝐻
𝑯 𝑯
𝒕𝒐
𝟑 𝟒
162
 Column Splicing
• Note: If the column ends are not smooth, for
complete bearing, entire load is assumed to
be transferred to the bottom column through
splice plate and connection only
• Hence maximum force in each splice plate 𝑯 𝑯
𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒆
when column ends are not smooth 𝟑 𝟒 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝑷
→ 𝑬𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑯
𝟐
𝑃 𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = +
2 𝐻 𝑯 𝑯
𝒕𝒐
𝟑 𝟒
163
 Column Splicing
• If shear force is also acting at a
column splice, a web splice
must be done, both side of the
web as shown.
• The rivet in web splice are
subjected to double shear and
bearing but rivet in flange splice
are subjected to single shear
and bearing

164
 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
COLUMN BASES
• Column base is a base plate used to reduce
the bearing pressure on the concrete
footing.
• It transfers the load to the concrete footing,
preventing the punching shear of footing.
• If the column load is less, slab base is used.
• If the column load is more/heavy, then
gusseted base is used. 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
• If the soil is weak, grillage foundation is
used.

165
 SLAB BASE 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒃 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆

• Permissible tensile stress of bolt used

in column base is 120 MPa
• In slab base, base plate and cleat angle
are used.
• If column load is axial, then thickness 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
of base plate is given by – 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝟑𝒘 𝒃𝟐 𝑳
• 𝒕= 𝟐
𝒂 − (WSM)
𝝈𝒃𝒔 𝟒 𝒃
𝟐.𝟓𝒘 𝒂
• 𝒕= 𝝈𝒃𝒔
𝒂𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝒃𝟐 (LSM)
• where w is upward pressure on base plate in 𝑩
N/mm2
• a,b are greater and smaller projection of
base plate beyond column edge
• 𝝈𝒃𝒔 is permissible bearing compressive
stress in base plate
166
 𝑮𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
GUSSET BASE 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆

• Adopted when the load is large

• Axial load accompanied by bending
moments
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
• Having eccentric loadings
• Area can be increased by adding gusset
plates
• Loads are transferred 50% by fastners
• Critical Section for bending moment is
at toe of Gusset plate
• Core and kernel: It is the small portion
at cross section within which load is
applied, tension will not be developed

167
 Grillage Foundation 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒃 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆

• Adopted when loads on

columns are extremely
heavy 𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒊𝒆
𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎
• The bearing capacity of soil
for the area of gusset/slab is
not enough
• Distribution area is very 𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒊𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎
large

168
 Beams
• Beam is a structural member subjected to Transverse
Load
𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
• Flexural Formula: = =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
• Where R = radius of curvature
• 1/R = curvature
• i.e. Moment is directly proportional to curvature 𝑀 ∝
1
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅

169
 Beams
• Laterally Unsupported beam: • Laterally Supported beam:
• If the compression flange of • If the compression flange of
beam is not restrained against beam is restrained against lateral
lateral moment, then it is called moment, then it is called as
as Laterally Unsupported Beam Laterally Supported Beam or
or laterally Unrestrained beam laterally Restrained beam

𝑷𝒓𝒆 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒃 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒃

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
170
 Beams
• In the design of beam, we assume
that the depth of Web is resisting
shear is taken as overall depth of the 𝑫
beam, so
𝑉
• 𝜏𝑣𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝐷𝑡𝑤
• Web Buckling:
• It occurs due to diagonal compression
in web/ concentrated load which is
produced due to shear force in web
• Web buckling occurs between Toe of
fillet weld

171
 Beams
• Local Buckling of Web / Web Crippling:
• Web near the portion of the stress
concentration tends to fold over the flange is
called as Web crippling
• Developed due to large amount of bearing
stresses.
• Stress concentration occurs at the junction of
web and the flange

172
 Gantry Girder
• Gantry Girder are subjected to
1. Gravity loads, (i.e. dead load + live load +
weight if crane truss+ weight of trolley,
etc),
2. Lateral load(due to starting or stopping of
crab) and
3. Longitudinal load (due to starting or
stopping of crane)
• These three loads are mutually
perpendicular to each other
• Horizontal and vertical loads are applied
simultaneously, allowable stress in
gantry girder are increased by 10%
173
 Additional Load due to Impact
Additional Impact Load Impact Allowance
Type of Loading
Vertical loading

1. E.O.C. 25% of maximum static wheel

load
2. M.O.C. 10% of maximum static wheel
load
Horizontal Force Transverse to Rail

1. For E.O.C. 10% of weight of trolley and

weight lifted
2. For M.O.C. 5% of weight of trolley and
weight lifted
Horizontal Force Along the rail 5% of static wheel load

174
 PERMISSIBLE STRESS IN GANTRY GIRDER
Gantry girders are laterally unsupported beams to carry. heavy loads from place to place at the
construction sites

1. For manually operator crane, the maximum permissible deflection

is
𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝛅=
𝟓𝟎𝟎
2. For electrically operator crane, the maximum permissible deflection
for a capacity upto 50T or 500kN
𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝛅=
𝟕𝟓𝟎
3. For electrically operator crane, the maximum permissible deflection
for a capacity more than 50T or 500kN
𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝛅=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani 175
 Plate Girder
• A plate Girder us usually thought as
flexural member whose cross section is 𝑾𝒆𝒃 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆

composed of plate elements, flange

plate, angle and web equivalent 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆

• If built up beam can not withstand

applied load then plate girder are used
𝒈𝒂𝒑
• Plate girder consists of flange plate,
flange angle and web plate 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝟏
𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
•
𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆

176
 Plate Girder
• Compression Flange:
• It consists of flange plate, flange
angle and web equivalent 𝑾𝒆𝒃 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
• Web equivalent is the web area
embedded between two flange angle 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
• In compression zone flange, web
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑏
equivalent is taken as 6
or
𝑎𝑤
6
𝒈𝒂𝒑
• Tension Flange:
• It consists of flange plate, angle and 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝟏
web equivalent
• In tension zone, web equivalent is 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑎
taken as 8𝑤

177
 Plate Girder 𝒃
• It is assumed that entire shear force is taken by web plate and
bending moment is taken by flange (to ensure that web takes 𝒈𝒂𝒑
only shear force, gap of 5mm will be maintained between
flange plate and web plate so that direct bearing action
between flange plate and web plate is avoided) 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝟏
• The load is transferred from flange plate to web plate through
flange angles only 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
• Width of outstand in compression flanges 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
• 𝑏 ≯ 16𝑡𝑓
256 𝑡𝑓 𝒃
• 𝑏≯
𝑓𝑦
• The width of outstand in tension zone
• 𝑏 ≯ 20𝑡𝑓
• Economical depth of web plate (which is corresponding to
minimum weight but not minimum cost)
𝑀
• 𝑑 = 1.1
𝜎𝑏𝑐 ×𝑡𝑤

• Self weight of Plate girder is assumed as

𝑊
• 𝑤= 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 −→ 𝑊𝑆𝑀
300
1.5𝑊 𝑊
• 𝑤= 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 → 𝐿𝑆𝑀 = 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
300 200 178
 Important Points 𝒃
𝒈𝒂𝒑
𝑑1
• If < 85, web buckling due to shear will
𝑡𝑤 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝟏
not happen, so stiffener are not provided.
The web will be unstiffened 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑑1
• If > 85, vertical stiffeners are provided to 𝒃
𝑡𝑤
prevent buckling of web due to diagonal
compression which is developed due to
shear force
𝑑1
• If > 200, horizontal stiffeners are
𝑡𝑤
provided above NA as they prevent buckling
web due to bending compressive stress
179
 Important Points 𝒃
𝒈𝒂𝒑
𝑑1
• If > 250, then additional horizontal
𝑡𝑤
stiffeners are provided at NA 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝟏

𝑑1
• If > 400,
𝑡𝑤
𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝒃
• After providing all the stiffeners, lesser clear
dimension of web panel should not exceed 180
tw
• Greater clear dimension of web panel ≯ 270𝑡𝑤

180
 Tension Members
• A structural member subjected
to axial tension is called
“Tension member” (𝒐𝒓) “Tie”
• The members & Connections are
so arranged that eccentricity in
the connection & Bending stress
are not developed.
 → Types of failure
• A Tension member may fail in any of the
following modes:
1. Gross section yielding
• Considerable deformation of the member in longitudinal
direction may take place before it fractures, making the
structure unserviceable. Hence we must also consider
yielding on gross-section
2. Net Section rupture
• The fracture of the member occurs when the net cross-
section of the member reaches ultimate stress.
3. Block shear failure
• A segment of block of material at the end of member
shears out due to the possible use of high bearing strength
of steel and high strength bolts resulting in smaller
connection length
 Design strength of Tension member
• For gross section yielding
𝒇𝒚
• 𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑻𝒅𝒈 = 𝜸 . 𝑨𝒈
𝒎𝟎
• 𝑨𝒈 → gross sectional area
• 𝜸𝒎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
• Note: When a Tension member is subjected to Tensile force although the
net cross-section yields first, the deformation within the length of
connection will be smaller than the deformation in the remainder of
tension member.
• It is because the net action exist within the small length of member, most
of the length of member will have an unreduced cross-section, so
attainment of yield stress on gross area will result in larger total
elongation.
 Design strength of Tension member
• Net section Rupture(Fracture)
𝟎.𝟗 𝒇𝒖
• Design strength in fracture 𝑻𝒅𝒏 = 𝜸𝒎𝟏
. 𝑨𝒏
• Where ; 𝒇𝒖 = ultimate strength of material
• 𝜸𝒎𝟏 → 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
• 𝑨𝒏 = 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
 Design strength of Tension member
• Block shear
• For plates:
• For shear yield and tension fracture:
𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒗𝒈 𝟎.𝟗 𝒇𝒖 𝑨𝒕𝒏
• 𝑻𝒅𝒃𝟏 = +
𝟑𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚1
• For tension yield and shear fracture:
𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒕𝒈 𝟎.𝟗 𝒇𝒖 𝑨𝒗𝒏
• 𝑻𝒅𝒃𝟐 = +
𝛾𝑚0 𝟑𝛾𝑚1
• Where 𝑨𝒗𝒈 is minimum gross area in shear along the line of force
• 𝑨𝒗𝒏 is minimum net area in shear along the line of force
• 𝑨𝒕𝒈 is minimum gross area in tension
• 𝑨𝒕𝒏 is minimum net area in tension
 SLENDERNESS RATIO
• The slenderness ratio of a tension member is the ratio of its
unsupported length ‘L’ to its least radius of gyration.
• Maximum slenderness ratio for tension members is given as:
A tension member in which reversal of 180
direct stress due to loads other than wind
or seismic forces occur.
A member normally acting as a tie in roof 350
truss or a bracing system but subjected to
possible reversal of stresses resulting from
the action of wind and earthquake forces.
Members always under tension (other than 400
pretensioned members)
 SHEAR LEG
• Non uniform straining of member due to tension is called shear leg.
• Shear leg reduce the efficiency of tension member that are not
connected to the gusset plate.
• For reducing shear leg, lengthening of connections and reduction in
efficiency are done.
𝑷 𝑷 𝑷 𝑷

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

𝑷 𝑷 𝑷 𝑷
 LONG JOINT
• If the length of the joint is greater than 15φ or 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒕𝒕 , then it is
called long joint.
• It is assumed that applied load is shared by all the rivets, but in
long joint, outer rivet takes more load than the inner rivets so
failure of rivets in long joints is sequential, beginning with those
at the ends and progressing towards centre, this type of failure
is termed as ‘unbuttoning.’
𝐋 = 𝑶𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝐋
L> 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒕𝒕
𝐋 L>15φ
𝑷 𝑷
 LONG JOINT
• If the length of joint is more, efficiency of the tension member
would be less.
• Grip length = 5φ (LSM)
• Grip length = 8φ (WSM)
• If the grip length increases then the efficiency of joints
decreases due to additional bending stress developing in rivets.
𝑳𝐠 = 𝑮𝒓𝒊𝒑 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

𝑳𝐠
 LUG ANGLES
• It is small piece of angle used to connect
the outstand leg of the structural
member to the gusset plate.
• The purpose of lug angle is to reduce the
length of connection to gusset plate and
reduce the shear leg effect.
• Shear leg effect is reduced by increasing the
length of connection and by providing lug
angles.
• If lug angle are used, the efficiency of
tension members increases.
• If length is increased, then shear leg
effect is decreased but efficiency is also
decreased, if lug angle is used then
efficiency is increased and shear leg is
reduced
 SPLICES
• They are used to join two sections
when a joint is to be provided, i.e.,
these replace the members at the
joint where it is cut.
• When a splice occurs in an angle,
channel, tee or joint section, the
force is received from the member
through the connection on one
side of joint and is transferred to
the splice cover plate.
• The force is then carried through
these covers across the joint and is
transferred to other portion of
member through the connections.
 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY
• Load Carrying Capacity of tension member:
• Safe load carrying capacity:
• 𝑷𝒕 = 𝝈𝒂𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 (WSM)
• Where 𝝈𝒂𝒕 is permissible axial tensile stress (0.6 𝒇𝒚 )
• And 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 is net effective cross section area
𝒇𝒚 𝟎.𝟗𝒇𝒖
• 𝑷𝒕 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑨𝒈 𝟏.𝟏𝟎 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝟏.𝟐𝟓

• To prevent fracture
• 𝑨𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 0.9 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝒇𝒖
• Hence 𝑷𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆𝒇𝒇
𝟏.𝟐𝟓
 LOAD CARRYING
CAPACITY FOR PLATE
• Load Carrying Capacity of tension member:
• Safe load carrying capacity:
• Calculation of 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕
• Chain riveting
• 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝐁 − 𝟑𝐝 𝐭
• Diamond riveting
• 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝐁 − 𝐝 𝐭
• Staggered riveting 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟐
• 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝐁 − 𝐧𝟏𝐝 + + 𝐭
𝟒𝒈𝟏 𝟒𝒈𝟐
• 𝒏𝟏 is no. of rivets along critical section
• d is gross dia or hole dia
• 𝒓𝟏 and 𝒓𝟐 are staggered pitch 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆
• 𝒈𝟏 and 𝒈𝟐 are staggered gauge
 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY FOR ANGLE
• Load Carrying Capacity of tension gussete plate
member:
• Safe load carrying capacity: 𝒂
• Calculation of 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 angle
• For angle 𝒃
• 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝒌𝑨𝟐
𝟑𝑨𝟏
• k= 𝒕
𝟑𝑨𝟏 +𝑨𝟐
𝑨𝟏 = (𝒂 − 𝒅 − )𝒕
• K= shear leg effect 𝟐
• Where 𝑨𝟏 is net area of connected leg 𝒕
• 𝑨𝟏 = (gross area of connected leg - area of 𝑨𝟐 = (𝒃 − )𝒕
𝟐
rivet hole)
• 𝑨𝟐 is gross area of unconnected leg/outstand
leg
𝒕
• 𝑨𝟏 = 𝒂 − 𝒅 − 𝒕
𝟐
𝒕
• 𝑨𝟐 = 𝒃 − 𝒕
𝟐
 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY FOR ANGLE
• If two angles are placed back to back
and connected to both sides of gusset
plate
• 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝒌𝑨𝟐 where K= 1
• 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐
• It is the most efficient way of
connecting, then load carrying
capacity is maximum.

• If the two angles do not have rivet,

then each angle behaves 𝟑𝑨
𝟏
independently hence k = 𝟑𝑨 +𝑨
𝟏 𝟐
• Design of Tension Member
1. To find Anet required
𝑷
• 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 =
𝝈𝒂𝒕
2. Increase Anet by 40 to 50% to get Ag required when riveting is done
3. Increase Anet by 20% to get Ag required when welding is done
4. Select a suitable section and find the number of rivets required
5. If Ag provided > Ag required , so design is safe.
• Que: Check whether single angle of tension member in welded steel
is required that has area 475mm2 to be designed for axial tension
force of 50kN, 𝜎𝑎𝑡 = 150𝑀𝑃𝑎
• Que: Check whether single angle of tension member in welded steel
is required that has area 475mm2 to be designed for axial tension
force of 50kN, 𝜎𝑎𝑡 = 150𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑷
𝑨 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 =
𝝈𝒂𝒕
𝟓𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵 𝟐
⇒ 𝑨 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 = = 𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒎𝒎
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 = 𝟒𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒎𝟐

Aprovided > A required , so design is safe

 As per IS 800
• In case of single angles in tension connected by one leg only, the net
𝑏
effective area = 𝑎 + 𝑏
1+ 0.2
𝑎

• Effective area of plate girder

𝐴𝑤
• in tension = 𝐴𝑓 + 8
• In compression 𝐴𝑓 + 𝐴𝑤
 As per IS 800, for mild steel
Proportional Limit 190-220 N/mm2
Yield strength 230-250 N/mm2
Ultimate strength 410-530 N/mm2
Fracture Strength 250-300 N/mm2
Elongation of fracture 23-35%
Bearing Stress 0.75fy
• Note:
• Vertical Stiffeners are provided to prevent Shear
Buckling of web
• Horizontal Stiffeners are provided to avoid
Compression buckling
• Vertical Stiffeners:
• These stiffener are not designed as column are not
designed
𝑑
• Minimum spacing of vertical stiffeners is 31 =
0.33𝑑1
• Maximum Spacing of stiffeners = 1.5 𝑑1
• End Bearing Stiffeners
• They are designed as imaginary column with both
end are fixed whose effective length = 0.7 𝑙1

201
 ROOF TRUSS
• Trusses are triangular frame works, consisting of
essentially axially loaded members which are more
efficient in resisting external loads since the cross
section is nearly uniformly stressed.
• They are extensively used to span large gaps.
• Trusses are used in roofs of single storey industrial
buildings, long span floors and roofs of multistory
buildings, to resist gravity loads.
• Trusses are also used in walls and horizontal planes
of industrial buildings to resist lateral loads and
give lateral stability.

202
 COMPONENTS OF
ROOF TRUSS

• Purlin – Horizontal beam

spanning between the two
adjacent trusses.

203
 COMPONENTS OF
ROOF TRUSS

• Apex – Highest point where the

sloping top chords meet.

204
 COMPONENTS OF ROOF TRUSS

• Bearing – Structural support of trusses (usually walls)

normally with a timber wall plate.

205
 COMPONENTS OF ROOF TRUSS

• Bottom Chords (BC) – the lowest longitudinal member of a

truss.

206
 COMPONENTS OF ROOF TRUSS

• Cantilever – part of structural member that extends beyond its

support.
• Cantilever Strut – web that joins the bottom chord above the
bearing point to the top chord of a cantilevered truss.
207
 COMPONENTS OF ROOF TRUSS

• Overhang – extension of the top chord of a truss beyond

the bearing support.
208
 COMPONENTS OF ROOF TRUSS

• Panel – truss segment defined by two adjacent joints or

nodes.
209
 COMPONENTS OF ROOF TRUSS

• Plumb Cut – vertical cut to the end of the top chord to

provide for vertical (plumb) installation of the fascia or
gutter
210
 COMPONENTS OF ROOF TRUSS

• Splice Point – Top and bottom chord splice

• Square Cut – perpendicular to the edges of the chord
211
 COMPONENTS OF ROOF TRUSS

• Top Chord or Rafter – a horizontal member that establishes

the upper edge of a truss
212
 COMPONENTS OF ROOF TRUSS

• Stub End – a truss type formed by the truncation of a

normal triangular truss.
• Web – members that join the top and bottom chords to
form a triangular pattern

213
 TYPES OF ROOF TRUSSES
Different types of Wooden and Steel Roof Trusses:
• King Post Truss
• Queen Post Truss
• Howe Truss
• Pratt Truss
• Fan Truss
• North Light Roof Truss
• Quadrangular Roof Truss

214
 TYPES OF ROOF TRUSSES
• KING POST TRUSS
• King Post Truss is a wooden truss.
• It can also be built of combination of
wood and steel.
• It can be used for spans upto 8m.

• QUEEN POST TRUSS

• Queen Post Truss is also a wooden
truss.
• It can be used for spans upto 10m.

215
 TYPES OF ROOF TRUSSES
• HOWE TRUSS
• It is made of combination of wood and steel.
• The vertical members or tension members are
made of steel.
• It can be used for spans from 6-30m

• PRATT TRUSS
• Pratt Truss is made of steel.
• These are less economical than the Fink Trusses.
• Vertical members are tension and diagonal
members are compression.
• Fink Trusses are very economical form of roof
trusses.
• It can be used for spans from 6-10m.

216
 TYPES OF ROOF TRUSSES
• FAN TRUSS
• It is made of steel.
• Fan trusses are form of Fink roof truss.
• In Fan Trusses, top chords are divided
into small lengths in order to provide
supports for purlins which would not
come at joints in Fink trusses.
• It can be used for spans from 10-15m.

• QUADRANGULAR ROOF TRUSS

• These trusses are used for large spans
such as railway sheds and Auditoriums.
217
 TYPES OF ROOF TRUSSES
• NORTH LIGHT ROOF TRUSS
• When the floor span exceeds 15m, it is generally more economical to
change from a simple truss arrangement to one employing wide span
lattice girders which support trusses at right angles.
• In order to light up the space satisfactorily, roof lighting has to replace or
supplement, side lighting provision must also be made for ventilation
form the roof.
• This roof consists of a series of trusses fixed to girders. It can be used for
spans from 20-30m.
• Used for industrial buildings, drawing rooms etc.

218
 TYPES OF ROOF TRUSSES
• PARALLEL CHORD ROOF TRUSS
• They are constructed with two chords running parallel to each other
and supported by reinforcing trusses in between the top and bottom
chords.
• This roof truss reduces the condensation problems and mold conditions
since they create a vapor barrier.

219
 TYPES OF ROOF TRUSSES
• RAISED HEEL ROOF TRUSS
• They provide a cost-effective way to meet more energy efficiency
codes and improve the energy efficiency of your building envelope.
• Raising the truss higher greatly simplifies attic ventilation and it
leaves ample room for insulation above exterior wall top plates

220
 TYPES OF ROOF TRUSSES
• SCISSOR ROOF TRUSS
• A Scissor Roof Truss can particularly be found in cathedrals. It
doesn’t require beams or bearing walls, however it doesn’t leave
that much space for insulation which makes its energy efficiency
very poor.
• On the other hand, the upside here is that the ceiling gets vaulted
and you receive more space in the attic.

221
 DESIGN OF ROOF TRUSSES Ridge point
𝒉
• Slope of truss  = tan  = =
𝑳/𝟐 h
𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆
𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝒉
• Pitch of truss(p) = 
𝑳
• The angle, or pitch, of a roof is A
B
calculated by the number of inches it
rises vertically w.r.to horizontally. L

h
𝒉 𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆 (rise)
• Slope of truss  = tan  = =
𝑳 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏
𝒉 
• Pitch of truss(p) =
𝑳
L(span) 222
• CANTILEVER TRUSS are idealized as cantilever beam so all top
member are subjected to tension and bottom member are
subjected to compression.
• ROOF TRUSS - tension member in roof truss called ‘tie’ and
compression member is called ‘strut’.
• In cantilever beam, main reinforcement(tension reinforcement) are
provided above the N.A.

223
 SPECIFICATIONS OF LOAD ON TRUSS
1. LIVE LOAD:
• If slope of truss is less than 10, then
Live load = 0.75 kN/m2
• If slope of truss is more than 10,then
Live load = 0.75 – 0.02( - 10) kN/m2

Live load ≮ 𝟎. 𝟒kN/m2

224
 SPECIFICATIONS OF LOAD ON TRUSS
2. SNOW LOAD:
• Snow load = 2.5N/m2 for 1mm depth of snow.
• If the slope of truss is more than 50, then snow load need not to be
considered because snow will slip form the roof surface itself.

3. DEAD LOAD:
• If the spacing of truss is 4m, and pitch of truss is 1:4, then self weight of
truss may be taken as –
𝒍
𝐰= 𝟑
+ 𝟔 𝒌𝒈/m2 of plan area
where plan area = spacing  span
225
 SPECIFICATIONS OF TRUSS
• Economical spacing of trusses is the spacing that make
overall cost of truss, purlin and roof covering to a
minimum value.
𝒕 = 𝟐𝒑 + 𝒓
Where t is cost of truss
p is cost of purlin
r is cost of roof covering
• Purlin – Horizontal beam spanning between the two
adjacent trusses. They may be designed as cantilever,
simply supported or continuous beam but IS 800
recommends that the purlin are to be designed as
continuous beam

226
 SPECIFICATIONS OF TRUSS
• For SSB or purlin
𝒘𝒍𝟐 𝑾𝑳
• Max B.M. = or
𝟖 𝟖

• But purlins are designed as continuous beam

𝑳 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒏
• Hence Minimum width of purlin = =
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎

227
Que. If slope of truss is 15, find live load.

228
Que. If slope of truss is 15, find live load.
Sol. Live load = 0.75 – 0.02( - 10) kN/m2
Live load = 0.75 – 0.02(15 - 10) kN/m2
Live load = 0.65 kN/m2

229
Que. In an industrial building truss are provided at a spacing of 4m and
pitch of each truss is 1:4, span of each truss is 6m. Then self weight of
truss is?

230
Que. In an industrial building truss are provided at a spacing of 4m and
pitch of each truss is 1:4, span of each truss is 6m. Then self weight of
truss is?
𝒍
Sol. 𝐰 = + 𝟔 𝒌𝒈/m2 of plan area
𝟑

plan area = spacing  span = 4  6= 24m

𝟔
𝐰= + 𝟔 24 = 192kg = 1.92kN
𝟑

231
 PLASTIC ANALYSIS
• In plastic analysis and design of a structure, the ultimate load of the
structure as a whole is regarded as the design criterion.
• This method is rapid and provides a rational approach for the
analysis of the structure.
• Plastic analysis and design has its main application in the analysis
and design of statically indeterminate framed structures.
• The ratio of the plastic moment to the yield moment is known as
the shape factor.
• The ratio of the collapse load to the working load is known as the
load factor.

232
 PLASTIC ANALYSIS
• Due to the increase in BM, a stage will be reached when all fibres
will be yielded.
• The beam at this stage reaches its maximum resisting capacity.
• The plastic section modulus depends on the location of the plastic
neutral axis.
• The plastic section modulus is the sum of the areas of the cross
section on each side of the plastic neutral axis(which may or may
not be equal) multiplied by the distance from the local centroids of
the two areas to the plastic neutral axis.

233
 PLASTIC ANALYSIS
• Elastic hinge is the location where structural member is free to rotate,
i.e., member cannot resist B.M. at elastic hinge location.
• Plastic Hinge is a yielding zone in an structural elements which
generally develops at the point of Maximum Bending Moment,
support, etc.
For instance - For a simply supported beam subjected to a point load, the plastic
hinge will occur at the position of point load.
• Plastic Hinges are generally formed at following position of a beam-
• Points under concentrated loads
• At supports
• At points of Maximum Bending Moment

234
 SHAPE FACTOR
SHAPE SHAPE FACTOR

Triangle 2.343

Triangle 2.0

Rhombus 2.0

Rectangle and Square 1.50

Circle 1.698

Hollow circle 1.273

235
Que: Steel is mainly an alloy of
a) Iron and Carbon
b) Sulphur and Zinc
c) Zinc and tin
d) Phosphorous and Tin

236
Que Steel is mainly an alloy of
a) Iron and Carbon
b) Sulphur and Zinc
c) Zinc and tin
d) Phosphorous and Tin

237
Que Which of the following is a disadvantage of Steel?
a) High strength per unit mass
b) High durability
c) Fire and corrosion resistance
d) Reusable

238
Que Which of the following is a disadvantage of Steel?
a) High strength per unit mass
b) High durability
c) Fire and corrosion resistance
d) Reusable

239
Que Elastic Modulus of Steel is __________
a) 1.5 x 109 N/mm2
b) 2.0 x 105 N/mm2
c) 2.0 x 105 N/m2
d) 1.5 x 109 N/m2

240
Que Elastic Modulus of Steel is __________
a) 1.5 x 109 N/mm2
b) 2.0 x 105 N/mm2
c) 2.0 x 105 N/m2
d) 1.5 x 109 N/m2

241
Que 4. Unit mass of Steel = ________
a) 785 kg/m3
b) 450 kg/m3
c) 450 kg/cm3
d) 7850 kg/m3

242
Que 4. Unit mass of Steel = ________
a) 785 kg/m3
b) 450 kg/m3
c) 450 kg/cm3
d) 7850 kg/m3

243
Que Poisson’s ratio of steel is ________
a) 0.1
b) 1.0
c) 0.3
d) 2.0

244
Que Poisson’s ratio of steel is ________
a) 0.1
b) 1.0
c) 0.3
d) 2.0

245
Que Structural Steel normally has carbon content less than _______
a) 1.0%
b) 0.6%
c) 3.0%
d) 5.0%

246
Que Structural Steel normally has carbon content less than _______
a) 1.0%
b) 0.6%
c) 3.0%
d) 5.0%

247
Que What happens when Manganese is added to steel?
a) decreases strength and hardness of steel
b) improves corrosion resistance
c) decreases ductility
d) improves strength and hardness of steel

248
Que What happens when Manganese is added to steel?
a) decreases strength and hardness of steel
b) improves corrosion resistance
c) decreases ductility
d) improves strength and hardness of steel

249
Que : Which of the following is the property of high carbon steel?
a) high toughness
b) reduced ductility
c) high strength
d) reduced strength

250
Que : Which of the following is the property of high carbon steel?
a) high toughness
b) reduced ductility
c) high strength
d) reduced strength

251
Que : What is the minimum percentage of chromium and nickel added
to stainless steel?
a) 0.5%, 10.5%
b) 2%, 20%
c) 10.5%, 0.5%
d) 30%, 50%

252
Que : What is the minimum percentage of chromium and nickel added
to stainless steel?
a) 0.5%, 10.5%
b) 2%, 20%
c) 10.5%, 0.5%
d) 30%, 50%

253
Que: Which of the following is the effect of increased content of
Sulphur and Phosphorous in Steel ?
a) yields high strength
b) affects weldability
c) increases resistance to corrosion
d) improves resistance to high temperature

254
Que: Which of the following is the effect of increased content of
Sulphur and Phosphorous in Steel ?
a) yields high strength
b) affects weldability
c) increases resistance to corrosion
d) improves resistance to high temperature

255
Que Which of the following is correct criteria to be considered while
designing?
a) Structure should be aesthetically pleasing but structurally unsafe
b) Structure should be cheap in cost even though it may be structurally
unsafe
c) Structure should be structurally safe but less durable
d) Structure should be adequately safe, should have adequate
serviceability

256
Que Which of the following is correct criteria to be considered while
designing?
a) Structure should be aesthetically pleasing but structurally unsafe
b) Structure should be cheap in cost even though it may be structurally
unsafe
c) Structure should be structurally safe but less durable
d) Structure should be adequately safe, should have adequate
serviceability

257
Que :What is serviceability?
a) It refers to condition when structure is not usable
b) It refers to services offered in the structure
c) It means that the structure should perform satisfactorily under
different loads, without discomfort to user
d) It means that structure should be economically viable

258
Que :What is serviceability?
a) It refers to condition when structure is not usable
b) It refers to services offered in the structure
c) It means that the structure should perform satisfactorily under
different loads, without discomfort to user
d) It means that structure should be economically viable

259
Que : Analysis is referred to _____________
a) determination of cost of structure
b) determination of axial forces, bending moment, shear force etc.
c) determination of factor of safety
d) drafting architectural plans and drawings

260
Que : Analysis is referred to _____________
a) determination of cost of structure
b) determination of axial forces, bending moment, shear force etc.
c) determination of factor of safety
d) drafting architectural plans and drawings

261
Que . Which method is mainly adopted for design of steel structures as
per IS code?
a) Limit State Method
b) Working Stress Method
c) Ultimate Load Method
d) Earthquake Load Method

262
Que . Which method is mainly adopted for design of steel structures as
per IS code?
a) Limit State Method
b) Working Stress Method
c) Ultimate Load Method
d) Earthquake Load Method

263
Que Which IS code is used for general construction of steel?
a) IS 456
b) IS 256
c) IS 800
d) IS 100

264
Que Which IS code is used for general construction of steel?
a) IS 456
b) IS 256
c) IS 800
d) IS 100

265
Que Which of the following relation is correct?
a) Permissible Stress = Yield Stress x Factor of Safety
b) Permissible Stress = Yield Stress / Factor of Safety
c) Yield Stress = Permissible Stress / Factor of Safety
d) Permissible Stress = Yield Stress – Factor of Safety

266
Que Which of the following relation is correct?
a) Permissible Stress = Yield Stress x Factor of Safety
b) Permissible Stress = Yield Stress / Factor of Safety
c) Yield Stress = Permissible Stress / Factor of Safety
d) Permissible Stress = Yield Stress – Factor of Safety

267
Que In Working Stress Method, which of the following relation is
correct?
a) Working Stress ≤ Permissible Stress
b) Working Stress ≥ Permissible Stress
c) Working Stress = Permissible Stress
d) Working Stress > Permissible Stress

268
Que In Working Stress Method, which of the following relation is
correct?
a) Working Stress ≤ Permissible Stress
b) Working Stress ≥ Permissible Stress
c) Working Stress = Permissible Stress
d) Working Stress > Permissible Stress

269
 Que What is Load Factor?
a) ratio of working load to ultimate load
b) product of working load and ultimate load
c) product of working load and factor of safety
d) ratio of ultimate load to working load

270
 Que What is Load Factor?
a) ratio of working load to ultimate load
b) product of working load and ultimate load
c) product of working load and factor of safety
d) ratio of ultimate load to working load

271
Que : The effective length of a compression member of length L held in
position and restrained in direction at one end and effectively
restrained in direction but not held in position at the other end, is
a) L
b) 0.67 L
c) 0.85 L
d) 1.5 L

272
Que : The effective length of a compression member of length L held in
position and restrained in direction at one end and effectively
restrained in direction but not held in position at the other end, is
a) L
b) 0.67 L
c) 0.85 L
d) 1.5 L

273
Que : The ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain within elastic limit,
is known as

A. modulus of elasticity
B. shear modulus of elasticity
C. bulk modulus of elasticity
D. tangent modulus of elasticity

274
Que : The ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain within elastic limit,
is known as

A. modulus of elasticity
B. shear modulus of elasticity
C. bulk modulus of elasticity
D. tangent modulus of elasticity

275
Que A beam is defined as a structural member subjected to

A. axial loading
B. transverse loading
C. axial and transverse loading
D. none of these.

276
Que A beam is defined as a structural member subjected to

A. axial loading
B. transverse loading
C. axial and transverse loading
D. none of these.

277
Que The type of welding used to connect two plates at a lap joint is
called
a. Butt weld
b. Slot Weld
c. Plug weld
d. Fillet Weld

278
Que The type of welding used to connect two plates at a lap joint is
called
a. Butt weld
b. Slot Weld
c. Plug weld
d. Fillet Weld

279
Que A rivetted joint can fail in
a. Tearing of plate only
b. Shearing of rivet only
c. Bearing of rivet only
d. Any of the above

280
Que A rivetted joint can fail in
a. Tearing of plate only
b. Shearing of rivet only
c. Bearing of rivet only
d. Any of the above

281
Que The gross dia of a 14mm nominal dia rivet is
a. 15.5 mm
b. 16mm
c. 16.5mm
d. NOTA

282
Que The gross dia of a 14mm nominal dia rivet is
a. 15.5 mm
b. 16mm
c. 16.5mm
d. NOTA

283
Que The effective length of fillet weld of length 𝒍 (where s is size of
weld)
a. 𝒍 − 𝟒𝒔
𝟐
b. 𝟑 𝒍
c. 𝒍 − 𝟐𝒔
𝟒
d. 𝟓 𝒍

284
Que The effective length of fillet weld of length 𝒍 (where s is size of
weld)
a. 𝒍 − 𝟒𝒔
𝟐
b. 𝟑 𝒍
c. 𝒍 − 𝟐𝒔
𝟒
d. 𝟓 𝒍

285
Que The strength of field rivets as compared to shop rivets is
a) Same
b) 90 %
c) 80 %
d) 75 %

286
Que The strength of field rivets as compared to shop rivets is
a) Same
b) 90 %
c) 80 %
d) 75 %

287
• Que The maximum centre to centre distance between rivets in a
tension member of thickness 10mm is
a) 200 mm
b) 160 mm
c) 120 mm
d) 100 mm

288
• Que The maximum centre to centre distance between rivets in a
tension member of thickness 10mm is
a) 200 mm
b) 160 mm
c) 120 mm
d) 100 mm

289
Que Which type of the following does not describe a weld type
a) Butt weld
b) Plug weld
c) Zig zag weld
d) Lap weld

290
Que Which type of the following does not describe a weld type
a) Butt weld
b) Plug weld
c) Zig zag weld
d) Lap weld

291
Que The calculated area of the cover plate of a built up beam, an
allowance for rivet holes to be added is
a. 10 %
b. 13%
c. 15%
d. 18%

292
Que The calculated area of the cover plate of a built up beam, an
allowance for rivet holes to be added is
a. 10 %
b. 13%
c. 15%
d. 18%

293
Que Minimum pitch of rivets shall not be less than (where d is gross
dia of rivet)
a. 1.5d
b. 2.5d
c. 2d
d. 3d

294
Que Minimum pitch of rivets shall not be less than (where d is gross
dia of rivet)
a. 1.5d
b. 2.5d
c. 2d
d. 3d

295