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ISSN 0376-7256 Newspaper Regd. No. 25597/73 without prepayment
published on 21 FEBRUARY, 2020 MARCH, 2020
Indian Highways Advance Month, MARCH, 2020
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Indian Highways
Volume : 48 Number : 3 Total Pages : 60

Bogibeel Bridge Over Brahamputra River, Assam

Edited and Published by Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, IRC HQ, Sector-6, R.K. Puram,
Kama Koti Marg, New Delhi - 110 022. Printed by Shri S.K. Nirmal on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress
at M/s. Aravali Printers & Publishers Pvt. Ltd. https://www.irc.nic.in
 Indian Highways
Volume : 48 Number : 03 ● MARCH, 2020 ● ISSN 0376-7256
Indian Roads Congress
Founded : On 10th December, 1934

Contents
 From the Editor's Desk 4-5
 Highlights of Regional Workshop at Iit Roorkee 6-9
 Meeting Schedule 20
 Advertisements 10-14, 56, 57 & 58
Technical Papers
 Identification of Full Depth Cracks in Concrete by Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 15
By Lalita Jangpangi & Binod Kumar
 Fundamental Limitations of Performance Grade Rutting and Fatigue Cracking Criteria of Bitumen 21
By Akanksha Pandey, Sumit K. Singh, Sridhar Raju & Sham Ravindranath
 Design of Fender Pile 30
By Dr Swapan Kumar Bagui, S K Puri, Pranayjit Chakraborty & K Subbaiah
 Critical Review of Different Types of Remedial Measures for Landslides 38
By R.K Panigrahi & Gaurav Dhiman
 Inviting Expression of Interest 46
 Notification 47-50
 Tender Notice 51-55

FEEDBACK
Suggestion/Observation on editorial and Technical Papers are welcome and may be sent to IRC Secretariat on
[email protected]/[email protected]

Publisher & Editor: S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC

E-mail: [email protected]
Headquarter: IRC Bhawan, Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110 022.
Phone No.: +91-11-26171548 (Admn.), 23387140 & 23384543 (Membership), 23387759 (Sale),
26185273 (Tech. Papers, Indian Highways and Tech. Committees)

No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
The responsibility of the contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author(s) concerned. IRC and the Editor
disclaim responsibility and liability for any statements or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The
opinion expressed in the papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.

Printed at: M/s Aravali Printers & Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110 020 `20
INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 3
 FROM
TECHNICAL
THE EDITOR’S
PAPERDESK

Bearings in Highway bridges

Bridge bearings are devices installed between super structure and sub structure to transfer the
translational and rotational movements from Traffic loads, Temperature changes, wind and seismic
effects etc. Before World War II only steel bearings were in use both in Road-cum-Rail bridges and
Road bridges. Before Country`s Independence , the British focused more on Railway network with
rudimentary Roads to provide connectivity to Garrison towns, Major ports and Commercial centres
for movement of goods and services. Although, road network began to expand from 1950, the primary
task was to integrate roads in the Princely states with those in erstwhile British India and aftermath of
Partition of India. Needless to state, the first task was to evaluate load carrying capacity of existing
bridges and to replace them where necessary and construct new bridges at missing links on rivers and
wide streams. This period coincides with the introduction of RCC in bridge construction resulting in
more usage of bearings by adopting existing practices only. However, it was not till 1973 that Ministry
of Shipping & Transport brought out Standard Specifications briefly covering RCC, Steel, Elastomeric
and Paper bearings but with no details.
It was in 1982 that IRC brought-out the first Code of Practice on Metallic Bearings (IRC:83-Part-1) followed
by a Code of Practice on Elastomeric Bearings (IRC: 83 Part-II) in 1987. In case of Steel Roller-Rocker
bearings, the anchoring is done by long holding down pins/ bolts and many times taken into the pier
cap. The problem gets aggravated for higher horizontal forces. Moreover, they can undergo translational
and rotational movements in one direction only. Although, Elastomeric bearings can undergo bi-axial
rotation, they could not be designed till recently, to take large movements by deformations. Subsequently,
IRC:83 Part-III on Pot, Pot-cum PTFE, Pin and Metallic Guide Bearings was brought-out in 2002. It is to be
noted that earlier design of all types of bearings in India was based on Working Stress Method (WSM).
The Pot bearings overcame limitations on the usage of Elastomeric bearings and inadequacy of Steel
bearings to undergo tri-axial rotations in Skew and Curved bridges built in Prestressed concrete. The usage
of bearings in wide bridges with long continuous spans required precision in design and Manufacture. The
introduction of POT bearings heralds usage of Hi-Load Multi-Rotational (HLMR) Bearings in India.
The other members of HLMR bearing family include Spherical & Cylindrical bearings with or without
a sliding and/or guide element. The HLMR component permits rotation in any axis and translation is
taken care by a sliding element. The wide spread usage of elastomeric and low fiction sliding elements
facilitated development of a large family of bearings.
During the last decade of the 20th Century, the Countries in the European Union pooled their knowledge
and experience in Bridge Engineering including Bearings and formulated many Codes of Practice ( EURO
Codes) based on Limit State Design (LSD). Later the AASHTO together with different States in the USA
adopted Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method . The IRC quickly took the cue and revised
IRC: 6, IRC:22, IRC: 24 and integrated IRC:18 and IRC: 21 in the IRC: 112 based on LSD. Now other
Codes of practice such as IRC: 78 are following the LSD philosophy.
Meanwhile, several Codes of Practice on Bearings were formulated in the European Countries based
on LSD, but the contributions made in Germany in this field are significant. The EN:1337 series on
bridge bearings which has 11 parts is a joint effort of the European union in the formulation of uniform
Codes of practice. Not lagging behind, the IRC revised the Codes of practice on Bridge Bearings viz.
IRC:83 Part-I, Part-II and Part-III and added IRC:83 Part-IV on Spherical and Cylindrical bearings all
based on LSD. A notable feature of the revised Codes of Bridge Bearings is that the new approach with

4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 FROM
TECHNICAL
THE EDITOR’S
PAPERDESK

the usage of better grades of steel and adoption of sliding elements in all types including elastomeric
bearings caters to the requirements of larger loads and translational and rotational movements satisfying
the profession. The elastomeric bearings can now be anchored to Super and Sub-structure to sustain
dynamic loads. Moreover, Natural rubber (Poly Isoprene) can be used in addition to Chloroprene rubber
and thickness of individual pad/layer for use has been enhanced. Although, the usage of (Steel) Roller &
Rocker bearings (as per IRC:83 Part-I) is on the decline, they are sometimes used in Bridge rehabilitation
projects. In some cases Cylindrical steel bearings with a slider are used to overcome the problem of
eccentricity of loading on substructure caused due to movement of rollers .
There are 09 types of elastomeric bearings proposed in revised IRC:83 Part-II which also permit usage
of thick Cover Steel plates, 25 mm thick elastomer internal layers and Low friction sliding plates, as
against just two types in former Code. The revised Pot, Pin, Metallic Guide and Plane Sliding bearings
(IRC:83 Part-III) is more detailed in Design checks than the previous version which was based on
BS:5400 9.1 and 9.2. The number of types covered remain the same as in earlier version.
The usage of Spherical bearings with PTFE and Stainless steel sliding/rotating elements was Specified
in the MoRTH Specifications of 1995 but no IRC Code of Practice on Spherical bearings existed at that
time and the design was done by Manufacturers as per International Codes. The IRC:83 Part IV fills the
gap and covers Cynlindrical bearings as well. More over, Hard Chromium surface can also be used on
Curved surface as an alternative to Austenitic (Stainless steel). 5 nos. of Spherical and 5 No. of Cylindrical
bearings are illustrated in the New Code of Practice. A check on deformation of Backing plate is also
included in this part.. The MoRTH Specifications are presently under revision incorporating the changes
in IRC Codes, IS Codes and best International Practices.
In spite of advancements in Design principles, the subject of bearings remain a Manufacturer’s prerogative
and most of the tests on Materials and final Products are to be performed in-house by the Manufacturers
or to be outsourced by the Engineers. Barring Acceptance tests on a few types of (finished) Elastomeric
bearings, the facilities for other types of bearings are not available with independent Govt. Test Houses/
Laboratories/Academic Institutes. Due to lack of understanding of the subject and independence in
evaluation, the Bridge Engineer has to rely on claims of performance by the Manufacturer largely on
Trust. A case point is performance of Seals in Pot Bearings, which influence long term behavior or failure
due to mal-functioning. Another item is PTFE or similar Sliding material whose coefficient of friction
affects forces transmitted and its rate of wear influences design life. The service and environmental
conditions under which a bearing functions is not fully addressed in the Bearing Codes. Another grey area
is tolerances in Manufacture which can be checked in a Metrology lab.
Thus, there is a need to Promote Independent test houses to conduct Acceptance tests on Materials,
Tolerances and different types of Manufactured bearings and promote research in areas/materials uncovered
hitherto.

(Sanjay Kumar Nirmal)

Secretary General

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 5

 Highlights of Regional Workshop at Iit Roorkee
ADVERTISEMENT
Highlights of Regional Workshop on
“Quality Control, New Materials and Techniques in Road Sector”
held on 7th & 8th February, 2020 at IIT Roorkee
The Indian Roads Congress and Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, jointly organized Regional Workshop on “Quality
Control, New Materials and Techniques in Road Sector” on 7th& 8th February, 2020 at Roorkee (Uttrakhand). The Chief
Guest of Inaugural Funaction was Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC and Guest of Honour was Shri Ayaz Ahmed,
Chief Engineer, PWD, Govt. of Uttrakhand. The dias of the function was also shared by Prof. Sanjay Kumar Ghosh,
HoD, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Roorkee; Prof. Manoranjan Parida, Deputy Director, IIT Roorkee & Prof. G.D.
Ransinchung R.N, Professor, IIT Roorkee and the Local Organizing Secretary of the Workshop.
The workshop was Inaugurated by Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC alongwith other dignitaries on the dais
by lighting Tradional Lamp.

Cheif Guest Shri S.K. Nirmal lighting the Traditional Lamp

Guest of Honour Shri Ayaz Ahmed, lighting the Glimpses of Inaugural Function
Traditional Lamp

6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 Highlights of Regional
ADVERTISEMENT
Workshop at Iit Roorkee

sector. Shri Nirmal wished this workshop a great success

and believe that the workshop will provide a good learning
experience to all the participants.
Speeches were also delivered by Shri Ayaz Ahmed & Prof.
Manoranjan Parida. Prof G.D. Ransinchung R.N proposed
vote of thanks.
In this workshop, the latest development in the areas of
highway engineering were shared through various technical
presentations and also by the industry partners showcasing
their latest technologies through Exhibition Stalls. In the
end participation certificates were distributed amongst the
delegates.
Following presentation were made by the eminent
Prof. Sajany Kumar Ghosh, HoD, Department of Civil speakers
Engineering, IIT Roorkee delivering Welcome Address
1. “Policy for Use of New and Innovative Material in
Prof. Sanjay Kumar Ghosh extended warm welcome to Road Sector” by Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General,
Chief Guest Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC and IRC
Guest of Honour Shri Ayaz Ahmed, Chief Engineer, PWD, 2. “New Materials for Road Construction” by Prof.
Govt. of Uttrakhand, all the dignitaries on the dais & off Praveen Kumar, Director, NIT Delhi
the dais, expert speakers and all participants of the regional 3. “Common Lapses in CC Pavement and Remedy”
woskhop. Shri R.K. Jain, Former Chief Enginer , Haryana
PWD
4. “Double Wall Corrugated Pipes-The Economical
Solution to Replace RCC Pipes in Culverts and Cross
Drainage” by Shri Hemant Kumar, Vice President,
Prince Pipes & Fitting Ltd.
5. “Construction Zone Safety” by Prof. Manoranjan
Parida, Deputy Director, IIT Roorkee
6. “New Technologies for Rural Road Construction”
Dr. Siksha Swaroopa Kar, Senior Scientist, CSIR-
CRRI, New Delhi
7. “Utilization of RAP in Pavement Construction” by
Prof. G.D. Ransinchung R.N. & Ms. Sarah Mariam
Abraham, IIT Roorkee
8. “Stabilized Pavement using Additives” by Shri Pratap
Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC delivering Mohanty, Senior General Manager, Viswa Samundra
Inaugural Address
Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad
Shri. S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC in his inaugural 9. “Innovative Road Meterial for Effective Road Safety”
address said that for building sustainable and durable by Shri Pradeep Gairola, Govt. of Uttrakahand
pavements, it is imperative to incorporate the best 10. “Innovations in Pavement Design” by Prof. Animesh
industry practices in terms of workmanship, technology Das, IIT Kanpur
in the training and skill development of human resources 11. “Emerging Practices in Pavement Engineering” by
involved in the design and construction of Highway Prof. K.S. Reddy, IIT Kharagpur
projects. He also elaborated the role of Indian Roads 12. “Rheology and Quality Control in PMB’s” by Prof.
Congress in disseminating the latest technology through Sham Sundar Ravindranath, IIT Roorkee
its Codes/Specification and Guidelines. He opined that 13. “Superpave Performance Testing Eqipment” by Shri
such workshop was a humble endeavour in the direction Shailesh Chauhan, Director, CHIR-AYU, Vadodara,
of addressing the amalgamation of quality control for Gujarat
construction, use of alternative materials, emerging 14. “Experience of NRIDA in Implementation of New
technologies, along with their field application in road Materials/Technology and Quality Control” by Dr.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 7

 Highlights of Regional
ADVERTISEMENT
Workshop at Iit Roorkee

I.K. Pateriya, Director (Tech.), NRIDA, New Delhi 16. “Polymer Modified Bitument Using Elvloy® RET-
15. “New Technology for Filling Expansion Joint Proven Solution for High Performance Roads” by
through Filler Board Shivalik HD 100’ by Akash Dr. Nitin Satarkar, Development Manager, Dow
Goyal, Director Shivalik Group, New Delhi Chemicals Internationl Pvt. Ltd.

Prof. (Dr.) K.S. Reddy Prof. (Dr.) Praveen Kumar Shri R.K. Jain

Prof. (Dr.) Manoranjan Parida Prof. Animesh Das Prof. G.D. Ransinchung R.N.

Shri Pradeep Gairola Dr. Siksha Swaroopa Kar Dr. I.K. Pateriya

Prof. Sham Sundar Ravindranath Shri Hemant Kumar Shri Akash Goyal
Eminent Speakers delivering their lecture
The regional workshop was attended by about 250 and its adjacent states; Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
delegates who are engineers, academicians, students, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Delhi. The participants shared
reseachers, consultants and Highway professionals & exchanged their ideas and concepts in the field of
from the States of Northern Region i.e Uttarakhand, highway engineering.

8 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

Highlights of Regional Workshop at Iit Roorkee

View of Audiences

Organizing Team and Volunteers from IIT Roorkee

View of Cultural Programme

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 9

 ADVERTISEMENT

10 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

ADVERTISEMENT

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 11

 ADVERTISEMENT

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 ADVERTISEMENT

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 ADVERTISEMENT

14 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Identification of Full Depth Cracks in Concrete by Ultrasonic

Pulse VELOCITY

Lalita Jangpangi1 Binod Kumar2

1. INTRODUCTION pulse velocity and/or travel time, one can assess the
properties of the structural concrete and presence of flaws
Saw cutting is an important feature of concrete pavement
like, honeycombing, crack etc inside the concrete .
construction. These cuts are made to facilitate the induction
of full depth cracks into the concrete and thus, generate Three different methods are used to record the values of
slabs out of the entire paved area. These cuts are made only pulse velocity (Fig. 1):
up to one- third depth of the concrete pavement thickness a. Direct Method: The transmitter and receiver are
with a view that full depth cracks due to shrinkage and opposite to each other.
curling stresses will develop under them in due course of b. Indirect Method: The transmitter and receiver are in
time. If such cracks do not develop under saw cuts , then the the same face of test surface.
actual size of the slabs in the field may be different from the c. Semi Direct Method: The transmitter and receiver are
designed size resulting in the entirely different behaviour of on any two perpendicular faces of the test surface.
slab under environmental and traffic loading. This may lead
to premature structural cracking of the pavement. During
field performance studies of concrete pavement it is very
important to know the condition of the joints under the saw
cut and also get information about a crack whether it is full
depth crack or not. Presently, it is done by extracting cores
from the locations of the joints and cracks .This destructive
way of investigation further damages the concrete slabs. a. Direct
Ultrasonic pulse propagation could be a non- destructive
way of getting valuable information about the functioning
of the joints and depth of the cracks.
2. ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY
This is one of the most popular techniques used for detection
of flaws in a specimen. The ultrasonic pulse is generated
by an electro acoustic transducer. Since, ultrasonic waves
do not travel through air or vacuum a couplant like grease b. Semi - Direct
is used to get the transducer in contact with specimen.
When a pulse is induced into concrete from a transducer,
it undergoes multiple reflections at the boundaries of the
different material phases within the concrete. A complex
system of stress waves develop which includes longitudinal,
Shear and surface waves. The receiving transducer detects
the onset of the longitudinal waves, which is the fastest.
The material without any defects results in higher velocity c. Indirect
and lower travel time in damaged ones. Thus by measuring Fig. 1 (a-c): Different Positions of Transducers
1
Principal Scientist, E-Mail: [email protected]
2 Central Road Research Institute, New-Delhi
Senior Principal Scientist, E-Mail: [email protected]

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 15

 TECHNICAL PAPER

2.1 Applications where, Tc represents the travel time around the crack; Ts
The measurement of travel time and pulse velocity may be is the surface travel time in sound concrete, and ‘X’ is
used to determine: the least distance between the transducers and the crack
i. The homogeneity of the concrete. measured on the surface of the concrete. In order to use
ii. The presence of voids, cracks or other imperfections. Eq. 1, it is necessary to previously obtain the surface travel
iii. Detection of depth of crack. time, Ts, of the longitudinal wave in a region without crack
iv. Changes in quality of concrete which may occur with transducers at a distance ‘2X’ apart from each other.
with time i.e. due to cement hydration or through the
action of fire, frost or chemical attack. The assumption of the same ultrasonic pulse velocity
v. The quality of the concrete in relation to specified through a sound surface concrete and through a path around
standard requirements, which generally refers to its the crack may lead to errors in the estimate of the crack
strength. depth. Usually, top concrete layers are more porous than
2.1.1 Detection of defects inner parts due to differences in settlement of aggregates,
When an ultrasonic pulse travels through concrete-air vibration and also loss of water due to evaporation. Thus,
interface, there is a negligible transmission of energy it is common to observe a smaller UPV (ultrasonic pulse
across this interface so that any air-filled crack or void lying velocity) in the surface of the concrete than in the inner
directly between the transducers will obstruct the direct
parts of the structure. Bungey states that the depth of
beam of ultrasound when the void has a projected area
larger than the area the transducer faces. The first pulse to surface opening cracks using Eq. 1 can be estimated with
arrive at the receiving transducer will take longer time than a precision of 15%.
in similar concrete with no defect. It is sometimes possible
2.1.3.2 BS 1881: Part 203 method
to make use of this effect for locating flaws, cracks etc. but
it should be appreciated that small defects often have little Another method to estimate the depth of surface opening
or no effect on transmission times.
cracks is the one presented in BS 1881:Part 203. This
2.1.2 Detection of large voids or cavities method uses two measurements taken with the transducers
A large cavity may be detected by measuring the transit placed equidistantly from the crack at the distances ‘X’
times of pulses passing between the transducers when and ‘2X’. Figure 3 shows the arrangement, in which
they are placed in suitable positions so that the cavity lies
the transmitting and receiving transducers are placed on
in the direct path between them. The size and position
of such cavities may be estimated by assuming that the opposite sides of the crack and at equi-distant from it.
pulses pass along the shortest path between the transducers Assuming that the ultrasonic pulse velocity is the same,
and around the cavity. Such estimates are more reliable the depth of surface opening crack is determined as:
if the cavity has a well defined boundary surrounded by
uniformly dense concrete. If the projected area of the H = X √(4T12-T22) / (T22-T12) (2)
cavity is smaller than the diameter of the transducer the
where, T1 and T2 are the time of flight of the longitudinal
cavity cannot be detected.
wave with transducers at distance ‘x’ and ‘2x’from the crack
2.1.3 Estimation of the depth of surface cracks
respectively. BS 1881 suggests a distance ‘x’ of 150 mm.
2.1.3.1 Bungey’s method
Bungey proposed a mathematical expression by
comparing the time of flight of an ultrasound longitudinal
wave through a sound concrete to the one around a crack,
considering that the velocity of the longitudinal wave in
the concrete is the same in both cases. Assuming the wave
travel path presented in Fig. 2, the crack penetration depth
‘H’ can be determined as:
H = ( X / Ts ). ( Tc 2 – Ts 2 )1/2  (1) Fig. 2: Transducer Arrangement for Bungey’s Method

16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER

both transmitter and receiver were placed on the top surface

of concrete pavement. Travel time was measured on sound
concrete without any visible flaw on the surface and this
measurement was termed as ‘SURFACE’ measurement.
Travel time was also measured across the joint and cracks
when transmitter and receiver were placed on opposite
sides of the joint or crack and this measurement was termed
as ‘ACROSS’ measurement. At each test location, both
Fig.3: Transducer arrangements for BS 1881 methods SURFACE and ACROSS measurements were recorded.

This method does not require a complimentary test in sound 3.1 UPV Measurements
concrete. However, it is based only on two measurements Pulse travel times were measured at 12 locations on various
made with the indirect mode of transmission. In this concrete pavement slabs. For each test, three values of
arrangement, the exact travel path is uncertain. While travel time were taken and average of the three values
calculating the ultrasound pulse velocity using the indirect was determined. The input voltage was kept as 100 V.
mode of transmission, in order to overcome the lack of The distance between transmitter and receiver was kept
precision of travel path, BS 1881 requires a series of 200 mm c/c which worked very well during the field testing.
reading. BS 1881 indicates that the velocities from indirect The average travel time values in microseconds for the tests
transmission mode is often 5 to 20 percent smaller than are given in Table 1. Photos 1 & 2 show the measurements
the one obtained from the direct transmission mode. being taken SURFACE and ACROSS the transverse joint.
Yemen et al recommended that when performing an indirect
measurement, it is necessary to take at least four readings
in order to obtain variability smaller than 2 percent in the
ultrasonic pulse velocity. While BS 1881 does require a
series of measurements when using the indirect mode of
transmission to calculate the ultrasonic pulse velocity,
it does not apply this requirement when using indirect
mode of transmission to determine the depth of surface
opening crack. Above equation is derived by assuming
that the plane of the crack is perpendicular to the concrete
surface and the concrete in the vicinity of the crack is of
reasonably uniform quality.
2.1.4 Monitoring changes in concrete with time
Changes occurring in the concrete with time caused by (a): Surface Measurements of UPV
either hydration etc. may be determined by repeated
measurements of pulse velocity. Changes in the pulse
velocities are indicative of changes in strength if the
velocity measurement is made over progressive periods
of time on the same test piece or concrete product.
2.1.5 Estimation of strength
Concrete quality is generally assessed by measuring its
cube or cylinder crushing strength. It has been found that
there is no simple correlation between cube strength and
pulse velocity and the correlation is affected by type of
aggregate, aggregate/cement ratio, age of concrete, size
and grading of aggregate and curing conditions.
3. Field Work
Measurements of travel times of ultrasonic pulse were taken (b): Across Joint Measurements of UPV
on concrete road surface using indirect method in which Photo 1 (a-b): UPV Testing at Joint

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 17

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Photo 2: UPV Testing at Crack Photo 3. Core Showing No Crack Under Saw Cut
3.2 Core Extraction For Saw Cut Depth Measurement the joints is given in Table 2. Photo 3 shows a core
Cores were extracted to measure the actual depth extracted over the saw cut joint at the test location
of saw cut at joints. The actual depth of saw cuts at VI.
Table-1
Location No. Measurement Type Avg. Travel Time (microseconds)
I SURFACE Near Crack 84
ACROSS Full Depth Crack 656
II SURFACE Near Saw cut 55
ACROSS Transverse Saw Cut 570
SURFACE Near Crack 63
III ACROSS Full Depth Tr. Crack 745
IV SURFACE Near Joint 56
ACROSS Transverse Joint with Clear Crack Line 213
V SURFACE Near Joint 57
ACROSS Transverse Joint with Clear Crack Line 402
VI ACROSS Transverse Saw Cut Near Crack (No Crack Line) 66
SURFACE Near Joint 60
VII SURFACE Near Joint 60
ACROSS Transverse Saw Cut Near Crack (No Crack Line) 66
VIII ACROSS Transverse Joint with Clear Crack Line 565
SURFACE Near Joint 74
IX ACROSS Transverse Joint with Clear Crack Line 536
SURFACE Near Joint 57
X ACROSS Transverse Joint with Clear Crack Line 536
SURFACE Near Joint 62
XI ACROSS Transverse Joint with Clear Crack Line 590
SURFACE Near Joint 84
XII ACROSS Transverse Joint with Clear Crack Line 546
SURFACE Near Joint 55

18 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER

4. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS placing both transmitter and receiver at the surface of

Travel times of ultrasonic pulse were recorded using sound concrete on the same side of saw cut /crack /
indirect mode of transmission on surface of sound construction joint, then the pulse passes through the
concrete, across the partial depth saw cut and across the concrete only and the travel time is very less. The pulse
cracks. Travel times of pulse for surface and across the travel time recorded during surface test varied between
saw cut or crack were used to determine the depth of saw 55 and 84 microsecond with an average value of 66.7
cut or crack as per Eq. 1. The determined depth of saw microseconds
cut or crack were compared with the thickness of the (Table 1). Whereas, the travel time recorded during tests
concrete slab to ascertain whether the crack developed across saw cuts and cracks varied between 213 and 745
under the saw cut is full depth or not. The depth of crack microsecond with an average value of 536 microsecond.
determined as per Eq. 1 using surface travel time Ts and Thus, the cracks under saw cuts at these locations are full
travel time around the crack Tc from Table 1, is given in depth cracks.
Table 2. The actual thickness of concrete slabs has also
The values in Table 2 show that there is no relation between
been given in the Table 2.
the actual pavement thickness and calculated depth of the
Table 2. Calculated and Actual Depth of Crack/ Saw crack in case of existence of full depth crack. As explained
Cut and In-Place Thickness of Concrete Slabs above, in case of full depth crack, higher travel time is
recorded due to the passing of the pulse through air gaps.
Location Calculated Depth Concrete Slab Actual Depth
No. of Crack/Saw Cut Thickness of Crack/Saw If air gaps are wider for a wider full depth crack, then the
(mm) (mm) Cut (mm) recorded travel time and hence the calculated crack depth
I 1007 75 - will be more as compared to the full depth cracks with finer
II 990 80 23
air gaps. The presence of silt, sand etc filled into the full
depth crack may also have an effect on the travel time and
III 1180 70 -
calculated depth of the full depth crack. Though the effect of
IV 367 250 69
crack width and presence of silt etc inside the crack was not
V 700 250 71
evaluated in this study but this could be the explanation for
VI 46 250 27 getting different calculated depths of full depth cracks for
VII 46 250 28 the same pavement thicknesses as observed at location IV
VIII 753 200 64 and V for pavement thickness of 250 and at locations VIII,
IX 905 200 68 IX, X, XI and XII for pavement thickness of 200 mm. But,
X 863 200 61 calculated depth of crack which is more than the pavement
XI 697 200 63 thickness is a clear indication of a full depth crack.
XII 979 200 70 The calculated depth of saw cut/crack at both the locations
As can be seen from the Table 2, the calculated depth VI and VII is 46 mm, whereas the thickness of concrete
of cracks is much more than the full depth of concrete slab at these locations is 250 mm. It indicates that the
slab at all locations except location VI and VII. Since, crack under the saw cut is not a full depth crack. This was
the maximum depth of crack can not be more than the confirmed by extracting core from the saw cut location.
depth of concrete slab if crack is assumed to be vertical, The core did not show any crack under the saw cut
therefore, any calculated value of depth more than the (Photo 3). The pulse travel time at these locations was
thickness of the slab will indicate a full depth crack. 60 microseconds for the surface test and 66 microsecond
The depth of the crack more than the thickness of the for across the saw cut test. Across-saw-cut travel time is
concrete slab is because of very high value of pulse slightly more than the surface travel time because, in the
travel time when transducers were placed either across across-saw-cut test, the pulse has to travel a longer path
the saw cut with full depth crack under it or construction around the bottom tip of saw cut. The actual depth of saw
joint having a discontinuity throughout the depth of the cut, as measured by core extraction, at these locations was
slab. Under all these situations, the pulse originating 26 and 27 mm whereas the calculated depth is 46 mm.
from the transmitter has to travel through air gaps Both measured and calculated depth of saw cuts indicate
before it reaches to the receiver. Since the air is not that the depth of saw cut is much less than the required
as dense as concrete, the velocity of the pulse passing depth of 1/4 to 1/3 of slab thickness for the development
through air gaps reduces tremendously and a very high of crack under saw cut. However, the calculated depth is
travel time is recorded. When the test is conducted by observed to be more than the actual depth of saw cut.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 19

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Thus, a very high value of pulse travel time across the saw REFERENCES
cut or crack and calculated depth of the saw cut or crack i. Taylor, P.,Wang K., Wang, X. , Wang, X , “Comparison of
more than the thickness of the concrete slab indicate the setting time measured using ultrasonic wave propogation
presence of full depth crack. with saw-cutting times on pavements”, Technical report
5. CONCLUSION ,October 2015 , National Concrete Pavement Technology
Center.
Saw cutting at regular intervals is an important feature of
ii. Trinik, G., Turk G., Kavcic, F., and Bosiljkov, “Possibility
concrete pavement and whitetopping construction. These
of using the Ultrasonic Wave Transmission Method to
saw cuts are made upto one-third depth of the concrete Estimate Initial Setting Time of Cement Paste”, Cement
slab thickness. After making the saw cuts, in due course and Concrete Research.38, 2008, pp. 1336-1342.
of time, full depth cracks are expected to develop under
these saw cuts. These cracks under saw cuts are developed iii. Zhu, J., Kee, S.; Han, D., and Tsai, Y ,” Effects of Air Voids
under the influence of shrinkage of concrete and curling on Ultrasonic Wave Propogation in Early Age Cement
Pastes”, Cement and Concrete Research.41,02011, pp.
stresses. After the cracks has developed under the saw
872-881.
cuts, concrete laid in a continuous stretch is converted
into slabs of designed size. The development of cracks iv. Robeyst, N., Gruyaert, E., Grosse, C., and Belie, N, “
under saw cuts is often verified by taking cores over the Monitoring and Setting of Concrete Containing Blast-
joint whenever and wherever needed. Extracting cores not Furnace Slag by Measuring the Ultrasonic P-Wave
only consumes lot of time but also damages the existing Velocity” , Cement and Concrete Research. 38, 2008,
pp. 1169-1176.
concrete. Under the project a non destructive technique
using Ultra sonic pulse velocity equipment was employed v. Chotard, T., Gimet-Breart, N., Smith, A., Fargeot, D.,
and tests were conducted on concrete pavement slabs to Bonnet, J., and Gault, C, “ Application of Ultrasonic
identify the development of full depth cracks under saw Testing to Describe the Hydration of Calcium Aluminate
cuts. Study results have indicated that the development Cement at the Early Age”, Cement and Concrete
of full depth crack under saw cuts can be ascertained Research. 31(3), 2001, pp. 405-412.
by measuring and comparing pulse travel time on sound vi. Subramaniam, K., Lee, J., and Christensen, B.,
concrete surface and across the saw cuts. The depth of the “Monitoring the Setting Behavior of Cementitious
crack can be measured by using the two travel times. The Materials using One-sided Ultrasonic Measurements”,
calculated depth of crack which is more than the thickness Cement and Concrete Research. 35, 2005, pp. 850-857.
of concrete pavement slab will indicate the development vii. Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing reference manual , CNS
of full depth crack. Farnell limited, 2004.

IRC Technical Committees Meeting Schedule for March, 2020

Date Day Time Name of the Committee

05-03-20 Thu 11.00 AM Subgroup of Transport Planning & Traffic Engineering Committee (H-1) (for revision of IRC:SP:85)
02.30 PM Subgroup of Transport Planning & Traffic Engineering Committee (H-1) (for revision of IRC:46)
07-03-20 Sat 11.00 AM Mechanization & Instrumentation Committee (G-4)
02.30 PM Foundation, Sub-Structure, Protective Works and Masonry Structures Committee (B-3)
13-03-20 Fri 11.00 AM Steel and Composite Structures Committee (B-5)
14-03-20 Sat 11.00 AM Project Preparation, Contract Management, Quality Assurance and Public Private Partnership
Committee (G-1)
20-03-20 Fri 11.00 AM Subgroup of Specialized Bridge Structures including Sealinks Committee (B-9.3)
02.30 PM Subgroup of Specialized Bridge Structures including Sealinks Committee (B-9.4)
02.30 PM Road Maintenance & Asset Management Committee (H-6)
21-03-20 Sat 11.00 AM Bearings, Joints and Appurtenances Committee (B-6)
02.30 PM Specialized Bridge Structures including Sealinks Committee (B-9)
23-03-20 Mon 11.00 AM Flexible Pavement, Airfield & RunwaysCommittee (H-2)

20 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Fundamental limitations of performance grade rutting and
fatigue cracking criteria of bitumen

Akanksha Pandey1 Sumit K. Singh2 Sridhar Raju3 Sham Ravindranath4

Abstract
The Performance Grading (PG) of bitumen was first implemented in United States, and worldwide there is a growing
trend to adopt the PG system. In this study, the fundamental limitations of PG rutting and fatigue cracking criteria of
bitumen are presented. For unmodified bitumen samples, it is demonstrated that the seeming complicated rutting criteria
G*/sinδ ≥ 1000/2200 Pa (unaged/RTFO aged) can be simplified to viscosity ɳ ≥ 100/220 Pa.s. The simplification is valid over
a wide range of temperature and angular frequency in oscillatory mode, and strain rate in the rotational mode. At PG upper
limiting temperature (Tu), even in capillary and Brookfield viscometers, the viscosity of bitumen samples was close to 100/220
Pa.s. The PG rutting criteria, Shenoy’s parameter, low shear viscosity, zero shear viscosity, and viscosity by vacuum capillary
viscometer are all based on the principle of correlating viscosity of bitumen to rutting in pavements. The PG fatigue cracking
criterion is based on the energy dissipating (loss modulus G”) capacity of RTFO and PAV aged bitumen. At PG intermediate
failure temperature (TI), where the fatigue cracking criteria G” = G*sinδ ≤ 5000 kPa, the phase angle (δ) values were close to
45°. This implies that the energy dissipation (loss modulus) and energy storage (elastic modulus) capacity of the samples will
be similar (sin45° = cos45° = 0.707). Thus, the PG fatigue cracking criterion also has limitations as neither of the two modulus
dominate. The seemingly complicated fatigue cracking criteria G*sinδ ≤ 5000 kPa can be simplified to G* ≤ 7000 kPa. The
challenges in correlating PG grading of polymer modified bitumen to pavement performance are also presented.

1. INTRODUCTION temperature is categorized at 6 °C intervals (example: 46,

52, 58, 64, 70, 76 °C). The loss compliance (1/J” = G*/
In an effort to better relate the properties of bitumen to
sinδ) measured in the linear viscoelastic (LVE) region
pavement performance, Strategic Highway Research
(angular frequency ω = 10 rad/s; strain γA = 10%) is
Program (SHRP) proposed Superpave Performance
adopted as the specification criteria for rutting. The rutting
Grading (PG). The PG grading system proposes a criterion
specification requirement was set as the PG upper limiting
each for rutting, fatigue cracking, and thermal cracking that
temperature (Tu), at which G*/sinδ ≥ 1000 and 2200 Pa for
the bitumen has to fulfill at temperatures that are dependent
unaged and RTFO aged bitumen, respectively. Though the
upon the area of use [1-5]. Implementation of the PG
criterion G*/sinδ was initially found to correlate well with
grading system marked a significant shift in the bitumen
the rutting performance of asphalt pavements [1-5], later
grading process compared to the conventional methods.
on, a number of literature studies have highlighted the
Flexible pavements are prone to rutting during its early lack of good correlation between the criterion G*/sinδ and
service lifecycle and at higher service temperatures. the rutting performance [6-11]. Hence, alternative ways
The properties of bitumen at higher service pavement to predict rutting performance were thereby suggested;
temperature can be correlated to rutting. To ensure that modifications to G*/sinδ equation, variation in testing
rutting of flexible pavements is within the acceptable parameters, use of zero shear viscosity method etc. [9-14].
limits, a lower limiting value to the stiffness of bitumen In the case of polymer-modified bitumens, due to the
was fixed at the maximum 7-day average pavement poor correlation [15-18], PG+ testing method (multiple
temperature. For the purpose of convenience, in PG stress creep and recovery) was adopted to predict rutting
grading system, the maximum 7-day average pavement performance [16-20].
1
Research Scholar, Email : [email protected]
2
Research Scholar Department of polymer and process engineering, IIT Roorkee
3
Associate Professor and Head Department of Civil Engg. BITS Pilani Hyderabad.
4
Associate Professor Department of polymer and process engineering, IIT Roorkee, E-mail : [email protected]

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 21

 TECHNICAL PAPER

At room temperature and lower, the susceptibility of flexible intermediate temperature (TI) of the 6 bitumen samples
pavements to fatigue cracking increases considerably due used to examine the PG rutting and fatigue cracking criteria
to the increase in stiffness of bitumen [21, 22]. Also, fatigue are given in Table 1. The conventional properties of the
cracking occurs generally at later stages of pavement service bitumens are given in Table 2. In addition to the properties
life due to hardening of bitumen as it ages. In the SHRP presented in the two tables, flashpoint, mass loss after RTFO
studies, a good correlation was found between fatigue and solubility in trichloroethylene of the bitumen samples
cracking in the bituminous mixture and loss modulus were evaluated according to ASTM standards. Flashpoint,
G” = G*.sinδ measured at an angular frequency ω = 10 mass loss and solubility in trichloroethylene of all the
rad/s in the LVE region [2, 21, 22]. The loss modulus samples were > 230 °C, < 1 % and > 99 %, respectively.
G” = G*.sinδ, indicating the energy dissipation capacity, All the conventional and rheological measurements were
was chosen as the fatigue cracking criterion at the PG carried out according to ASTM standards.
intermediate temperature (TI). The specification requirement
was set as the temperature at which the loss modulus The applicability of PG rutting criteria was also evaluated
G” = G*sinδ ≤ 5000 kPa at ω = 10 rad/s and γA = 1% for on 6 polymer modified bitumens (PMBs). The PMBs were
RTFO+PAV aged bitumen. The fatigue cracking criterion prepared by blending varying percentages of linear styrene-
(G*sinδ ≤ 5000 kPa) has received higher criticism compared butadiene-styrene (SBS) polymer in D-62 bitumen. The
to rutting criterion due to lack of good relation between the SBS polymer (Kraton’s D1101), having bound styrene
criterion and fatigue failure of asphalt pavements, and thus of 30 wt%, was purchased from Rishi Chem distributors,
alternative methods to predict fatigue failure have been India. The PMBs were prepared by first mixing the SBS
suggested in the literature [23-28]. polymer in D-62 bitumen at 180 °C using a Silverson high
shear mixer (Model: L4RT) at 4000 rpm for 120 minutes.
Through comprehensive rheological analysis on
After mixing at high shear, the blend was homogenized by
unmodified and polymer modified bitumen samples,
the current study critically examines the fundamental mixing at 600 rpm for 120 minutes at 180 °C using an IKA-
rheological concepts (phase angle δ, sinδ, complex Werke low shear mixer (Model: RW20). To prevent phase
modulus G*, G*/sinδ, G*.sinδ on the basis of which the separation of polymer molecules from bitumen, the polymer
PG rutting and fatigue cracking criteria are developed. was cross-linked by addition of 0.12% sulphur at the start
of low shear mixing. The PMBs were stabilized by storing
2. Materials and Methods the samples inside an oven at 165°C for 12 hours. The basic
The source, PG upper limiting temperature (Tu) and properties of the 6 PMB samples are given in table 3.
Table 1: Source, PG upper limiting temperature (Tu) and intermediate temperature (TI) of the 6 unmodified
bitumen samples
PG Upper Temp. (°C) PG Intermediate Temp.
Bitumen Source (°C): RTFO + PAV aged
Unaged RTFO aged
A-56 Hotcrete Hyderabad 56 55 15
B-58 Space Petro Energy Pvt. Ltd. 58 57 15
C-59 Tiki Tar Industries 59 58 16
D-62 Hindustan Colas 62 61 22
E-63 Jalnidhi Bitumen Spec. Pvt. Ltd. 63 62 18
F-66 Jalnidhi Bitumen Spec. Pvt. Ltd. 66 65 25

Table 2: Conventional properties of the 6 unmodified bitumen samples

Bitumen Penetration Softening Point Absolute Viscosity at Brookfield Viscosity at RTFO
@ 25 °C (dmm) (°C) 60 °C (Poise) 135 °C (Pa.s) Retained Pen Viscosity ratio
(%) at 60 °C
A-56 130 44 500 0.25 49 2.34
B-58 100 46 718 0.28 52 2.60
C-59 83 45 897 0.29 54 2.74
D-62 64 49 1350 0.35 55 2.9
E-63 75 49 1359 0.37 50 2.62
F-66 52 53 2421 0.43 62 2.38

22 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 3: Properties of the 6 polymer modified bitumen (PMBs) samples

Modified SBS Conc. Softening Brookfield PG Diff. in RTFO aged PMB
Bitumen (wt %) Point (°C) Visc. @ Upper Soft.
135 °C (Pa.s) Temp. (°C) point (°C) Soft. Point % ER by MSCR at
(°C) (Tu-18 °C)
P 2% 2 58 0.8 68 0.4 64 32
P 3% 3 62 1.15 72 0.6 69.8 60
P 4% 4 75 1.68 81 0.6 78.2 85
P 5% 5 87 3.2 87 0.8 90.2 97
P 6% 6 95 6.5 98 1.0 98.8 100
P 7% 7 98 7.1 101 1.2 101.4 100

3. Results and Discussions limiting temperature is also the temperature where complex
viscosity of the asphalt binders is ≥ 100/220 Pa.s (unaged/
3.1 Rutting Criteria for Unmodified Bitumen
RTFO aged). Thus, the correlation observed between
3.1.1. PG upper limiting temperature (Tu) |G*|/sinδ of bitumen and rutting performance of asphalt
The rutting specification requirement was set as the pavements will be similar to the correlation between
temperature at which G*/sinδ ≥ 1000 and 2200 Pa for complex viscosity of bitumen and rutting in asphalt
unaged and RTFO aged bitumen samples, respectively. pavements [12, 13]. Since the phase angle values of the
Though the bitumen is graded in 6 °C intervals, experiments unmodified asphalt binders are more than 80°, even the
were carried out at temperature where G*/sinδ ~ 1000 and Shenoy’s parameter simplifies to binder viscosity. Thus; PG
2200 Pa for unaged and RTFO aged bitumen samples, rutting criteria, Shenoy’s parameter, low shear viscosity,
which is named as PG upper limiting temperature (Tu). zero shear viscosity, and viscosity by vacuum capillary
The Tu of the unaged and RTFO aged bitumens is listed viscometer are based on the same principle of correlating
viscosity of binder to rutting in asphalt pavements.
in table 1.
As the phase angle values are nearly 90°, elastic modulus
An important understanding is obtained when the phase G’ = G*.cosδ values will be negligible compared to loss
angle (δ) values of the bitumen samples at Tu is plotted modulus values G” = G*.sinδ and the contribution to the
against time, as shown in fig. 1 (unaged) and fig. 2 (RTFO complex modulus (G*)2 = (G’)2 + (G”)2 will be mainly
aged). It can be seen from fig. 1 and 2 that at Tu, phase from the loss modulus G” as shown in fig. 4.
angle values of the unaged and RTFO aged bitumens were
all above 80°.
For δ = 80°, sin80° = 0.984 ≈ 1 (1)
In the inset of fig.1 and 2, it can be clearly seen that sinδ
values for the 6 unaged and RTFO asphalt bitumens at Tu
were ≈ 1.
Hence, the SHRP defined rutting criterion can be simplified
to complex modulus G*
G*/sinδ = G* > 1000/2200 Pa (unaged/RTFO aged) (2)
From elementary rheology [Macosko 1994, Mezger 2014],
complex modulus |G*| is correlated to complex viscosity
|ɳ*| as |G*| = |ɳ*|.ω (3)
Thus, for unmodified asphalt binders at PG upper
limiting temperature (Tu), the PG rutting criterion
“|G*|/sinδ = |G*| ≥ 1000/2200 Pa” can be further simplified
to complex viscosity η*
|ɳ*| ≥ 100/220 Pa.s (unaged/RTFO aged) (4)
This is experimentally confirmed upon plotting complex Fig. 1: Phase angle values at Tu vs. time for the 6 unaged
viscosity at Tu vs. time for both unaged and RTFO aged bitumen samples. The corresponding sinδ vs. time (s) is
bitumens as shown in fig. 3a and 3b. Therefore, PG upper shown in the inset.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 23

 TECHNICAL PAPER

To understand the rheological behavior of unaged

bitumen at temperatures lower than Tu, frequency sweep
experiments were carried out at Tu - 20 °C. In fig. 5, the
variation of phase angle as a function of angular frequency
ω at Tu - 20 °C for the 6 bitumen samples is plotted. From
fig. 5, it can be seen that the lowest value of δ was 70° for
the E-63 bitumen and the corresponding value of sinδ was
0.95 (inset). Thus, even at temperatures 20 °C below Tu,
G* ≈ G” as confirmed in fig. 6.

b
Fig. 3 (a-b) Complex viscosity at Tu vs. time for the 6
bitumen samples (a) unaged (b) RTFO aged.

Fig. 2: Phase angle values at Tu vs. time (s) for the 6

RTFO aged bitumen samples. The corresponding sinδ vs.
time is shown in the inset.

Fig. 4: Complex modulus G* and Loss modulus G” at Tu

vs. time (s) for the 6 unaged bitumen samples.
This further demonstrates that for unmodified bitumen
samples, the term sinδ in rutting criteria has no benefit
and the whole term (G*/sinδ) just simplifies to viscosity.
Thus, even at temperatures 20 °C below Tu, G*/sinδ can be
simplified to complex modulus G* and complex viscosity
ɳ*. The negligible variation in sinδ is due to the fact that the
sine function is a slowly changing function above 70°. It is
known in the literature that at high temperatures bitumen
becomes liquid-like and exhibit phase angles above 80°
a [8]. But, none of the literature studies demonstrate that the

24 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER

rutting criteria G*/sinδ simplifies to viscosity. °C vs. ω for the 6 bitumen samples. The corresponding
elastic modulus G’ values are shown in the inset.
In the case of solids, irrespective of whether it is elastic
or not, modulus values are readily used to evaluate the 3.1.2. Measurements in a rotational mode, capillary
performance of the material. On the other side, modulus viscometer, and Brookfield viscometer
values are not used to evaluate water and other standard a. Rotational mode: For liquids exhibiting liquid-like
liquids. The dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) in oscillation behavior (δ = 90°), complex viscosity ɳ* determined
mode will give complex modulus G* values irrespective of through oscillatory shear in the linear viscoelastic region
whether the sample is Newtonian liquid or Hookean solid. should be same as viscosity determined through rotational
The rheometer will also give complex viscosity ɳ* values shear. Thus, for bitumen samples at Tu, measurements
even for a Hookean solid. Hence, utmost care should be carried out in rotational shear should result in viscosity
taken while adopting any rheological parameters. values close to 100 Pa.s. To confirm this, strain rate ramp
experiments in rotational shear was carried out at Tu
using cone-plate geometry (diameter 25 mm, 2° angle)
from 0.1 to 10 s-1. It can be seen from fig. 7 that the
shear viscosity ɳ of the 6 bitumen samples was close to
100/220 Pa.s (unaged/RTFO aged), and remained constant
over the applied shear rate of 0.1 to 10 s-1. The experiments
were limited to 10 s-1 in the cone-plate geometry, as edge
instability starts to occur.

Fig. 5: Phase angle values at Tu-20 °C vs. ω for the 6

bitumen samples. The corresponding sinδ values are
shown in the inset.

fig. 7: Shear viscosity at Tu vs. shear rate for the 6

unaged and RTFO bitumen samples in a cone-plate
geometry in a rotational mode.
b. Capillary and Brookfield viscometer: The viscosity
of bitumen is also commonly determined using capillary
and Brookfield viscometers. Unlike the dynamic shear
rheometers (DSR), these viscometers are inexpensive and
are very easy to operate. But in capillary and Brookfield
viscometers, it is difficult to correctly quantify the effect
of shear stress/shear rate on liquids. Measurements in
capillary and Brookfield viscometers are most suitable
for liquids exhibiting Newtonian behavior. Table 4
Fig. 6: Complex modulus G*, loss modulus G” at Tu-20 summarizes the viscosity values from capillary and

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 25

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Brookfield viscometer of bitumen samples at Tu. In bitumen samples getting overlapped into one grade than in
Brookfield viscometer, measurements were carried out at viscosity grading method.
0.3 rpm using spindle 21. It can be seen from the table
that even in simple measuring systems, the viscosity of
the six bitumen samples was close to 100 Pa.s. Apart from
the six bitumen samples, measurements were made on 10
more bitumen samples to demonstrate the universality of
the results. It can be seen from Table 4 that the viscosity
values from capillary and Brookfield viscometer of the
10 additional samples was also close to 100 Pa.s at Tu.
The conventional properties of the 10 additional bitumen
samples are given in supplementary section.
Table 4: Measurements in capillary and Brookfield
viscometers at Tu
Bitumen Absolute viscosity Brookfield Visc.Spindle
(Poise) 21, 0.3 rpm, (Pa.s)
A-56 982 103
B-58 1000 115
C-59 Fig. 8: PG upper failure temperature (Tu), softening
990 121
point (Tr&b), absolute viscosity at 60 °C vs penetration
D-62 1140 121
of the 16 bitumen samples.
E-63 836 120
3.2 Fatigue Cracking Criteria for Unmodified
F-66 1160 112
Bitumen
G-58 1010 117
H-58 1030 109
An important understanding about the rheological behavior
of RTFO + PAV aged asphalt bitumens was obtained when
I-59 993 114
phase angle values at PG intermediate limiting temperature
J-60 1150 114 (TI) was analyzed. Figure 9 presents phase angle values of
K-60 1194 120 the 6 RTFO + PAV aged bitumens at TI. It can be seen from
L-62 920 118 Fig. 9 that at TI and LVE condition of ω = 10 rad/s and
M-64 995 109 γA = 1%, the phase angles δ values of RTFO + PAV aged
N-64 1020 113 bitumens were found to be between 43° to 50°. In this δ
range, sinδ will be close to cosδ, which means that elastic
O-65 1045 118
modulus Gʹ and loss modulus Gʺ values will be close to
P-72 1040 119 each other. Since G’ and G” will be of similar value, the
3.1.3. Comparing PG upper limiting temperature Tu to damping factor (tanδ = G”/G’) is close to 1 for all the
conventional properties samples as shown in the inset of figure 9. This means that
the energy dissipation capacity of the bitumens will be same
In figure 8, PG upper limiting temperature (Tu), softening
as its energy storing tendency. Thus the fatigue cracking
point and absolute viscosity at 60 °C of the 16 unaged
specification has a notable limitation. Hence, in SHRP
bitumen samples has been plotted against its penetration
studies, a good correlation was found between fatigue
values at 25 °C. The results show that the slopes of Tu
life of asphalt bitumen mixture and any of the rheological
and softening point vs. penetration values are very low
properties of asphalt binders (complex modulus G*, elastic
and similar. 12 bitumen samples are within one PG grade
modulus Gʹ and loss modulus Gʺ). Since phase angle values
(PG 58), though the penetration values (60 dmm to 100
of RTFO+PAV aged bitumens are close to 45°, sin45° =
dmm) cover more than two PEN grade. On the other
cos45° = 0.707, the fatigue criteria of G*sinδ ≤ 5000 kPa
hand, the absolute viscosity at 60 °C of the 16 bitumen
can be simplified to G* ≤ 7000 kPa.
samples vary significantly (slope: -33.7) as a function
of its penetration values. This clearly indicates that in Thus, for RTFO and PAV aged bitumens, PG Intermediate
PG grading method there is more possibility of different limiting temperature (TI) and LVE oscillatory conditions

26 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER

of ω = 10 rad/s and γA = 1 %, parameters on angular frequency posse a great challenge

in correctly correlating the rheology parameters measured
PG Fatigue Cracking Criteria: G*sinδ = Gʺ ≈ Gʹ ≤ 5000
in LVE region to pavement performance.
kPa simplifies to G* ≤ 7000 kPa (5)

Fig. 10: Phase angle δ vs angular frequency ω at PG

Fig. 9: Phase angle values at TI vs. time of the 6 RTFO+ upper limiting temperatures (Tu) for the 6 PMB samples.
PAV aged asphalt bitumens. The corresponding damping
factor values are shown in the inset.
3.3 PG Grading of Polymer Modified Bitumen
In case of polymer modified bitumens (PMBs), it is widely
recognized that the rutting criteria G*/sinδ is not sufficient
to correctly predict rutting in asphalt mixtures. Hence,
state highway agencies have opted to add empirical tests
such as multiple stress and creep and recovery, toughness,
tenacity, minimum phase angle value etc. [15-21].
To evaluate the rheological behavior (ɳ*, G*, δ etc.) of
PMBs, D-62 bitumen was modified with different weight
percent of linear SBS polymer (Kraton’s D1101). The
basic properties of the 6 PMBs are given in Table 3. In
Fig. 10, the phase angle (δ) values of the 6 PMBs at PG
upper limiting temperatures (Tu) is plotted as a function
of angular frequency. It can be seen in Fig. 10 that till 3%
SBS content, phase angle is nearly constant as a function
of angular frequency. Above 3% SBS content, the phase
angle values varies strongly as a function of angular
frequency. The sudden change in the behaviour of phase Fig. 11: Complex viscosity (ɳ*) vs. angular frequency
angle is due to the formation of a strong three-dimension ω at PG upper limiting temperatures (Tu) for the 6 PMB
network of polymer molecules in bitumen [30, 31]. This samples.
not only holds true for phase angle, even complex viscosity
4. Conclusions
show a strong dependency on angular frequency ω, as
shown in Fig.11. The strong dependence of rheological Through comprehensive rheological analysis, the PG

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 27

 TECHNICAL PAPER

rutting and fatigue cracking criteria were evaluated. From iii. R. B. McGennis, et al., “Background of Superpave
the results it can be concluded that asphalt binder test methods”. National Asphalt Training
Center, Demonstration Project 101, Federal Highway
a. T
 he PG rutting criterion can be simplified to viscosity Research Administration, 1994.
η ≥ 100/220 Pa.s (unaged/RTFO aged). The correlation iv. Mansour Solaimanian, “Development of SHRP asphalt
between G*/sinδ of bitumen and pavement rutting is research program climatic databases”. Strategic
same as the one between viscosity and rutting. Since Highway Research Program, National Research Council,
the phase angle values of the unmodified bitumens are Washington, D. C., Report: SHRP-A-685, 1994.
more than 80°, even the Shenoy’s parameter simplifies v. Khalid A. Ghuzlan, et al., “Selection and verification
to bitumen viscosity. The PG rutting criteria, Shenoy’s of performance grading for asphalt binders produced in
parameter, low shear viscosity, zero shear viscosity, Jordan”. International Journal of Pavement Engineering,
14, 2013, 116–124.
and viscosity by vacuum capillary viscometer are all
based on the same principle of correlating viscosity vi. Domingos M. D. I. and Faxina A. L. “Susceptibility
of binder to rutting in asphalt pavements. of Asphalt Binders to Rutting: Literature Review”.
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 2, 2016, 28:
b. The PG fatigue cracking criterion is based on the 04015134.
energy dissipating (loss modulus G”) capacity of vii. Subhy A. S, “Advanced analytical techniques in fatigue
RTFO and PAV aged bitumen. At PG intermediate and rutting related characterisations of modified bitumen:
failure temperature (TI), where the fatigue cracking Literature review”. Construction and Building Materials
criteria G” = G*sinδ ≤ 5000 kPa, the phase angle (δ) 156, 2017, 28-45.
values were close to 45°. This implies that the energy viii. Chen, J. S. and Tsai, C. J. “How good are linear
dissipation (loss modulus) and energy storage (elastic viscoelastic properties of asphalt binder to predict rutting
and fatigue cracking?”. Journal of Materials Engineering
modulus) capacity of the samples will be similar and Performance, 8, 1999, 443-449.
(sin45° = cos45° = 0.707). Thus, the PG fatigue
cracking criterion also has limitations as neither of the ix. Bahia, H. U., Zhai H., Zeng M., Hu, Y., and Turner, P.
“Development of binder specification parameters based
two modulus dominate. The seemingly complicated on characterization of damage behaviour”. Journal of the
fatigue cracking criteria G*sinδ ≤ 5000 kPa can be Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 70, 2001b,
simplified to G* ≤ 7000 kPa. 442–470.
c. I n case of polymer modified binders (PMBs), the x. Shenoy, A. “High temperature performance grading
variation of rheological parameters (ɳ*, G*, δ etc.) of asphalts through a specification criterion that could
capture field performance”. Journal of Transportation
as a function of polymer concentration and angular Engineering, Vol. 130, 2004.
frequency pose a great challenge in correlating the
xi. Morea, F., Agnusdei J. O. and Zerbino R. “The use of
rheological parameters to pavement performance. A
low shear viscosity to predict permanent deformation
multiple test approach both in LVE region and non- performance of asphalt concrete”. Materials and
LVE region can be adopted to obtain better correlation Structures, 44, 2011, 1241–1248.
in PMBs. xii. Morea, F., Zerbino, R., and Agnusdei, J. “Wheel tracking
5. Acknowledgment rutting performance estimation based on bitumen
low shear viscosity (LSV), loading and temperature
This work is supported by the ‘Early Career Research conditions”. Material and structure,  47(4), 2014, 683–
grant’ from the Science and Engineering Research Board 692.
(SERB), India (ECR/2016/001427). Authors also thank the xiii. Mazurek, G. and Iwanski M. “Estimation of zero shear
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government viscosity versus rutting resistance parameters of asphalt
of India for providing student scholarship. concrete”. Procedia Engineering, 161, 2016, 30 – 35.

References xiv. Wang, C. and Jhang J. “Evaluation of rutting parameters

of asphalt binder based on rheological test”. IACSIT
i. J. C. Petersen, et al., “Binder characterization and International Journal of Engineering and Technology,
evaluation, Volume 1. Strategic Highway Research 6(1), 2014.
Program”. National Research Council, Washington, D.
C., Report: SHRP-A-367, 1994. xv. Bahia, H. U., et al. “Characterization of modified asphalt
binders in Superpave mix design”. National cooperative
ii. Thomas W. Kennedy, et al., “Superior performing asphalt highway research program (NCHRP) report 459, 2001.
pavements (Superpave): The product of the SHRP Transportation research board, National research council,
asphalt research program”. Strategic Highway Research National academies, Washington, D.C
Program, National Research Council, Washington, D.
C., Report: SHRP-A-410, 1994. xvi. T.L.J. Wasage et al. “Rheological analysis of multi-stress

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creep recovery (MSCR) test”. International journal of continuum damage approaches”. Association of Asphalt
pavement engineering, 12(6), 2011, 561-568. Paving Technologists, Proceedings of the Technical
Sessions, 73:557-583, 2004.
xvii. Delgadillo R., Cho, D. W., and Bahia, H. “Nonlinearity of
repeated creep and recovery binder test and relationship xxv. J.P. Planche et al., “Evaluation of fatigue properties of
with mixture permanent deformation”. Transportation bituminous binders”. Materials and Structures, 37, 2004,
Research Record 1962, Transportation Research Board, 356-359.
Washington, DC, 3–11, 2006a.
xxvi. Andriescu, A., et al., “Validation of the essential work
xviii. D’Angelo, et al., “Revision of the Superpave high of fracture Approach to Fatigue Grading of Asphalt
temperature binder specification: The Multiple stress Binders”. Journal of the Asphalt Paving Technologists,
creep recovery test”, Journal of the Association of Asphalt Proceedings of the Technical Sessions, 75, 27-29 March,
Paving Technologists, 76, 2007. ISSN: 0270-2932. 2006. ISSN: 0270-2932.
xix. John, A. D. “The relationship of the MSCR test to xxvii. Hintz C., et al., “Modification and Validation of Linear
rutting”. Road Material and Pavement Design, 1, 2009, Amplitude Sweep Test for Binder Fatigue Specification”.
61-80. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the
xx. Zahid Hossain, “Use of the Multiple Stress Creep Transportation Research Board, 2011. ISSN: 0361-1981
Recovery (MSCR) Test Method to Characterize Polymer xxviii. Shihui Shen, et al., “A dissipation energy approach to
Modified Asphalt Binders”. Journal of Testing and fatigue evaluation”. Road material and pavement design,
Evaluation 14(1), 2016. 7, 2007, 47-69.
xxi. David A. Anderson et al., “Binder characterization and xxix. Christopher W. Macosko, “Rheology, principle,
evaluation, Volume 3. Strategic Highway Research measurements and application” Wiley-Vch, New York,
Program” National Research Council, Washington, D. 1994.
C., Report: SHRP-A-369, 1994.
xxx. X. Lu and U. lsacsson, “Rheological characterization
xxii. Edward T. Harrigan et al., “Stage 1 Validation of the of styrene-butadiene-styrene copolymer modified
relationship between asphalt properties and asphalt- bitumens”. Construction and Building Materials, 11(1),
aggregate mix performance” Strategic Highway Research 1997, 23-32
Program, National Research Council, Washington, D. C.,
Report: SHRP-A-398, 1994. xxxi. Chen, J. S., Chih, M., and Lin C. H., “Determination
of polymer content in modified bitumen”. Material and
xxiii. Fujie Zhou et al., “Evaluation of Fatigue Tests for Structure, 3, 2003, 594-598.
Characterizing Asphalt Binders”. Journal of materials in
Civil Eng. 25(5), 2013, 610-617. xxxii. Andreas Schaur, Unterberger S. and Lackner R., “Impact
of molecular structure of SBS on thermo-mechanical
xxiv. Daniel, J. S. et al., “Fatigue evaluation of asphalt properties of polymer modified bitumen”. European
mixtures using dissipated energy and viscoelastic Polymer Journal, 96, 2017, 256–265.

Supplementary Data:
Table: Conventional properties of the additional 10 unmodified bitumen samples
Penetration Softening Point Absolute Brookfield RTFO
Bitumen @ 25 °C (dmm) (°C) Viscosity at 60 Viscosity at 135 Retained Pen Viscosity ratio
°C (Poise) °C (Pa.s) (%) at 60 °C
G-58 95 45 892 0.27 63 2.47
H-58 97 45 871 0.29 50 2.83
I-59 92 44.8 895 0.30 52 2.24
J-60 76 48 1150 0.31 52 2.80
K-60 62 47 1194 0.31 64 3.17
L-62 85 46.6 1280 0.34 52 2.75
M-64 70 48 2090 0.40 57 2.56
N-64 65 51.4 2167 0.42 54 3.33
O-65 60 52.8 2230 0.43 58 3.11
P-72 40 54.4 3790 0.63 58 2.61

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DESIGN OF FENDER PILE

Dr Swapan Kumar Bagui1 S K Puri2 Pranayjit Chakraborty3 K Subbaiah4

Abstract
Fender pile is one of the important components of bridge where navigation ferry/ships cross the bridge to go to important
destinations. Fender piles shall be designed for the protection of the pier. Design guide lines related to fender piles are
carried out based on AASHTO Practice as mentioned in the Contract Document of the Paira Bridge. An Extra dosed
bridge is under construction near Barisal and the Sea is only 60 km away from the bridge location. Paira port is also under
construction. Therefore, after construction of Paira Port, navigation traffic (Goods and Passenger) will increase. Therefore,
fender piles have been designed to protect the main pier of the Piara Bridge. Total 28 fender piles are proposed around the
main Pier P 18. Based on the present and future navigation ships movement, Light duty fender system i.e., pier strength
requirement less than 450 ton insert-details. Entire fender system is capable of protecting barge impact. Geotechnical
investigation has also been carried out for depth of 150 m. Based on geotechnical report and requirement of lateral capacity,
steel fender piles of 70 m long with 1.0 m internal diameter are proposed. Detail capacity analysis of this fender piles are
presented in this paper based on geotechnical engineering properties boring. Total lateral capacity of the piles have been
calculated and found to be 50 T for maximum deflection of 193 mm.

1. INTRODUCTION other states and all commercially available systems that

The potential for vessel collisions with bridges are are in use throughout the world.
increasing at an alarming rate, as more heavy vessels are 1.1 Historical Background and Literature Review
making more frequent trips through/around the bridges.
Ship and barge collisions with bridges that are located
In the US, rigorous design of bridges for vessel collision
in coastal areas and along inland waterways represent a
was first incorporated by AASHTO Guide Specification
growing and serious threat to public safety, port operations,
and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway
motorist traffic patterns, and environmental protection in
Bridges (AASHTO 1991).
many cities throughout the world. In the past 42-years from
According to the AASHTO Guide Specifications, the 1960 to 2002, there have been 31 major bridge shipwrecks
expected impact force depends on the type of vessels worldwide due to ship or barge collisions, with a total loss
traveling in a water channel and the vessel dead weight, of life of 342 people. Seventeen of the bridge catastrophes
size, and speed of travel. The final design should also take discussed above occurred in the United States, including
into consideration the risk of collision, which depends on the 1980 collapse of the Sunshine Skyway Bridge crossing
the geometry of the channel and the size and number of in Tampa Bay, Florida, in which 390 m of the main span
vessels. The probability of vessel collision, the expected collapsed and 35 lives were lost as a result of the collision
collision forces resulting from the collision and the expected by an empty 35,0000-DWKN(deadweight Kilo newton)
type of damage given on impact are important parameters bulk carrier. Recent bridge collapses in the United States
for a risk-benefit analysis which are used to choose/ select include the Queen Isabella Bridge connecting San Padre
an appropriate pier fender system design for a particular Island to the Texas mainland, which was hit by a barge
water channel. This study requires an extensive literature in September 2001 (8 fatalities); and the collapse of the
survey into state-of-the-art protection systems used by I-40 Bridge over the Arkansas River near Webber Falls,
1
Chief General Manager, E-mail: [email protected]
2
President Intercontinental Consultants and Technocrats Pvt, Ltd,
3
General Manager New Delhi
4
Asst. Manager

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 TECHNICAL PAPER

Oklahoma, which was hit by a barge in May 2002 (13 Table 1 Major Ship Collisions with Bridges
fatalities). It should be noted that there are numerous vessel
Location Year Lives Others
collision accidents with bridges which cause damage that Lost
varies from very minor to significant damage, but do CSX/ Amtrak Railroad Bridge, 1993 47 –
not necessarily result in collapse of the structure or loss USA
of life. A recent U.S. Coast Guard study (May 2003) of Claiborn Avenue Bridge, USA 1993 1 –
towing vessels and barge collisions with bridges located Hamburg Harbour Bridge USA 1991 0 –
on the U.S. inland waterway system during the 10-year Volga River Railroad Bridge, 1983 176 –
period from 1992 to 2001 revealed that there were 2,692 RUSSIA
accidents with bridges. Only 61 of these, caused bridge Tjorn Bridge, SWEDEN 1980 8 –
damage in excess of $500.000 (1,702 caused very minor Sunshine Skyway Bridge USA 1980 35 –
damage with no repair costs to the bridge), and there were Pass Manchaca Bridge USA 1976 1 –
no fatalities within the study period. The study concluded Tasman Bridge, AUSTRALIA 1975 15 –
that 90 percent of the barge accidents were related to Sidney Lanier Bridge, USA 1972 10 Bridge/ Pier
human performance (78 percent to pilot error and 12 destroyed
percent to other operational factors). Only 5 percent were Old bridge in PORTLAND 1996 $46 million to
related to mechanical problems and for the remaining MAINE 14 clean oil spillage.
5 percent there was insufficient information to assign a 1-40 Bridge Arkansas river 2002 Bridge/pier
Oklahoma destroyed.
cause (AASHTO 2009).
Cosco Bay Bridge US Virginia 2002 0 No major damage
A brief survey of literature, as shown in Table 1, is
illustrative of the consequences of poor protective Pier fender systems such as fender piling must be designed
systems. Properly designed fender systems help protect to absorb the impact energy of berthing vessels to avoid
the bridges against catastrophic failures, such as the damage to either the vessel or pier structure. However,
1993 vessel collision with an Amtrak bridge in Alabama, current analytical methods such as the kinetic energy
which cost 47 lives and millions of dollars. Fourteen approach do not consider the energy dissipated in the
motorists were killed in May of 2002 when the 30 system, during vessel impact. Energy dissipation has the
m-long towboat Robert Y. Love, pushing two empty 90 effect of reducing the forces on the vessel, fender and
m-long barges on the Arkansas River, veered off course therefore should be considered in design both to minimize
and struck the Interstate 40 Bridge in Webbers Falls, over conservatism and to evaluate the relative performance
Oklahoma. Whitney et al.(1996) describe the application of various types of render/fender systems. This technical
of the AASHTO vessel collision model for barge traffic document presents a dynamic approach to the analysis of
over the Ohio River. fender piles where the impacting vessel coupled with the
fender pile is modeled as a freely vibrating, multi-degree
Fig.1 shows a picture of the I-40 Bridge collision in which
of freedom structure with lumped masses, stiffness, and
a section of roadway rests on the barge that knocked out the
damping. Field impact tests were conducted and compared
supports of the I-40 Bridge across the Arkansas River.
to the new dynamic model with reasonable agreement. The
new dynamic model was found to reduce the estimated
forces on the pile by about 25% as compared to the kinetic
energy method ( Bradshaw, A.S. et al. 2006).
Bridge crossing navigable channels of river, creeks and
canals as Well as the shipping channels in port areas and
open seas shall be provided with navigation span and barge
shall be decided based on the classification of waterways
as per Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) or
Ports and Shipping Authorities and barge impact force
shall be considered. For bridge located in sea, bridge
components shall be designed for barge impact force due
to the possibility of barge accidently collision the structure.
The Indian Waterways have classified in seven categories
by IWAI based on Dead Weight Tonnage (DWT) varies
Fig.1 I-40 Bridge, Arkansas River after Barge Impact from 200 DWT to 4000 DWT (IRC:6-2017).

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2. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND OBJECTIVES Main Bridge : 630 m long-115 m+2x200 m+

The Barisal-Patuakhali link is part of one of the most 115 m- Extradosed PSC segmental
important National highway of Bangladesh i.e., Dhaka- box girder type superstructure.
Mawa-Bhanga-Barisal-Patuakhali-Kuataka Road (N8). Viaduct : 840 m -28x 30 m – PSC I girder
Kuakata is about 287 km from Dhaka, which is an with RC deck slab
attractive tourist center where massive development work Lane Configuration : Four Lanes divided carriageway
is taking place presently. River Paira is near KM 189 Therefore, main pier, P 18 on water requires protection
on N8 National highway, where commuting at present from barge/ ships impact. Fender pile of hollow steel
is currently maintained by a ferry service at Labukhali. filled with concrete has been proposed. Location Map of
Government of Bangladesh has proposed to construct a the project is presented in Fig.2. Total 28 fender piles are
bridge over the river Paira. The Construction of a bridge proposed ..
over the river Paira will ensure smooth commuting from
Dhaka to Kuakata and will promote the developments at
Kuakata and to the entire southern region of Bangladesh.
Ferry crossing at proposed bridge locations which are also
the major tidal stream, considerably hampers the road
communication particularly during rainy/flood season. The
proposed bridge at the ferry location will improve the road
communication. The bridge will also improve the socio-
economic condition and industrial development of the
area. Construction of Paira Bridge (Lebukhali Bridge) over
the River Paira on Barisal-Patuakhali Road, Bangladesh
is being constructed under Ministry of Road Transport
and Bridges of Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, Road
Transport and Highways Division, Roads & Highways
Department.
Fig.2 Location Map of Paira Bridge
More than half of the country’s land area of Bangladesh
and 75% of its commercial activities are situated within 3. PILE SUPPORTED FENDER DESIGN
10 km of a navigable waterway during all seasons. The As per Contract of this bridge, AASSHTO Method is used
waterways are developed and maintained by Bangladesh for the design of Fender Pile. Therefore, bridge fender
Inland Waterways Transport Corporation (BIWTC). systems are designed for the protection of substructure
BIWTC maintains a few intercity passenger traffic lines elements and are specifically addressed in Article 3.14.15 of
and limited inland waterway cargo traffic. The private the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (2012).
sector provides the majority of inland water services. Bridge fender systems are physical barriers designed to
The service providers are organized into a number of absorb some or all of the energy from a vessel collision.
associations. The eleven major ports are administered Design of fender systems is an iterative process based on
and managed by BIWTA. Paira Bridge is located 75 km energy absorption. The kinetic energy of a moving vessel
away from the t Paira sea port. Many passenger ships and is dissipated by work done by flexure, shear, and torsion
commercial ships move from Dhaka to Barisal / Sunder in the fender system. The amount of energy dissipated
Bon /Paira Port daily. Depending on type of ships travel can be estimated from the area under the load deflection
and requirement of span for navigation purposed, main curve of the fender system. The load-deflection curve can
channel span was proposed 200 m by BIWTA. Roads and be constructed by conducting a ”Push-Over Analysis”
Highway Department (RHD) in consultation with BIWTA, of the fender system. Pile supported fender systems
An Extradose Bridge has been proposed with main span are considered to be sacrificial, and severe damage and
arrangement and viaduct portion for navigation purposes collapse is considered acceptable as long as the vessel
for smooth movement of Navigation ship with free height is redirected or enough energy is absorbed to prevent a
between desk slab and water level not less than than 13m. critical impact. The piles used to support fenders are fairly
Maximum variation of water level is 1.5 m during high unique as they resist primarily lateral loads in flexure. The
flood/high tide time. Span arrangement is as mentioned only vertical loads on the structural system are those of
below. the self-weight. Torsion can be induced into the fender

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system, but this is dependent on connection detailing. In [(Note:1 Knot=1.852 kmph,1 Kip=0.45 T]
fender design, the nominal lateral resistance of the pile [Source: AASHTO LRFD Bridge Specification 2012)
(AASHTO Section 10.7.3.12), the pile structural resistance
(AASHTO Section 10.7.3.13), and the drivability of the It is observed that average speed of ferry is in the range of
pile (AASHTO Section 10.7.8) must be determined. Any 20- 30 kmph and dead tonnage weight below 450 ton.
pertinent construction loading is also to be considered. 3.1 Type Fender Protective Systems
In general, a bridge over a navigable waterway that is Selection of fender systems depends on the energy-absorption
under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Coast Guard will have capacity required and on the type of pier . For instance, a
a bridge fender system. Primary function is to delineate flexible pier that will deflect under berthing forces will
channels and redirect aberrant vessels. dissipate much of the vessel’s kinetic energy. On the other
It is considered as a sacrificial structure. The channel pier hand, if the pier is rigid, the fender system must be designed
is designed for full ship impact. i.e., neglecting effect of to absorb the total berthing impact force. Further, a properly
fender system .Fender system may be classified as: designed fender system may permit a less costly pier design
if the fender is permitted to dissipate the load and properly
• Heavy duty fender system - Channel pier strength distribute the reactions into the’ pier structure.
requirement exceed 2500 kips(1125 ton)
Technologies used for bridge fender protective systems by
• Medium duty fender system- Channel pier strength
other states or countries were identified as: Timber piles,
requirement 1000- 2500 kips (450-1125 ton)
Steel piles, Pre-stressed concrete piles, rubber fender
• Light duty fender system- Chanel pier strength systems, Hydraulic/pneumatic fender systems, Dashpot
requirement not exceed 1000 kips (450 ton) hydraulic, Floating fender systems etc.
The head-on ship collision impact force on a pier shall be According to AASHTO, bridge protection systems
taken as: generally follow three objectives:
PS =4.5* 8.15 V DWT0.5 Equ.1
a. Reduce the annual frequency of collision events, e.g.
Where,
by improving navigation aids near a bridge.
PS = Equivalent static vessel impact force in ton
b. Reduce the probability of collapse, e.g. by imposing
DWT = Deadweight tonnage of vessel (tonne) vessel speed restrictions in the waterway.
V = Vessel impact velocity (ft/s)/(0.3 /m/s) c. Reducing disruption costs of a collision, e.g. by
Typical impact of ships with different dead weight and physical protection as in fender system.
different speeds have been calculated in above equation Using the reduced approach speed, equivalent static forces
(Equ 1) and are presented in Fig.3. parallel and normal to the centerline of the navigable
channel can be computed and used to design the bridge pier
and substructure. The pier should be designed for 100% of
the static force in a direction parallel to the centerline and
50% perpendicular to it. For overall stability, the design
impact force should be applied as a concentrated load on
the pier at mean high water level of the waterway. For
local collision effects, the design impact force should be
applied as a vertical line load equally distributed along the
depth of the barge’s head block.
3.2 Case Study
Fender pile design is presented based on test results of
Geotechnical Investigation carried out during construction
supervision stage.
3.3 Subsurface Condition /Geotechnical Investigation
Superficial geology indicates the presence sediment
consisting of silt, silty sand , clay and combination of
Fig. 3 Typical Ship Impact Force mixtures in the project area. Boring was carried out for

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 TECHNICAL PAPER

depth of 150 m. Fender pile length is adopted 70 m with be filled with concrete to increase lateral capacity of the
1.0 m internal diameter & is made of steel. Detail analysis fender pile. Fender pile has been analyzed using All Pile
has been carried out using All Pile Software and are Software.
presented here in.
3.5 Subsoil Investigation Report
3.4 Design of Fender Pile
Geotechnical investigation was carried out in April –July
Length of fender pile is 70 m which is too much long. To 2017 during design review stage. Geotechnical properties
make it rigid, steel pipe of 1.0 m inner is proposed. It will at main pier location are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Summarised Result of Geotechnical Investigation for Fender Pile

Depth (Zs) Corrected SPT Submerged unit Cohesion(C) Angle of internal Soil Strata
below bed level wt.(γ) friction (Ø)
m Nspt KN/m3 (KN/m2) Degree
39 Hard, Low Plasticity Sandy Silt with
0 to 29 7.4 15 30
Clay
Medium Dense to dense, NP Silt &
29 to 42.5 17 7.7 0.0 31
Sand
Hard, low Plasticity Sandy Silt with
42.5 to 45 35 7.7 10 32
Clay
45 to 59 20 8.1 0.0 34 Dense to Very Dense NP, Silty Sand
Hard - Low Plasticity sandy silt with
59 to 70 40 8.2 20.0 32
Clay
Note: Investigation is carried out for 150 m depth but for Fender Pile Design only 70 m is presented.

3.5 Physical Model Study out taking following different protection works and scour
depth of the main river protection was finalized.
Construction supervision Stage also included hydraulic
Physical Model study for scour protection of the main Design discharge of the river is 12697.94 Cumec with velocity
piers and river bed protection which is carried out by River 1.6m/s and slope of 8.28 cm/km at HFL 3.5 m PWD. Both
Research Institute (RRI), Ministry of Water Resource, Fixed Bed Model (FBD) and Movable Bed Model (MBD)
Government of Bangladesh. Model study was carried are used to Model Study as mentioned in Table 3.
Table 3 Different Test Runs Conducted
Test Run Physical Test Condition
To Existing river bed without any protection work
T1 Protection with sheet pile and revetment
T3 Protection with revised design of sheet pile and revetment by RRI
T4 Protection with revised design of sheet pile and revetment by Consultants, River Training Expert
T5.1 Test with proposed Paira Bridge revised design of revetment+ dregred Channel at 25 years Discharge
T5.2 Test with proposed Paira Bridge+revised design of revetment+dregred Channel at 50 years Discharge
T5.3 Test with proposed Paira Bridge+revised design of revetment+dregred Channel at 100 years Discharge

Based on these trial runs final scour level is determined beamon- foundation approach because the interaction of
[Scour Level = (-) 38.719 m]. This level has been the pile and the soil is indeed three dimensional in nature.
considered as scour level of fender pile and main pile of Research in this direction was pioneered by Poulos (1971),
130 m long and 2.5 m diameter. who treated the soil mass as an elastic continuum and the
pile as a strip, which applied pressure on the continuum.
4. DEPTH OF VERTUAL FIXITY OF PILE
.Bridge engineers commonly use the depth to fixity,
Analysis of laterally loaded piles can be done by treating the because it eliminates the geometrical considerations from
soil surrounding the pile as a three-dimensional continuum. the analysis such that a fixed cantilever-type of structural
Such an approach is conceptually more appealing than the model can be used. Point/depth of virtual fixity refers to

34 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER

a certain depth below ground surface where the piles are

fixed without movement under loads. The depth to the point
of fixity is useful for structural buckling requirement.
Fender pile inside diameter is 1.0 m with steel pile,
thickness of 1 cm,& . depth of fender pile is considered
as 70 m. Pile will be filled with concrete. This will
increase modulus of elasticity of composite material(steel
and concrete) and will increase moment of inertia, I(?).
Structural Stiffness has been calculated and found to be EI
= 9817477.042 KN-m2. This has been calculated using All
Pile Software and details are presented in Table 4.
5. FENDER PILE ARRANGEMENT
Twenty eight fender piles are proposed and layout plan
is shown in Fig.4.Fender piles will be connected with tie
beam. Passenger ferry and goods ships are commonly
travelling through this river. Fender system may be
classified as Light duty fender system- & Channel pier Fig.4 Plan of Fender Pile for Pier P18
strength requirement not to exceed 1000 kips (4500KN).
This system (28 fender piles, number 1 to 28) will be 5.1 Properties of Fender Pile
sufficient to protect the pier from impact of the Barge. Properties of fender pile are presented in Table 4.
Table 4 Pile Properties
Depth of Dia. of Top Level Pile Tip Type of Pile Moment of Inertia Young Modulus Area EI
Pile Pile Level (I) (E)
Zs m m m Driving steel cm 4
MPa Cm2 KN-m2
70 m 1.0 +4.15 -65.8 Pile 4908734.55 200000 7845 9817477.042

The Structural Stiffness, EI = 9817477.042 KN-m2

ηh = 1500 KN/m3.

The point of virtual fixity (Zf) = 1.9 T = 11 m

RL of fixity below scour level = (-) 49.73 m
RL of Pile Tip Level = (-) 65.8 m
Fig.5 Load Deflection Curve for Single Fender Pile
RL of Scour Level = (-) 38.719 m

Load Vs. Deflection curve has been plotted and shown in

Fig.5. Load Vs. Moment curve is also plotted and presented
in Fig.6 All Pile Software and lateral capacity is found to
be 50 T for maximum deflection of 193 mm for this type
fender pile as mentioned in All Pile Software. Total 28
number fender piles are required and details calculation is
presented in Annexure 1. P-y curve has also been plotted
and presented in Fig.7. Fig. 6 Load VS. Movement Curve for Single Pile

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 TECHNICAL PAPER

with later load with positive slope i.e., movement

increases with increasing moment.
vi. Later load fender pile found to be 50 T for maximum
pile cap top deflection 193 mm and design fender is
found to be safe.
REFERENCES
i. AASHTO (1991), Parker, N. and Ansari, F. (2003),
Yazdani, N., Wuttrich, R, Wekezer, J., and Wilson, C.
(2000), Patev, R.C., (1999).
ii. El-Tawil, S., Severino, E., and Fonseca, P. (2005)
“Vehicle Collision with Bridge Piers,”Journal of Bridge
Engineering, ASCE, pp. 345-353.
iii. M.W. Whitney, I.E. Harik and D.L. Allen, “Barge
Collision Design of Highway Bridges.” Journal of Bridge
Engineering May 1996.
iv. Maritime Casualty News (2002).
Fig. 7 P-Y Curve for Pile v. A. S. Bradshaw,. Baxter, G. Tsiatas, A. Marinucci,J.
Ressler 5; and R. Morgan.(2006). “Simple Dynamic
From both curves (Fig.5 and Fig.6), it is observed that Model for Fender Pile Analysis and Design.” Journal of
deflection and moment is linearly proportional to lateral Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering© Asce/
load i.e., increasing lateral load both are increasing linearly September/October issiue, Page 419-422.
with positive slope. Regression equations are developed
vi. Andrew Bechtel, Vedrana Krstic, Raymond Mankbadi ,
and it is found that R2 value is 1 i.e., correlation of curve is Hardesty & Hanover, Aravinda Ramakrishna , Hardesty
found to be excellent and has very good correlation. & Hanover (20016). “State of Practice for the Design
Pile analysis has been carried out using All Pile Software of Bridge Fender Systems with Polymeric Materials”
and lateral cap movement is found 193 mm and total 2016 , Transport Research Board(TRB) Annual meeting
conference.
maximum horizontal (lateral load) is found to be 50
Ton(500KN). vii. AASHTO Guide Specification and Commentary for
Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges, 2010.
P-y Curve for pile group has also been determined using
All Pile Software and presented in Fig.7. viii. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
Customary U.S. Units, 7th Edition, with 2015 and 2016
6. CONCLUSIONS Interim Revisions
Based on the present study following conclusions may be ix. Sicking, D.L., Reid, J.D., and Rohde, J.R., (1999)
drawn: “Development of a Flared Energy- Absorbing Terminal
for W-Beam Guard-Rails,” Transportation Research
i. Fender pile shall be proposed for protecting piers
Record Issue1 690, pp 8-16.
of bridge structures on water crossing navigation
channels. x. Dolce, M., Filardi, B., Marnetto, R., and Nigro, D.,
(1997), “Experimental Tests and Applications of a New
ii. AASHTO Design criteria shall be used for design Biaxial Elasto-Plastic Device for the Passive Control of
of fender pile. Structures.” Proceedings of the Fourth World Congress
iii. Impact load shall be determined based on the on Joint Sealants and Bearing Systems for Concrete
Structures, ACI, pp 651-674.
navigation traffic, crossing the channel.
xi. Maher, M.H., Gucunski, N, and Chae, Y.S., (1996),
iv. It is found from Fig.5 that lateral deflection of “Composite Fender and Sheet Piles in Marine Front
fender pile linearly increases proportional with Systems,” in the Proceedings of First International
lateral load with positive slope i.e., deflection Conference on Composites in Infrastructure, National
increases with increasing lateral load. Science Foundation, pp 665-675.
v. From Fig.6, it may also be concluded that moment xii. Volk, R.J., (1996), “Composites in Civil Infrastructure
of fender pile increases proportional & linearly and Marine Applications,” Proceedings of the First

36 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER
International Conference on Composites in Infrastructure, xvi. Pardon, D.V., (1986), “Marine Fender Systems: Planning
National Science Foundation, pp. 1115-25. for Effective Design and Construction,” Journal of
xiii. IRC:6-2017 - Standard Specifications and Code of Dredging & Port Construction, V. 13, No. 6, pp. 123-
Practice for Road Bridges Section : II Loads and 128.
Stresses xvii. Parker, N. and Ansari, F. (2003) “Energy Absorbing
xiv. PIANC (1984), “Report of the International Commission Fender Systems” Report to NJDOT . 4. M.W. Whitney,
for Improving the Design of Fender Systems”, Permanent I.E. Harik and D.L. Allen, “Barge Collision Design of
International Association of Navigation Congresses Highway Bridges.” Journal of Bridge Engineering May
1996.
(PIANC), Brussels, Belgium, 1984.
xviii. Poulos, H. G. (1971a). Behavior of laterally loaded piles:
xv. “Advanced Pier Concepts Users Guide” (1985). Report
I – single piles. J. Soil Mech. Fdn Div.,
NCEL-UG-0007, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory,
368 pages. xix. Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs. 97, No. SM5, 711-731.

Annexure 1

Barge Collision Energy as Per IRC:6 Barge Damage Depth, Ab= 3100 X ( [1 + 1.3 X 10-7x
KE]0.5- 1)=91.94 mm.
KE = 500 X CH W X (V)2,
Barge collision impact force shall be determined based on
Where,
the following equations:
W = Barge Displacement Tonnage (T) For Ab <1 00 mm, Pg = 6.0 x 1 04 *Ab= 5516470 N=551.65
V = Barge impact speed (m/sec) T
KE = Barge Collision Energy (N-m) Taking Factor of safety 2.5, total load=1379.2 T. Assume
capacity of each fender pile= 50 T
CH = hydrodynamic coefficient
Total number of fender pile is required= 1379.2/50= 28
= 1.05 to 1.25 for Barges depending upon the under keel (say) and arrangement of fender pile is shown in Fig.4.
clearance available. Fender pile has been @ 5.0 m C/C which is more than 4 d
• In case under keel clearance is more than 0.5 x Draft, and group efficiency factor is 1 as Per Table 10.8.3.6.3-1
C=1 .05; of AASHTO LRFD 2012. Hence design capcity is found
to be in order.
• In case under keel clearance is less than 0.1 x Draft, C
= 1 .25. Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge that Mr. V K Pardeshi,
• For any intermediate values of under keel clearance,
Intercontinental Consultants and Technocrats Private
linear interpolation shall be done.
Limited, A- 8 Green Park, New Delhi 110016t for assisting
W=200 T,CH=1.05, V =2.1 M/Sec, Kinetic energy, KE preparation of the Technical Paper and proof Checking the
=463050 N-m. Technical Paper.

OBITUARY
Shri Bhupinder Singh Sharma, former Senior Scientist, CRRI and an active member of IRC has left for heavenly
abode on 05.02.2020. May his soul rest in piece.

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CRITICAL REVIEW OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF REMEDIAL

MEASURES FOR LANDSLIDES

R.K Panigrahi1 Gaurav Dhiman2

Abstract
The landslides phenomenon is experienced in all the hill ranges of India. The designing of landslide remedial measure
is done after studying field investigation data and cause of landslide. The remedial measures are broadly discussed into
three main categories in this paper viz. Reinforcement measures, Retaining structures & Surface- sub surface drainage
measures. The restraining structures are designed to retain rock/soil and are generally economical cheaper as compared
to other categories of remedial measures but have numerous drawbacks such as water drainage problem in sausage walls,
base sliding failure in concrete gravity walls, need of bearing surface in case of anchored walls etc. Second major type of
remedial measures is Earth Reinforcing structures which involve insertion of tensile resisting materials such as steels rods,
metal strips, geosynthetics of cloths and steel angles into the soil to improve stability. Reinforcement remedial measures
are widely used because of flexibility, ease of construction and are inexpensive as compared to large retaining walls but
these methods have limitations such as soil nailing technique has to occur above groundwater level and away from seepage
location. Moreover, the frozen water can damage the shotcrete and place additional loads on the anchor plates due to soil
expansion that results in overall reduced effectiveness. To avoid this surface runoff water should be intercepted before
reaching a soil nailed wall, and any collected water should be disposed of rapidly. Third major category is Drainage measures
which is most effective in the geological condition which allow interference with natural water regime. In this paper a study
is proposed to critically review all the major remedial measures for landslides prevention & slope stabilization based on
their economic feasibility, productivity, ease of implementation and long standing.

1. INTRODUCTION per site conditions, economic feasibility, societal benefits,

ease of implementation etc.
A landslide or landslip is a natural disaster, something
which is unfortunately unavoidable. Landslides can vary 2. INVESTIGATION OF LANDSLIDES
in size but usually they always involve a large ground
Landslides investigation is an important and decisive part
movement. This can be things such as debris and rock fall
of study and serves two main objectives
or rock slope failure.  In hill ranges of India, to mitigate
the landslide problem broadly three different categories a. To identify landslides-prone areas before the
of remedial measures are considered such as retaining construction work is taken up.
measures, reinforcement measures and drainage measures. b. To know the factors responsible for the instability of
Dr.N.B.N. Prashad (1995).A landslide can occur but it is existing landslides and to determine the appropriate
the gravity that forces the debris and rocks to fall and for corrective measures needed to prevent or minimize
a total landslide to occur. The landslides stabilization & recurring of instability problems.
mitigation can be done by various landslides remedial
measures effectiveness, simplicity & implementation of To know the root cause of the landslides failure/prone
which depends upon various site specific conditions. In this areas sufficient information related to hygrogeological
study we have critically evaluated three major categories of conditions, petrographical condition and conditions of
landslides remedial measures, i.e, Restraining strcutures, geological structure of the area is collected from the site/
Reinforcement measures and Surface- sub surface prone area of landslides.
drainage remedial measures based on their suitability as The investigation of landslide is done in following ways:
1
Principal Scientist, Email: [email protected] Geotechnical Engineering Division, CSIR-CRRI., New Delhi,
2
Research Intern

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 TECHNICAL PAPER

2.1 Preliminary or Initial Study stable, if it comes less than 1 slope is unstable. Generally,
FOS 1.5 is adopted. If FOS is not adequate enough the
The main objective of this study is to provide general
remedial measures are designed to enhance the FOS and
understanding of the slide area also to identify the potential
the back analysis is adopted to check FOS value again.
slide areas.
Stability analysis of slope is generally carried out by no.
2.3 Field Investigation
of method the most important method is Bishop method
The objective of this study is to determine specific site GEO-4 & GEO-5 software’s are used for calculating
conditions that are prevailing in the slide areas. Field the factor of safety in efficient manner .Based on the
investigations should be intensive and detailed and may investigation of slope, failure mechanism of slope, stability
be divided into two components analysis of slope a set of remedial measures are evolved.
a. Geological Investigations 5. LANDSLIDES REMEDIAL MEASURES
b. Geotechnical Investigations 5.1 Retaining Structures
3. MECHANISM OF LANDSLIDES FAILURE Retaining walls can be constructed by either top down or
The root cause of landslides is gravity. That is, whenever base up methods. In top down method of construction the
gravitational pull exceeds the binding strength of the wall is built starting from ground surface of the landslide.
rocks or soil on a slope, sliding would take place. The The disturbed ground down slope of the wall is excavated
binding strength gets weaker in rocks containing joints, after the wall support is in place. Top down walls can
fractures or which get affected by faulting, and the repose provide some assurance that the landslide will remain
angle in the case of soil and boulders on a slope. Sliding stable during remediation work, which is beneficial to
may be triggered by earthquakes (i.e., movement along safety and adjoining property owners.
faults or simple shaking of unstable slopes), or weakening Base up retaining walls are conventional walls founded
of the binding strength by rainfall or snow/ice melting on firm ground and provide resistance due to gravity or
(liquefaction), erosion of soil around loose boulders, cantilever action. In landslide situations, there is usually a
dissolution of the binding material/cement between blocks, need to excavate some of the landslide debris at the bottom
and so on. The landslides usually occurs on steep slopes but of the slide before the retaining wall can be constructed.
they can slso occur in areas of low relief. Landslides can As this undermines the landslide, it may require dry
occur as ground failure of river bluffs, cut and-fill failures weather conditions or dewatering to lower groundwater
that may accompany highway and building excavations, level within the landslide before construction of the
collapse of mine-waste piles, and slope failures associated retaining wall can begin. Different categories of Retaining
with quarries and open-pit mines. S.k. Singh(2015). Structures are given in Fig.1.
4. STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPE 5.1.1 Retaining wall system
Stability analysis of slope is done to determine the factor Retaining wall can be broadly separated into four categories
of safety. If factor of safety comes greater than 1 slope is as given in Table1.
Table-1
Category Description of Wall
Gravity walls In which the foundation of the wall provides the resistance to sliding and overturning (Gabion walls,
masonry walls and mass concrete walls)
Cantilever Walls In which the support is provided from a vertical or inclined cantilever, usually of relatively modest
height. (Retaining walls, sheet piles etc)
Tied Back Walls In which the vertical or inclined wall face is restrained by ground anchors to limit outward deflections
(Ground anchored system, tie back soldier pile walls and tied back slurry trench walls)
Reinforced-Soil Walls In which soil is reinforced by metal strips, plastic strips, grids, soil nails or fabric reinforcements to allow
the outer face to stand at relatively steep slopes and provides internal stability.
5.1.2 Masonry Walls as marble, granite, travertine, limestone; concrete block,
Masonry is the building of structures from individual glass block, and tile. Masonry is generally a highly durable
units laid in and bound together by mortar. The common form of construction.
materials of  masonry  construction are brick, stone such In the present practice, retaining walls up to 4m height

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 TECHNICAL PAPER

are constructed in random rubble dry stone masonry as 5.1.3 Sausage Walls
shown in Fig. 2. Retaining walls above 4m height are
Apart from masonry or concrete retaining walls(shown
constructed either in lime or cement mortar masonry or
in Fig. 3, crib walls and sausage walls are also used as
in dry stone masonry provided with 0.6 m wide mortar
restraining structures. Crib wall is formed in a wooden
masonry bands at 3 m to 4 m apart laid both in horizontal
crib/mesh, in which dry stone masonry is built. Sausage
and vertical directions. The top thickness of a retaining
walls are made by forming sausage of steel wire netting
wall is usually 0.6 m.The retaining walls are not supposed
of square or hexagonal holes and filling the sausages
to bear any tension and their compressive strengths are
with hard local boulder/stones. The sausage walls
usually adequate. The stability of wall depends on the
have the advantages of being able to withstand large
compressive strength of the foundation soil.
deformations without cracking. Further because of the
open structure, sausage walls allow free drainage of
Retaining
Structures water. One drawback that has been observed occasionally
is that falling boulders may cut or break SWG mesh,
thereby leading to the possibility of stones falling out
of the sausage crates. Due to high humidity and other
adverse climatic conditions, rusting of SWG may occur
damaging the sausage casing. However, with adequate
attention, such damages can be rectified and the integrity
of sausage walls maintained.

Fig. 1 Different types of Retaining Structures

Fig. 3. Sausage walls

a
5.1.4 Concrete gravity retaining walls
The concrete gravity walls are very expansive and
advantageous for important structures and both urban
and rural areas. Such walls require foundation in bed
rock or good soil below the slip surface. The design of
the stem of the wall and the stability of the whole body
of the wall, are both considered in the design. The body
of the wall is taken top include the mass of soil directly
above the heel of the cantilevered wall and earth pressure.
The formula for the safety factor may be used to estimate
resistance required to lateral thrust. The standard practice
is to include weep holes in designing the wall. Concrete
walls sometimes fail due to inadequate ability to resist
b groundwater pressures. In these cases analyzed routing of
Fig. 2 (a-b) Dry Rubble Masonry weep holes is recommended. These walls are fails due to

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 TECHNICAL PAPER

sliding along the base in such cases a thin layer of crushed b. Limitations of Anchored Walls
sand or sand gravel should be placed between the native • Anchor walls are visually unattractive to the
soil and wall base. public
5.1.5 Anchored walls • It needs a relatively competent bearing surface
The stability of retaining wall can also be enhanced 5.1.6 Diaphragm wall
through ground anchors. Stabilization by deep, pre Diaphragm wall is a structural element that transmits
stresses anchors is being applied to soil slope. Walls with lateral loads to the vertical resisting elements of a structure.
pres-tresses anchors have a major advantage by actively Diaphragms are typically horizontal, but can be sloped.
opposing the movement of the soil mass, rather than A diaphragm wall is constructed using a narrow trench
behaving passively as in the case of unstressed anchors excavated in ground and supported by an engineered fluid
and gravity structures. These are employed either in (typically a bentonite mud) until the mud is replaced by the
conjunction with retaining structures or alone to reduce permanent material. Generally diaphragm walls are made
the driving forces of a landslide and to increase normal from reinforced concrete, though un-reinforced walls can
effective stress on its slip surface. Tie back walls are also be used. Diaphragm walls are often used in congested
used to transfer the imposed load to an area behind the areas or where the excavation depth is very deep which
slide mass where satisfactory resistance can established. would otherwise require excavation of much greater soil
A tie back sheet pile wall can be used to ensure adequate volumes to provide stable battered slopes. They are well
anchorage in the stiff clays. Components of a tie back are suited for deep basements, underground rail stations,
shown in Fig.4. rail car un-loaders, tunnel approaches, pumping stations
Stabilization by deep, pre stressed anchors is being and such like. Diaphragm Walls can be installed close to
generally applied to soil slope. Walls with pre stressed existing structures and in restricted headroom. They are
anchors have a major advantage by actively opposing the often used in “top down” construction methods.
movement of the soil mass, rather than behaving passively Despite of having several advantages diaphragm walls
as to unstressed anchors. have limitations such as high cost of construction, special
requirements of manpower and equipments which are not
easily available in every part of the country Arya et al
(1983)
5.2 Reinforcement Remedial Measures
Reinforced earth is formed by the association of cohesion
less soil and tension resistant elements in the form of
sheets, strips, nets, or mats of metal synthetic fabrics or
fibre reinforced plastics.
Principles of Reinforced earth
Most granular soils are strong in compression and shear
but weak in tension. The performance of such soil can
be substantially improved by introducing reinforcing
elements in the direction of tensile strains.
Fig. 4 Components of a Tie Back Reinforced earth has found greatest use in the construction
a. Advantages of Anchored Walls of retaining structures. Reinforced earth walls possess
certain definite advantages over other conventional types
• Anchored walls can be installed on uneven surface
of walls. They are generally more economical if the heights
if needed, there for site preparation costs can be
are large or when sub soil conditions are poor. They can
minimal be rapidly constructed and require relatively simple
• The bearing pads (that function as buffers between equipments for construction. Reinforced earth walls
the separate concrete members to prevent damage being flexible structures can withstand larger differential
and facilitate movement) can be made of precast settlement than rigid retaining walls Bang et al(1980). The
concrete brought to the site, this requires no categories of Reinforcement remedial measures are shown
concrete mixing plant at or close to the site below in Fig.5.

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5.2.1 Slope reinforcement by soil nailing

Soil nailing is a reinforcement technique in which closely

spaced parallel steels bars are installed into the face of a
slope or vertical cut to improve stability. This technique
consists of improving the soil resistance to failure and
to deformation by the inclusion of elements which are
resistant to tensile, compressive shear and/or bending
forces. The type of loading resisted by a soil nailing
depends upon its orientation and mechanical properties.
In this technique slender steel rods or angled sections are
installed into the soil to produce composite action. Nailing
offers a neat and economic solution to the problem of
providing support to excavations, in particular for very
compact granular soils. Soil nails installed for permanent
slope require corrosion resistant treatment similar to soil
Fig. 5 Categories of Reinforcement Remedial Measures anchors Bang et al (1980).

Fig. 6 Typical Soil Nail Construction Sequence Fig. 7 Soil Nail Wall Tensile Loads
[Derek H. Cornforth (2005)] [Derek H. Cornforth (2005)]

The most common installation method is to insert the reached, a second layer of shotcrete (or cast-in-place
steel bars into a drill hole and grout from the bottom up concrete) is added to strengthen the wall and protect the
by gravity or low pressure. Other construction method nail anchorages. A key requirement of soil nail walls is
includes jet grouting or driving nails into the slope Bruce the stand up time of the soil face during excavation of the
et al (1986), Cartier et al (1983)Soil nailing is a “top steps which restricts soil nailing to relatively competent
down” construction procedure. It is suitable for temporary soils above the groundwater table Bruce et al (1987) Derek
and permanent cut slopes and for shallow depth landslide H. Cornforth (2005)
remediation. Excavation to expose the deep cut face
proceeds with a series of steps 3 to 6 feet high. After each a. Advantages of Soil Nail Walls
step has been opened up, soil nails are installed in a row • Soil nail walls share the same advantages as soldier
and the face is shotcrete to prevent collapse or erosion of pile walls. These include safety against slope
the exposed face. The end of the nail projecting out of failure during construction and less interference to
the slope face is then attached to the shotcrete facing by a construction activities below Specifically, the main
metal plate and bolt.
benefits are:
Except for a seating load, no prestress is applied (unlike • Construction of the wall is a “top down” procedure
soil anchors). After the full depth of excavation has been that supports a steep slope (usually vertical) as

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 TECHNICAL PAPER

excavation proceeds • Unacceptable horizontal movements may affect

• No additional depth of excavation is required behind adjacent structures.
the final wall face for formwork or base width; as • Shotcrete facing may deteriorate with time.
a consequence, there is no need for backfill behind • Usually requires a specialty contractor
the wall
5.2.2 Micro-piles or root piles for slope stabilization
• There are no temporary supports in front of the wall
• Compared to soldier pile wall construction, the Micro piles (Shown in Fig.8) are essentially an outgrowth
relative advantages of soil nail walls are: of the technology the construction of ground anchors.
• Construction cost is about 10 to 30 percent lower in They are small diameter bored piles in which steel
ground suitable for soil nails. reinforcement is grouted into a borehole to form the pile.
The loads are carried by skin friction between the soil and
• Equipment is smaller and more mobile, making
grout, but load-bearing is provided by the steel; they can
access easier to difficult sites.
carry loads in either compression or tension. End bearing
• The completed structure can accommodate capabilities are ignored.
significant total and differential settlements.
• Design can be modified or optimized during The piles can be designed for two broad uses
construction to avoid boulders, buried pipes, or • As a conventional pile of small diameter
other unexpected obstructions. • As a composite soil/pile mass in which the piles
b. Limitations of Soil Nail Walls reinforce the soil mass three-dimensionally into a
gravity-type structure.
• The principal limitations of soil nailed walls are
Micro piles are typically 4 to 10 inches in diameter, 70
that they require fairly competent soils with real or
to 100 feet long, and carry loads of 35 to more than 100
“apparent” (negative pore pressure) cohesion and
tons in tension or compression. Their main attribute is
the absence of free groundwater within the soil
flexibility of use. The piles can be drilled into almost
face, as described below:
all ground conditions at any preselected direction. The
• Clays need very careful evaluation during design. construction equipment requires little headroom and can
• Creep movements and sensitivity to disturbance gain access to restricted spaces. They have been widely
are gen morally unacceptable. There is also the used for residential underpinning, seismic retrofit, and
possibility of stiff expandable clays developing many other difficult circumstances Micro piles for landslide
reduced pullout resistance over time due to changes stabilization typically are installed at various angles to the
in moisture content. vertical (Fig. 8) to knit soils together into a composite mass
• The soil slope must be capable of remaining stable of soil and piles. The individual piles are not directly loaded
in a vertical cut 3 to 6 feet high before the soil nails but provide a framework for achieving a coherent mass of
are installed. Problems with standup time are most soil. Such piles are frequently referred to as reticulated piles
common near the original ground surface where or root piles to provide an analogy to the roots of a tree.
there may be loose fill, buried utilities, or locally
softened ground.
• Soil nailing has to occur above groundwater level.
Although drains are routinely placed on the slope
face during construction, any seepage is likely to
be troublesome during construction and should be
avoided.
• Surface runoff water should also be intercepted
before reaching a soil nailed wall, and any collected
water should be disposed of rapidly
Other concerns for soil nailing construction include:
• For a permanent wall, underground easements may
be required if the wall depends on the nails for
long-term stability.
• Soil nails may interfere with utilities. Fig. 8 Schematic Diagram of Micro piles

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 43

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Advatanges of Micro Piles drains used in a system of surface drainage.

The micro-piles have advantages that they can be 5.3.2 Catch water drains
constructed under the following conditions,
Surface water flowing from the hill slope toward potential
• Low headroom unstable area or the road way is one of the main problems
• Restricted access in the drainage of hill slope during heavy rains. In order
to intercept and divert the water from the hill slope, catch
• Almost all soil conditions, including boulders and water drains should be located very carefully, after the
voids etc. topography of the ground is studied in detail. It has been
observed in practice that poor location of surface drains
results in their serving no purpose, since no water would
be collected by them and on the other hand, the run-off
bypasses the drains and continues to damage the slopes.
Catch water drains should be lined and properly maintained
and should be given a gradient of 1in 50 to 1 in 33 to avoid
high water velocity and possible wash out. A number of
interconnecting lined catch water drains may need to be
constructed on the slope to collect the surface run-off if
the area of the slide is large. Water from the catch water
drains should be diverted into a chute or a natural hillside
drain or diverted by sloping drains and lead into culverts
at a lower level finally to be led through chutes into the
Fig. 9 Categories of Drainage Measures nearest natural water course.
5.3. Drainage Remedial Measures 5.3.3 Deep trench drains
5.3.1 Surface drainage
Deep Trench drains can also be used for the purpose of
Surface drainage is the removal of water that collects on subsurface drainage. These are generally limited, by
land surface. The control of surface water is most important practical consideration, to those locations where water can
in the stabilization of slopes. Drainage not only reduces the be intercepted at depth less than 5m to 8m. Trench drains
weight of the mass tending to slide out but also increases the can also be used for the purpose of subsurface drainage
strength of the slope forming materials. Surface water can when horizontal drilling is not possible because of site
also cause erosion. Infiltration results in the development condition or economic considerations. Deep subsurface
of excess pore water pressure within the slopes. Due to trench drains, consisting of a number of interconnected dug
the absence of proper drainage facility landslips occur. It into the slope, and backfilled with well drainage rubble, can
is therefore natural that the improvement of the drainage be highly effective in quickly draining a saturated slope.
facilities in the area be given high priority. Maintenance is needed for proper functioning of trench
Control of surface water consists of two main parts: drains. Flow rate can be decreased during dry weather
flow & erosion (if any) takes place should be repaired.
a. T he collection of run-off at the uphill boundary of
any unstable area 5.3.4 Scupper
b. Maximum run-off from the unstable area and It is an economical type of culvert or cross drain where dry
controlling and collecting this run-off. masonry retaining wall is provided for the road. The water
Usually, any system of surface drainage should include collected through side drains or nallah, is discharged to
investigating the need for other existing practices of hill the valley side through a small cross drainage structures
side road construction such as slope treatment of the hill usually 0.85 m to 1.2 m wide made of random rubble dry
sides for erosion control, regarding or reshaping of the slope masonry abutments. The top of the abutments are corbelled
for promoting quick run-off. On the other hand, sealing of with a few layers of stones and a stone slab is laid on the
tension cracks by means of rodding in loamy earth will top. Hand packed stones are placed on top about 0.35 m
mitigate the susceptibility of the slope to a potential slide. to 0.60m thick and also all round the scupper, Retaining
Catch water or interceptor drains, side drains and cross walls are provided on both ends of scupper. Scuppers
drains constitute some of the more important types of are provided approximately at every 150 m apart in full

44 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 TECHNICAL PAPER

width of road surface. Frequent maintenance is required in so that water is removed by gravity to the outer surface
scuppers as it get choked due to the falling of boulders and where it is usually collected and conducted to a drain or
materials into it resulting in very less or no drainage. watercourse. Horizontal drains can be expected to have
highly variable flows in certain geological conditions,
5.4 Sub-surface drainage
especially landslides in which soils have been intermixed
Subsurface drainage is concerned with removing water and cracked. To be effective, relatively large numbers of
that percolates through or is contained in the underlying drains need to be installed; to remain effective, a program
soil sub grade. Deep seated landslides and slope failures of inspection, flow monitoring, and periodic cleaning is
are often caused by the presence of subsoil water in strongly advised. It is a medium cost remedial treatment for
the slope area, and the resulting high water pressure on landslides and has minor environmental impacts (except
possible failure planes. Hence successful methods for both during installation, when settling ponds and other devices
prevention and correction of landslides have perforce to are needed to control the muddy water). Horizontal drains
rely heavily on ground water control by employing suitable may be ineffective in clays and other fine-grained soils.
deep drainage techniques. Sub-Surface drainage acts to The possibility of poor performance should be considered
modify the seepage pattern within the soil or rock mass when assessing the relative merits of horizontal drains
and reduce the pore water pressures. The removal of water to other remedial options. Different discharge through
from within a slope by subsurface drainage is costlier than different drains installed in an array is a common problem
surface drainage. However, subsurface drainage is usually in horizontal drains to encounter such problems timely site
more effective because it leads to a decrease in pore water visit and collection of geological data is required before
pressure directly at the failure plane. designing. Also, the horizontal drains should not be used
in clay and fine drained soils due to their poor performance
Removal of subsurface water tends to produce a more Choi et al (1974) Derek H. Cornforth (2005)
stable condition in several ways such as:
a. Seepage forces are reduced
b. shear strength
c. there is reduction in pore pressure
d. driving forces are reduced
Seepage forces act to increase the driving force on a
landslide surface and hence attempts are generally made
to intercept subsurface flows above the sliding mass.
Subsurface drainage is also useful in cut areas and under
proposed embankments. Methods generally used to
accomplish subsurface drainage are the installation of
horizontal drains, vertical, drainage wells, deep trench
drains and drainage tunnels. Fig. 10 Horizontal Drain Constructions

5.4.1 Horizontal Drains 6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Horizontal drains are defined as multiple holes drilled into a It is often very difficult to design effective, economic
cut slope or embankment and cased with a perforated metal feasible and long lasting remedial measures for
landslides. Different types of remedial measures are
or slotted plastic liner. The purpose of using  horizontal
discussed in this paper by representing advantages
drains as part of landslide control work is to drain away
and limitations of the same. Based on investigation of
groundwater, thus keeping the soil dry.
landslide, failure mechanism of landslide and stability
Horizontal drains are installed in a slope to either (a) lower analysis of slope a set of appropriate remedial measures
groundwater levels generally within slope or (b) tap into are evolved.This review paper will be beneficial for all
and relieve groundwater aquifers feeding water into the the researcher & implementing agencies to refer major
slope. A typical construction of horizontal drains is shown landslides remedial measures from one document. All
in Fig.10 CRRI Report (1983).After installation, horizontal important remedial measures are illustrated in this
drains reduce the level of groundwater buildup produced precise paper which can further be used for designing
by heavy precipitation or snowmelt. The drains are not of innovative, cost effective and less complex remedial
horizontal but are inclined (typically 5° to horizontal) measures in future. Critical reviews of remedial

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 45

 TECHNICAL PAPER

measures given in this paper can be referred by the European Conf. on soil mech. and found. Engg. Helsinki,
executing agencies to provide effective solutions to Vol.2, 1983 pp- 473-476
encounter landslides problems. vi. Choi, Y.L. (1974), “Design of Horizontal Drains” J.Engg.
Society of Hong Kong, Dec. 1974, pp 37-49
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
vii. CRRI Report (1983), “Report on Installation of Horizontal
Author is grateful to Director, Central Road Research Drains at Porthimund, Nilgiris, CRRI, New Delhi
Institute, New Delhi for his kind permission to publish viii. Derek H. Cornforth (2005), “Landslides in Practice”
this paper. pp315-326
REFERENCES ix. Derek H. Cornoforth(2005) “Landslides in Practice”
Earth Reinforcement systems chapter-20 pp 424-441
i. Arya, A.S. and Gupta, V.P. (1983), “Retaining wall for
x. Web result en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landslide
Hill Roads” I.R.C Journal, Vol 44-1 , 1983
xi. Landslides - Causes And Mitigation Dr.N.B.Narasimha
ii. Bang, S., Shen, C.K. and Romsted K.M (1980), “Analysis
Prasad(1995)
of an earth reinforcing system for deep excavation’’
Transportation Research Record, No. 749, pp 21-26 xii. Stability Assessment of Landslides in Dahuaqiao
Reservoir Area Based on Back Analysis of Slope
iii. Bruce, D.A. and Jewell, R.A (1986), ‘’Soil nailing:
Monitoring,Yuxiao Wang,Yujie Wang, Long Jiang,Ping
application and practices” Part-1, Ground Engineering,
Sun,XingchaoLin,and Shouyi Li Advances in Civil
November, 1986, pp. 10-15
Engineering,Volume 2019, Article ID 2563183, 15
iv. Bruce, D.A. and Jewell, R.A (1987), ‘’Soil nailing: pages
application and practices” Part-2, Ground Engineering,
xiii. Landslide Disaster: Cause Effect and Protective
November, 1987, pp. 21-33 & 38.
Measures in India, Saroj Kumar Singh, Journal of Civil
v. Cartier, G. and Gigan, J.P.(1983), “Experiments and Engineering and Environmental Technology Volume 2,
observations on soil nailing structures, “ Proc. VIII Number 15; 2015 pp. 6-10.

Inviting Expression of Interest

The Indian Road Congress (IRC) published the IRC:112(2011) Code of Practice for Concrete Bridges (Limit State
method). Thereafter IRC, published IRC: SP:105-2015, which is an explanatory handbook to this code (IRC:112)
(including worked out Examples) for explaining its clauses and provisions to practicing bridge Engineers. Subsequent
to the publication of IRC:112-2011, several amendments and erratas were added in code IRC:112, which were
published in Indian Highways spread over last 8 years. Many new clauses were also introduced in this code. The
impact of these changes in the main code need to be incorporated in the explanatory handbook (IRC:SP:105), so that
the guideline can be used by the practicing engineers. Therefore, it has been decided by IRC to engage a Consultant
for carrying out the work of preparation of first revised edition of IRC: SP:105-2015.

Indian Roads Congress (IRC) invites Expression of Interest (EoI) from Consultants/Individuals who are interested
in taking up the work of Revision of IRC:SP:105-2015 titled “Explanatory Hand Book to IRC:112-2011 Code
of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges” A copy of Terms of Reference (ToR) is available on IRC Website
th
www.irc.nic.in. Please submit your proposals in the prescribed format upto 30 March, 2020.

46 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 Notification

Notification No. 34
Amendment No.9/IRC:112/December, 2019 (Effective from 1st March, 2020)
To
IRC:112-2011 “Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges”
S. No Clause No. For Read
Page No.
1. 12.4.1 (2) “In the absence……………......................
“In the absence of other criteria, the following deflection
(Page 131) .................……………………considered” limits for live load under frequent load combination may be
considered”
2. 13.4.1 Add subclause (4) (4) Special precautions are required in the case of joints
(Page 135 ) particularly in precast segmental construction. Leakages as well
as interconnections between ducts, should be avoided. Duct
spacing should be detailed in such a way that there is sufficient
concrete between parallel ducts to prevent interconnections
during grouting operations and to comply with relevant IRC
codes.
As a general rule, the joints of precast segmental construction
are treated with epoxy resin, if internal grouted tendons
are used. The epoxy resin seals the joint and prevents grout
leaking through and out of the segment joint. However there is
a possibility that epoxy may be squeezed into adjacent ducts,
when the segments are pressed together, causing blockages. To
prevent this, generally a compressible foam seal is provided in
the segment joint around the duct, and the excess is scraped out
with plastic or rubber scrapers before the epoxy sets. Also the
leak tightness of internal prestressing tendons can be improved
by the use of rubber rings around the ducts at the joints between
segments. Before casting of the segment, steel rings are placed
around the ducts, leaving an imprint of half the thickness of the
rubber rings. The rubber rings are placed in this recess, and are
compressed when the temporary prestressing is applied.
However, jointing with encapsulation is the preferable option and
system suppliers may be having their own method of doing so.
3. 13.4.2 (3) Add new sentence at the end For some types of M.S. sheathing ducts, refer Fig 13.1.
(Page 135)
4. 13.4.3 (3) Add new sentence at the end For some of the types of corrugated HDPE sheathing ducts,
(Page 135) refer Fig. 13.1.

5. 13.4.3 Add sub clause (4) (4) Minimum internal diameter of the HDPE duct shall not be
(new Sub less than 3 times the cross-sectional area of the tendon which
Clause) can be fitted in the anchorage system used. However, in case
(Page 135) of threading of tendons after concreting for spans larger than
30m, internal diameter of duct shall be 5mm larger than the
requirement stated above, in order to facilitate threading.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 47

 Notification

S. No Clause No. For Read

Page No.
6. 13.4.2 Add Fig. 13.1 between the two clauses
&
13.4.3
(Page 135)

13.1 Typical Types of Sheathing Ducts

7. Fig. 13.1
Fig. 13.1 Loaded Face of the End Block Fig. 13.2 Loaded Face of the End Block
(Page 137)

8. 13.5.1.1 (1) The bursting tensile force, Fbst existing in The bursting tensile force, Fbst existing in an individual square
Change in 2 an individual square end block loaded by a end block loaded by a symmetrically placed square anchorage
sentences, symmetrically placed square anchorage or or bearing plate, may be derived from Table 13.1 and Fig.
bearing plate, may be derived from Table 13.2
(Page 136)
13.1 and Fig. 13.1

This force, Fbst will be distributed in a region This force, Fbst will be distributed in a region extending from
extending from 0.2 Yo to 2 Yo from the 0.2 Yo to 2 Yo from the loaded face of the end block as shown
loaded face of the end block as shown in in Fig. 13.2
Fig. 13.1.

9. 15.3.1.1 (2) Add new sentence - In case of precast segmental construction, grouping of
cables is not permitted. The minimum clear distance
(Page 163 )
between the ducts shall be greater of 10 mm or the outer
diameter of the duct.

10. 18.8.2 Add new sub clause (5) Ready Mixed grout
(Page 215) Alternatively, the dry materials may be batched in a factory for
pre-mixed grout and mixed with the liquid materials on site as
per the instructions of the Manufacturers.

11. 18.8.4 sub (1) Water/Cement Ratio (1) Water/Cement Ratio

clause (1) Water/cement ratio should be as low as Water/cement ratio should be as low as possible, consistent
(Page 215) possible, consistent with workability. This with workability and should not exceed 0.40
ratio should not exceed 0.45
12. 18.8.4 sub (4) Compressive Strength (4) Compressive Strength
clause (4) The compressive strength of 100 mm cube The compressive strength of 100 mm cube of the grout shall
(Page 216) of the grout shall not be less than 17 MPa not be less than 27 MPa at 7 days or 30 MPa at 28 days. Cubes
at 7 days. Cubes shall be cured in a moist shall be cured in a moist atmosphere for the first 24 hours
atmosphere for the first 24 hours and and subsequently in water. These tests shall be conducted in
subsequently in water. These tests shall advance to ascertain the suitability of the grout mix. The 7 day
be conducted in advance to ascertain the strength is not mandatory if the 28 day strength requirement
suitability of the grout mix. is met.

48 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

 Notification

S. No Clause No. For Read

Page No.
13. 18.8.4 sub (7) Volume Change (7) Volume change
clause (7) The volume change of grout kept at rest for Volume change of the grout at rest for 24 h shall be within the
(Page 216) 24 hours and tested as per ASTM C1090 range of - 1 % and + 5 % of the original volume when tested
shall be within the range of 0.5 percent and as per EN 445. It should not be more than +0.2 percent at 28
5.0 percent of the original volume. It should days.
not be more than +0.2 percent at 28 days.

14. 18.8.4 sub (8) Fluidity (8) Fluidity

clause (8) Fluidity is tested as per ASTM C939 standard Fluidity is tested as per EN 445 by a) cone test and b) grout
spread test. The time for cone test (Fig 18.2a) shall be less
(Page 216) using standard flow cone.
than or equal to 25 seconds. The spread of the grout as per
grout spread test (Fig 18.2b) shall be greater than or equal to
140mm.
For retention of fluidity there shall not be more than 20%
reduction in fluidity at 30 minutes when tested as per EN 445.

Fig 18.2 (a) – Cone for fluidity test (as per EN 445)

1 - Cylinder (steel or plastic tube)

2 - Smooth plate
Fig 18.2 (b) – Grout spread test (as per EN 445)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 49

 Notification

S. No Clause No. For Read

Page No.
15. 18.8.4 sub Add new sub clause (9) (9) Tests for Bleed and Volume Stability
clause (9) Wick Induced Bleed and volume change test shall be as per EN
(Page 216) 445. The details of the test are given in Figure 18.2 (c)

1. Seal 4. Grout ho - height at to

2. Air 5. Transparent tube ho - height at tn
3. Water 6. Strand, wires or bar

Fig 18.2 (c) – Wick induced test setup (as per EN 445)
Alternatively, the inclined tube bleed test can be done to
determine the bleed properties and volume stability of grout.
The details of the test are shown in figure 18.2(d).

1- Vent and stop valve 4- Transparent tube

2-Air 5-12 Strand
3-Water 6- Injection of grout
Fig 18.2 (d) – Inclined tube test set up (as per EN 445)
16. 18.8.5 Add New clause after 18.8.4 18.8.5 Grouting Procedure
The grouting procedure shall be as per EN 446. Guidelines for
(Page 216)
grouting are given below:
a) Ducts should be grouted at a continuous and steady
rate of 6 to12 m / minute for horizontal and 2 to 3 m
/ minute for vertical ducts. For parabolic ducts the
grouting rate should be 6 to 8m / minute.
b) Grouting pressure should not exceed 2 MPa.
c) Grouting should continue until the fluidity or density
of grout flowing from free ends and vent openings is
same as that of original grout.
After closing all the vents, retained pressure should be same
as adopted for grouting subject to a minimum of 0.5 MPa.

50 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020

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under ‘u’ Number u(sw)-12/2019-2021
At Lodi Road, PSO on dated 28-29.2.2020 licence to post
ISSN 0376-7256 Newspaper Regd. No. 25597/73 without prepayment
published on 21 FEBRUARY, 2020 MARCH, 2020
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Indian Highways
Volume : 48 Number : 3 Total Pages : 60

Bogibeel Bridge Over Brahamputra River, Assam

Edited and Published by Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, IRC HQ, Sector-6, R.K. Puram,
Kama Koti Marg, New Delhi - 110 022. Printed by Shri S.K. Nirmal on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress
at M/s. Aravali Printers & Publishers Pvt. Ltd. https://www.irc.nic.in