LAB SESSION # 01

Objective:
To measure the length and diameter of sample Pins with the Vernier
Caliper.

Apparatus:
 Vernier caliper
 Sample pins

Theory:
A vernier caliper consists of a high quality metal ruler with a special vernier scale
attached which allows the ruler to be read with greater precision than would otherwise be
possible. The vernier scale provides a means of making measurements of distance (or length)
to an accuracy of a tenth of a millimetre or better. It was designed by a French Mathematician
Pierre Vernier, and hence the instrument is named Vernier after the name of its inventor.

Types of Vernier calipers:

Vernier Calipers are of following types:

1. Simple Vernier caliper

2. Dial Calipers
3. Digital calipers
4. Inside / Inner Vernier and
5. Outside / External Vernier

 There are a number of different types of calipers:

 
Dial Calipers:
Dial Calipers have a dial that displays the measurement with an indicator needle. This
Measurement is then combined with the reading given on the scale running along the beam of the
Caliper.
 
Dial calipers are used to take outside measurements, inside measurements, step measurements
and depth measurements. 
Click here to see What is a dial caliper?
 
Vernier Calipers
Vernier Calipers have dual scales that run along the top and bottom of the caliper, and

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show both imperial and metric measurements. 
 
They are capable of measuring outside and inside diameters and most will measure depth.
Click here to see What is a vernier caliper?

Digital or Electronic Calipers

Digital calipers are the latest innovation in caliper technology. Instead of a rack and pinion
mechanism, an internal microprocessor calculates the position of the jaws and shows the reading in
a display window.
 
 Click here to see What is a digital caliper?
Jenny Calipers
Jenny calipers are sometimes called odd leg calipers or hermaphrodite calipers.
 
They are used to draw a line a set distance from the edge of a workpiece but are also useful
for locating the centre of a work piece.
 Click here to see What is a Jenny caliper?
Spring joint calipers
Spring joint calipers consist of two legs, a spring, and an adjusting nut.

The space between the legs can be altered by twisting the screw and nut. They can be used to
take either inside or outside measurements.

As they do not have a graduation scale, spring joint calipers must be checked against a measuring
tool such as a ruler or micrometre.
Click here to see What is a spring joint caliper?

Vernier Calipers
Vernier Calipers have dual scales that run along the top and bottom of the caliper, and
show both imperial and metric measurements. They are capable of measuring outside and
inside diameters and most will measure depth.

Vernier Campers comprises of two scales

 Vernier scale
 Main scale

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The main scale is fixed but the vernier scale, which is also called auxiliary scale, is movable.
The vernier scale slides along the main scale. The vernier is a convenient tool to use when
measuring the length of an object, the outer diameter (OD) of a round or cylindrical object,
the inner diameter (ID) of a pipe, and the depth of a hole.

Main Parts:

1. External jaw
2. Internal jaw
3. Sliding jaws
4. Metric Vernier scale
5. Locking screw
6. Main scale
7. Depth gauge

Zero Errors of Vernier Caliper:

When the jaws are closed, the Vernier zero mark coincides with the zero mark on its
fixed main scale. Before taking any reading it is good practice to close the jaws or faces of
the instrument to make sure it is reading zero. If not then note the reading. This reading is
called “zero error”. The zero error is of two types

(i) positive zero error and

(ii) negative zero error

Positive Zero Error

If the zero on the Vernier scale is to the right of the main scale, then the error is said
to be positive zero error and so the zero correction should be subtracted from the reading
which is measured.

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Negative Zero Error
If the zero on the Vernier scale is to the left of the main scale, then the error is said to
be negative zero error and so the zero correction should be added from the reading which is
measured. Figure 7 shows the different cases of the zero errors of the caliper.

Least count of the Vernier caliper

Least count of vernier caliper can be calculated by the following method

Main scale reading

LC=
No of divisions on vernier scale

1
LC= =0.05 mm
20

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Reading Procedure of the Vernier Caliper
The Vernier caliper is an extremely precise measuring instrument; the least count is
0.05 mm. To measure distance use following steps

 Close the jaws lightly on the object to be measured.

 If you are measuring something with a round cross section, make sure that the axis of
the object is perpendicular to the caliper. This is necessary to ensure that you are
measuring the full diameter and not merely a chord.
 Ignore the top scale, which is calibrated in inches.
 Use the bottom scale, which is in metric units.
 Notice that there is a main scale and a sliding scale.
 The boldface numbers on the fixed scale are centimetres.
 The marks on the main scale between the boldface numbers are millimetres.
 There are ten 20 marks on the sliding scale. The left-most mark on the sliding scale
will let you read from the main scale the number of whole millimetres that the jaws
are opened.

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 Observations and Calculations
Observations
Least count of Vernier caliper = 0.05 mm

Zero Error = Nil

Table

Sr.# Main Vernier L .C × V . S . RTotal reading Total reading

Scale scale 1 inch=25.4 mm
reading reading T . R=M . S . R+V . S . R × L .C ± Z . E

M.S.R V.S.R T.R T.R

mm inches
Pin 1.
Diamete
r
D1 25 2 0.1 25.1 0.9882
D2 15 17 0.85 15.85 0.6240
D3 9 8 0.4 9.4 0.3701

Height
H1 73 0 0 73 2.8740
H2 44 9 0.45 44.45 1.7500
H3 12 13 0.65 12.65 0.4980

Pin 2.
Diamete
r
d1 25 6 0.3 25.3 0.9961
d2 15 14 0.7 15.7 0.6181
d3 9 6 0.3 9.3 0.3661

Height
h1 72 18 0.9 72.90 2.8700
h2 44 7 0.35 44.35 1.7461
h3 12 14 0.7 12.70 0.5000

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 Specimen Calculations
The largest diameter of first pin measured by the vernier is used for the specific calculation

Total reading=Main scale reading+ Vernier Scalereading × Least count

Total Reading=25+2 ×0.05

Total reading=25.1 mm

For Inches

25.1
Total reading=
25.4

Total reading=0.9882∈¿

Comments:
 Zero of Vernier caliper is not in correct position
 There might be some space between jaws due to wear and tear
 The jaws may not be exactly at right angles to the main scale.
 Some error due to parallax is always bound to creep in.
 The Vernier scale may be loosely fitted with the movable jaw.
 The graduations on the scales may not be evenly marked.
 The number of Vernier division coinciding with the main scale
 Division may not be properly read.
 Depth probe length may wear off

References

 www.wonkeedonkeetools.co.uk/calipers/what-are-the-different-types-...

www.tresnainstrument.com › Education

 www.physics.smu.edu/~scalise/apparatus/caliper/

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 LAB SESSION # 02
Objective:
To develop the Length with the help of Block Gauges.

Apparatus:
 Block gauges
 Petrol
 Tissue role
 Duster /soft cloth
 Petroleum jelly

Theory:-
Gauge Block:
A gauge block is a length standard having flat and parallel opposing surfaces. The
cross-sectional shape is not very important, although the standard does give suggested
dimensions for rectangular, square and circular cross-sections. Gauge blocks have nominal
lengths defined in either the metric system (millimetres) or in the English system (1 inch =
25.4mm).
The length of the gauge block is defined at standard reference conditions:

 temperature = 20 ºC (68 ºF )

 barometric pressure = 101,325 Pa (1 atmosphere)

 water vapour pressure = 1,333 Pa (10 mm of mercury)

 CO2 content of air = 0.03%

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 The purpose of gauge blocks is to provide linear dimensions known to within a given
tolerance.

The requirements of gauge blocks are,

 The actual size must be known

 The faces must be parallel

 The surface must have a smooth finish

 The surfaces must be flat

 The materials gauge blocks are made from are selected for, hardness,
temperature stability, corrosion resistance, and high quality finish.

Procedure
To develop a certain required length following are the steps

 Know the required length and its precision within the range of block gauges.
 Start from the smallest digit instead of the larger one.
 Select the blocks required to develop that length.
 Start with developing two blocks
 Bring the two measuring faces into contact with each other at right angles.

 While applying a small amount of force, gently turn one gauge block on the other. You
will feel the two blocks stick together.

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  Slide one gauge block over the other so that the sides of the blocks are flush with each
other.

 Now join the rest of blocks in the same way to get the full length developed

Procedure for wringing

1. Clean the slip gauge with lint free cloth or cleansing tissue.
2. Move one slip slightly over the other with light pressure.
3.  One gauge is place over the other 90o and then it is turned until the gauges
align in one line.
4. The gauges are adhering together. Adhesion is due to molecular attraction
and atmospheric pressure.

By following this process we have made block gauges of different dimension and these
are listed in the table.

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 Observations and Calculations:
Observations:

Least count of Vernier caliper = 0.05 mm

Zero Error = Nil

Sr. No. Required Gauges

Dimension
1 2 3 4
mm mm mm mm mm
1 2.507 1.000 0.500 1.007 0.000
2 7.809 5.000 1.800 1.009 0.000
3 12.020 7.000 4.000 1.020 0.000
4 8.540 1.040 6.000 1.500 0.000
5 2.1050 1.100 1.005 0.000 0.000
6 4.1060 2.000 1.010 1.006 0.000
7 26.730 24.000 1.700 1.030 0.000
8 12.208 10.000 1.200 1.008 0.000
9 3.4730 1.003 1.400 1.070 0.000
10 13.604 11.000 1.600 1.004 0.000
11 18.301 16.000 1.300 1.001 0.000
12 15.050 12.000 3.000 1.050 0.000

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Applications
 To check dimensional accuracy of fixed gages to determine extent of wear, growth, or
shrinkage

 To calibrate adjustable gages

 To set comparators, dial indicators, and height gages to exact dimensions

 To set sine bars and sine plates when extreme accuracy required in angular setups

Comments
 Drop of block may damage the block and affect its precision
 Rubbing on hard or abrasive surface can cause scratches
 Un-careful wringing will not give the exact desired reading
 Wear may occur due to frequent use or moist storage location
 To avoid the gauges from scratches they should not be placed on the work table.
 After using the block gauges, put a coating of petroleum jelly to avoid rusting.
 Avoid any dust particle on the gauges to minimize the error.
 Care should be taken while washing the block gauges with the petrol.
 Apply force in perpendicular direction to join the gauges.
 Wash the gauges with the petrol before using them.

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  Error in the dimensions may occur when two or more than two block gauges are not
properly joined.

Precautions:
 Wringing should always be performed in a clean place on a soft pad so if gauge
blocks may slip from hand, they will not be damaged.
 Wipe off the oil film from the gauge blocks using a soft cloth and petroleum ether.
 After this “rough” cleaning the surfaces are cleaned with a cosmetic brush rinsed with
petroleum ether and then “blown free” with an air blower.
 Never use alcohol or common benzene for cleaning; common benzene contains too
many impurities and alcohol always has aqueous components which may cause
corrosion.
 Best-suited for wiping gauge blocks are microfiber cloths.
 Check the cleaned gauge blocks for rust and scratches.
 In case the measuring surfaces are in good condition, but wringing is still difficult,
you may wipe them with medical cotton wool - its oily components will provide a
fine film thus improving the grip of the measuring surfaces.

References

moodle.cambria.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=15336
emtoolbox.nist.gov/Publications/NISTMonograph180.pdf
skilledtradesmath.com/files/Gage_Blocks.ppt

https://ml.scribd.com/doc/242020305/Gauge-block-

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 LAB SESSION # 03
Objective:
To develop the different angles with the help of angle Gauges.

Apparatus:
 Angle gauges
 Petrol
 Tissue role
 Duster /soft cloth
 Petroleum jelly

Theory:-
Angle Gauge Block:
Angle blocks are a valuable tool for the alignment and measurement of precise angles.
Using an autocollimator, they can provide a reference angle for testing optical components
such as prisms and mirrors. They can also be stacked to create other angles. Precision ground,
steel construction. 10 and 12 piece sets include a wooden storage case

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 The first set of combination of angle gauges was devised by Dr. Tomlinson of N.P.L.
With thirteen separate gauges used in conjunction with one square block and one parallel
straight-edge, it is possible to set up any angle to the nearest 3″. In the same way, as slip
gauges are built up to give a linear dimension, the angle gauges can be build up to give a
required angle. Angle gauges are made of hardened steel and seasoned carefully to ensure
permanence of angular accuracy, and the measuring faces are lapped and polished to a high
degree of accuracy and flatness like slip gauges. These gauges are about 3 inch (76.2 mm)
long, 5/8 inch (15.87 mm) wide with their faces lapped to within 0.0002 mm and s angle
between the two ends to ±2seconds.

Experimental Procedure:

When one slip gauge is placed over another, some air gap is present in between them. 
This air gap will affect the accuracy of the measurement.  So we need to avoid this air gap. 
The process of removal of air is called wringing.
Wringing is nothing, but removing the atmospheric air between two mating surfaces
of any two gauge blocks, so that the blocks stick to each other due to vacuum .
Procedure for Wringing:

1. Clean the slip gauge with lint free cloth or cleansing tissue.
2. Move one slip slightly over the other with light pressure.
3. One gauge is place over the other 90o and then it is turned until the gauges
align in one line.
4. The gauges are adhering together.  Adhesion is due to molecular attraction
and atmospheric pressure.

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 Observations and Calculations
Observations:
Least count of Vernier caliper = 0.05 mm

Zero Error = Nil

Sr.# Required Angle Gauges used

1 2 3
Deg. Deg,min,sec Deg,min,sec Deg,min,sec
1 74˚ 60˚ 14˚ 0
2 46˚ 60˚ -14˚ 0
3 30˚14ˊ 30˚ 14ˊ 0
4 61˚ 60˚ 1˚ 0
5 59˚ 60˚ -1˚ 0
6 12˚5ˊ 9˚ 3˚ 5ˊ
7 3˚5ˊ 3˚ 5ˊ 0
8 12˚30ˊ 3˚ 9˚ 30ˊ
9 35ˊ 0 30ˊ 5ˊ
10 9˚5ˊ 9˚ 5ˊ 0
11 3˚30ˊ 3˚ 0 30ˊ
12 75˚ 60˚ 14˚ 1˚

Uses of angle Gauges:

Direct use of angle gauges to measure the angle in the die insert.
To test the accuracy of the angle in the die insert, the insert is placed against an
illuminated glass surface plate or in front of an inspection light box. The combination of
angle gauges is so adjusted and the built-up combination of angle gauges carefully inserted in
position so that no white light can be seen between the gauge faces and die faces. It may be
noted that when all the engraved Vs on the angle gauges are in the same line, all angles are
added up. In case some engraved Vs on angle gauges are on other side, those angles are
subtracted.
Use of angle gauges with square plate. As already indicated, the use of square
plate increases the versatility of the application of angle gauges. Generally, the square plate
has its 90° angles guaranteed to within 2 seconds of arc. Where very high degree of accuracy
is required, the four corners of the square plate are numbered as A, B, C and D, and a test

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certificate is issued with each set of angle gauges, giving the measured angle of each corner.
Fig. 8.23 shows a set up to test the angle of V-gauge whose included angle is 102°. The
whole set up is placed against an illuminated glass surface plate. It may be noted that the use
of slip gauges has to be made in order to facilitate the testing.

Comments:
 To avoid the angle gauges from scratches, they should not be placed on the work
table.
 Wash the angle gauges with the petrol before using them.
 After using the angle gauges, put a coating of petroleum jelly to avoid rusting.
 Avoid any dust particle on the angle gauges to minimize the error.
 Care should be taken while washing the angle gauges with the petrol.
 Apply force in perpendicular direction to join the gauges.
 Error in the dimensions may occur when two or more than two angle gauges are not
properly joined.

References

http://what-when-how.com/metrology/angle-gauges-metrology/
http://www.edmundoptics.com/testing-targets/calibration-standards/mitutoyo-angle-
blocks/2323

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 LAB SESSION # 04
Objective:
To measure Angles of different profiles with the help of Bevel
Protractor.

Apparatus:
 Bevel Protractor
 Different geometrical shapes

Theory:-
Bevel Protractor:
A bevel protractor is a graduated circular protractor with one pivoted arm; used for
measuring or marking off angles. Sometimes Vernier scales are attached to give more precise
readings. It has wide application in architectural and mechanical drawing, although its use is
decreasing with the availability of modern drawing software or CAD.

Universal bevel protractors are also used by toolmakers; as they measure angles by
mechanical contact they are classed as mechanical protractors.
The bevel protractor is used to establish and test angles to very close tolerances. It
reads to 5 minutes or 1/12° and can measure any angle from 0° to 360°.
The universal bevel protractor is capable of measuring obtuse angles as well as acute angles
when accompanied with the correct attachments. Look at Figure 8 below to give you an idea
as to the uses of the universal bevel protractor.

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Main parts of Bevel Protractor:
The bevel protractor consists of a beam, a graduated dial and a blade which is
connected to a swivel plate (with
Vernier scale) by thumb nut and
clamp as shown in the figure.

When the edges of the beam and

blade are parallel, a small mark on
the swivel plate coincides with the
zero line on the graduated dial. To
measure an angle between the beam
and the blade of 90° or less, the
reading may be obtained direct from
the graduation number on the dial
indicated by the mark on the swivel plate. To measure an angle of over 90°, subtract the
number of degrees as indicated on the dial from 180°, as the dial is graduated from opposite
zero marks to 90° each way.

Since the spaces, both on the main scale and the Vernier scale, are numbered both to the right
and to the left from zero, any angle can be measured. The readings can be taken either to the
right or to the left, according to the direction in which the zero on the main scale is moved

Experimental procedure to read the angles with Bevel Protractor:

 The main component of the bevel protractor is the main scale. The main scale is
graduated into four 90-degree components. The main scale is numbered to read from 0
to 90 degrees and then back from 90 degrees to 0 (Figure 1)

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  As with other vernier measuring devices, the vernier scale of the bevel protractor allows
the tool to divide each degree into smaller increments. The vernier scale is divided into
24 spaces, 12 spaces on either side of the zero (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Degrees can be read directly off of the main scale, while the minutes are read
on the vernier scale.

 Each space on the vernier scale is, therefore, one-twelfth of a degree. One-twelfth of a
degree is equal to 5 minutes. To read the protractor, note where the zero on the vernier
scale lines up with the degrees on the dial in Figure 10. The degrees are read directly
from the main scale. The zero on the vernier scale is just pass the 85 degree mark.
Now, reading in the same direction (counter-clockwise), count, by five, from zero on
the vernier scale to the lines that match up on the dial (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Always read the vernier in the same direction that you read the dial.

 Add this number of minutes to the number of whole degrees. The total number of
degrees and minutes in Figure 10 would equal 85 degrees and 30 minutes. Look at the
measurements in Figure 3 to get you more accustomed to vernier bevel protractor reading.

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 Figure 3. Vernier bevel Protractor readings.

This is all about the experimental procedure of reading any angle with the help of bevel
protractor.

Observations and Calculations

Least count of Vernier scale = 5 ́

Sr.# Shape Main Vernier L .C × V . S . R Total

Scale scale reading
reading reading T . R=M . S . R+V . S . R × L .C

M.S.R V.S.R T.R

1 Hexagon
θ1
θ2
θ3
θ4
θ5
θ6

2 Right
triangle
θ1
θ2
θ3

3 Polygon
θ1
θ2

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 θ3
θ4
θ5

4 Polygon
θ1
θ2
θ3
θ4

5 Polygon
θ1
θ2
θ3
θ4
θ5

Comments:
 Error in the readings may come when the graduations on the scale are poorly marked.
 The object may be loosely fitted in the bevel protractor causing error in the reading.
 Before using the bevel protractor, check the surface smoothness of the object
carefully to avoid any error
 Negligence of the observer in reading the division on Vernier scale.
 Care should be taken while measuring smaller angles because the often do not fit in
the bevel protractor in proper orientation.
 Set a reference point on the bevel protractor first before measuring the angle of any
geometric shape.

References

studentwebs.columbusstate.edu/cox_christie/.../DEFINITION.pdf

its.foxvalleytech.com/MachShop1/Inspection/AngleMeas.htm

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 4
θ1

2
1

20:06:07

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 120°

2
1

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 Experiment # 5
Objective:
To measure the (tapered) angle of the given specimen with the help of Sine Bar.

Apparatus
 Sine bar
 Given specimen (Tapered piece)
 Block gauges
 Petroleum gel
 Petrol

Theory
A steel bar with a matching cylinder on each end is used for setting up work at
various angles for the machining or inspection of parts. A sine bar is ground and lapped to a
high accuracy.

To set an angle with a sine bar and stack of blocks, take the sine of the desired angle
on your calculator and multiply the result by the distance between the centres of the cylinders
in the sine bar. Assemble a stack of blocks equal to this value and put it under one of the
cylinders. Given a sine bar and a set of spacer blocks or Jo blocks, a wide range of angles can
be set with extremely high accuracy. The minimum angle can be set will equal the smallest
step size in block set.

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 The maximum angle will be less than 90°. At some point the sine bar will fall over

Given a right triangle, we can relate the hypotenuse, height, and angle with the formula

angel=sin−1 ( perp
hyp )

First consider the case of two cylinders of exactly the same diameter. Draw a line
between their centres. Since they have the same diameters, they must also have the same
radius. With the two cylinders sitting on a perfectly flat surface, it can be said that the line
between centres is exactly parallel to my flat surface and is above it by the radius of either
cylinder.

If we put one of the cylinders on a block of known height. The line between centers will now
be at an angle with respect to the horizontal.

Here is where
having the
two
cylinders
with the
exact same
radius
comes in
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handy. The lower end of the sloped line is one radius above my flat surface. The upper end is
a one radius above the top of our block. So if I draw a horizontal line from the lower
cylinder’s centre over to the block, I will be one radius above the flat surface which is
supporting my block. Resting on the top of the block is my second cylinder with its centre
one radius above the top of the block. The height of my block is simply shifted up by the
radius. My hyp, height, and angle are again related by the formula

angel=sin−1 ( perp
hyp )

The diameter of the two identical cylinders cancel each other so don’t appear in the formula.

Procedure
To measure the tapered angle of given specimen follow the steps below

 Place the specimen on the sine bar

 Adjust a dial guage on the specimen
 Dial gauge must give some deflection reading even on the lowest part of the specimen
 Slightly drag the dial gauge along the sine bar.
 Observe the movement of dial indicator
 Now start adding gauge blocks on the lower side of sine bar
 Make combination and use precision blocks for good measurements
 Keep on adding the blocks (height) till the deflection on the dial gauge is negligile
 Use this height of block gauges as the perpendicular
 Sine bar used had a know perpendicular of 10in
 Convert 10in in mm gives 254mm
 Now using the sine function of trigonomerty
 Find the angle required

Observation & Calculation

Sr. No gauges Height Hypotenus α

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 e
1 2 3 4 5 6 L H

1 11 0.5 1.5 2 0 0 15 254 3.38o

2 1.9 1.9 1.2 1.002 1.003 4.38 11.385 254 2.56o

Comment
 Surface may wear causing induced taper in the sine bar
 Parallelism of lower and upper surfaces
 Flatness of face

Conclusion/Improvement
 The two rollers must have equal diameter and be true cylinders.
 The rollers must be set parallel to each other and to the upper face.
 The precise center distance between the rollers must be known.
 The upper face must have a high degree of flatness.

Safety precaution
Following acts should be kept in mind while using the apparatus

 Do not drop the sine bar

 Clean the surfaces of bar and the slip gauges
 Apparatus should be stored in the appropriate box or casing
 The apparatus must not be used in the places where dust or moisture come in direct
contact
 Periodic housekeeping should be performed

Experiment # 6
Objective
To measure the taper of the bore with the help of standard balls (precision balls),
depth gauges and block gauges

Apparatus
 Standard balls

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  Block gauges
 A piece with tapered bore
 Surface plate
 Petrol
 Tissue role
 Duster /soft cloth
 Petroleum jelly

Theory
Gaging is one of the most critical and least understood operations in machine shops
today. Industry can no longer afford yesterday’s levels of wastage, and accurate gaging has,
therefore, never been more important. The metrology industry has not been consistent in its
definitions, Accuracy, itself, is a nebulous term that incorporates several characteristics of
gage performance. Our best definition is that accuracy is the relationship of the work piece’s
real dimensions to what the gage says. It’s not quantifiable, but it consists of the following
quantifiable features. Precision (also known as repeatability), is the ability of a gage or
gaging system to produce the same reading every time the same dimension is measured. A
gage can be extremely precise and still highly inaccurate. A gage that discriminates to
millionths of an
inch is of little
value if it was built
to tolerances of five
ten-thousandths.

Standard
balls are made from
Chrome steel, hard
carbon steel, soft
steel and also high
speed steel. Standard balls are made with shiny surface and smooth round solid spherical
body. The diameter of ball is precise and is the main purpose of making the standard balls

Standard balls are used in many different ways, they are highly useful in measuring
the distances between the surfaces, the alignment of jaws of holding devices and most
importantly the taper of a work piece.

In the following experiment the standard balls along with the slip or block gauge are
used. The purpose is to find the taper of the piece from the inner side. The work piece given
is made of steel with conical inside tapered through hole. The diameter of hole is unknown
and it decreases from one side to other. And more specifically from top to bottom

[Picture Cad of piece]

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 There are many ways to find the taper of the piece but to be more precise the standard
ball are used.

Procedure
To measure the taper of the given specimen following are the steps

 Now place the work piece on the surface plate

 First insert the ball of small diameter which will close the opening of the smaller hole
 Clean the surface plate
 Check the diameter of that ball
 Now using different balls, upper hole is covered such that about half of the diameter is
above the hole.
 Now the balls covering the openings, develop a length using a block gauge

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  With the help of depth gauge, Find the height of the block gauge above the top
surface of the upper ball
 Now using the given formula find the perpendicular & hypotenuse
 Use the sine formula and find the angle of the taper
 The result is multiplied by 2 to find the taper angle

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 By following this process we have made block gauges of different dimension and
these are listed in the table.

Equations
The angle of taper of the specimen is found using the following formulas

perp=r 2−r 1

hyp=H−h1−r 2−r 1

sin ( θ2 )= perp
hyp

θ=2× sin−1 ( perp

hyp )

Here

r 1 is the radius of smaller ball

r 2 is the radius of larger ball

h1 is the height of smaller ball from flat plate to the top surface

H is the height of larger ball from flat plate to the top surface

Observations and Calculations:

Sr. Block h1
r1 r2 θ
No. height(H)
in in in in Deg.
1 0.1562 0.4375 2 0.4687 34 ° 55 ' 4 ' '

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Applications
 To check dimensional accuracy of fixed gages to determine extent of wear, growth, or
shrinkage
 To calibrate adjustable gages
 To check the misalignment in the parallel surface

Comments
 Drop of standard ball may damage the ball and affect its precision
 Rubbing on hard or abrasive surface can cause scratches
 Wear may occur due to frequent use or moist storage location
 To avoid the gauges from scratches they should not be placed on the work table.
 After using the standard balls, put a coating of petroleum jelly to avoid rusting.
 Avoid any dust particle on the gauges to minimize the error.
 Care should be taken while washing the standard balls with the petrol.
 Apply force in perpendicular direction to join the gauges.
 Wash the standard balls with the petrol before using them.

Precautions
 Wipe off the oil film from the standard ball using a soft cloth and petroleum ether.
 After this “rough” cleaning the surfaces are cleaned with a cosmetic brush rinsed with
petroleum ether and then “blown free” with an air blower.
 Never use alcohol or common benzene for cleaning; common benzene contains too
many impurities and alcohol always has aqueous components which may cause
corrosion.
 Best-suited for wiping standard balls are microfiber cloths.
 Check the cleaned standard balls for rust and scratches.
 In case the measuring surfaces are in good condition, but wringing is still difficult,
you may wipe them with medical cotton wool - its oily components will provide a
fine film thus improving the grip of the measuring surfaces.

Experiment No.7
Statement:

The objective is to measure the profile of a component by using CMM (Co-ordinate

measuring machine).

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Apparatus:

 CMM

 Component being measured

Theory:
Coordinate Measuring Machine:-
 It is an electromechanical system designed to perform coordinate metrology.
 A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is a device for measuring the physical
geometrical characteristics of an object.
 This machine may be manually controlled by an operator or it may be computer
controlled. Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving axis
of this machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white light, amongst
others.
 A machine which takes readings in six degrees of freedom and displays these
readings in mathematical form is known as a CMM.

Construction of CMM:-

 The main structure which include three axes of motion

 Probing system
 Data collection and reduction system - typically includes a machine controller,
desktop computer and application software.

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Measurement Capabilities
CMMs can be designed to perform different types of measurement. These include
dimensional, profile, angularity, depth mapping, digitizing/imaging.

Dimensional
Measurements are sizing measurements made in the x, y, and z directions.
Profile
Measurements are made to capture information about the form or profile of an object.
These measurements may be 2-D or 3-D, depending on the machine capabilities.
Angularity 
Orientation measurements are made to capture angle information between points on
an object.
Digitizing or imaging
Provides a digital format or image to visually capture the geometry of the work piece
from the measurements made by the CMM.

Portable coordinate-measuring machines

 Whereas traditional CMMs use a probe that moves on three Cartesian axes to measure
an object’s physical characteristics, portable CMMs use either articulated arms or, in
the case of optical CMMs, arm-free scanning systems that use optical triangulation
methods and enable total freedom of movement around the object.
 Portable CMMs with articulated arms have six or seven axes that are equipped with
rotary encoders, instead of linear axes.

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  Portable arms are lightweight (typically less than 20 pounds) and can be carried and
used nearly anywhere.
 Optical CMMs are increasingly being used in the industry. Designed with compact
linear or matrix array cameras (like the Microsoft Kinect), optical CMMs are smaller
than portable CMMs with arms, feature no wires, and enable users to easily take 3D
measurements of all types of objects located almost anywhere.

Experiment Procedure
 Place the work piece on the table and make a boundary around the work piece by
touching the probe on the table.
 Select the option of line and by probe select two points on the work piece then
press ok, software will give the value of length of side.
 To measure the angle between two line select the option of angle and select the
line between which we want to find the angle.
 For measuring the diameter of circle select 3-points on the circle and then press
ok, software will give the value of radius.

Comments:
 Work piece should place on the granite table carefully, once place it don’t move it to avoid
scratches.
 Needle of measuring head should slightly touché the work piece so that its place will not
change.
 Optical laser only use when the depth or bore of wholes are very small.
 For operating the machine a skilled person is required.

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References:
http://www.nikonmetrology.com/Products/Coordinate-Measuring-Machines

http://hexagonmi.com/products/coordinate-measuring-machines

http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/manufacturing_process_equipment/inspection_tools_instru
ments/coordinate_measuring_machines_cmm

Experiment # 8
Objective
To find the profile angles of a specimen using universal profile projector

Apparatus
 Universal profile projector
 Specimen
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Theory
A Profile Projector (often simply called an optical comparator in context) is a device that
applies the principles of optics to the inspection of manufactured parts. In a comparator, the
magnified silhouette of a part is projected upon the screen, and the dimensions and geometry of the
part are measured against prescribed limits. The idea of
using profile projector, which is created by James
Hartness and Russell W. Porter, came from mixing optics
and measurement in a device. The use of the term
comparator for metrological equipment, had existed in
other forms prior to Hartness's work; but they had
remained in realms of pure science (such as telescopy
and microscopy) and highly specialized applied science
(such as comparing master measuring standards).

Hartness's comparator, intended for the routine

inspection of machined parts, was a natural next step in
the era during which applied science became widely
integrated into industrial production. It’s also employed
for inspecting and comparing very small and complex
parts, which play very significant role in system’s
structure, as an application of quality.

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Types of measurements
Measurement by comparison: Part images could be compared to rulers and
protractors placed across the screen. Eventually, these measuring tools were incorporated into
precise glass overlay screens, commonly called "chart gages." The most common chart gage
is the tool room chart. It can measure angles, radii, lengths and widths. Standard chart gages,
such as tool room charts or custom chart gages with minimum and maximum tolerance zones
can be used as go/no-go gages for quick inspection. Using chart gages this way on an optical
comparator is still one of the fastest and most cost-effective methods of measuring profile
dimensions.

Such dedicated charts are being replaced by electronically generated chart gages,
which allow the possibility of fast and automatic measuring process, thus more economic
performance.

Measurement by screen rotation: rotating the screen to measure angles.

Vernier or digital scales are provided to the screen to measure the angle
measurements when rotating the screen ring.

Measurement by motion: worktables are incorporated into the optical competitors to track
parts' positions as they move.

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Procedure
Following are the steps to perform for taking a measurement from the profile
projector

1. Switch on the optical profile projector.

2. Place the clean work piece on the glass of the table.
3. Focus it properly by moving focusing wheel and moving the work table to obtain
correct magnified image of the object.
4. Horizontal (x axis) measurement can be taken by right hand side micrometre and the
vertical measurement can be taken from front side micrometre.

Advantages
 Profile Projector can reveal imperfections such as burrs, scratches, indentations or
undesirable chamfers which either micrometres or callipers can’t reveal.
 They’re able to measure in 2-D space. Unlike micrometres and callipers, which
measure one dimension at a time, where comparators measure length and width
simultaneously.
 Measuring Length and Width

 "Points in Space" Measurement

 Cost savings:
 Optical comparators save time. Ease-of-use factors and ergonomic designs reduce the
inspection time, retraining costs and operator fatigue, all while increasing throughput.
 Custom hard gages are subject to wear and need frequent recertification, which takes
them out of service and adds an additional cost.

Disadvantage
 The limitation of using profile projector as a fixed device forms a disadvantage of it,
while instruments such micrometre or callipers can be used to reach for measuring far
and joint accessible components and it is large and bulky and usually require a cart to
transport from place to place, also the device requires power for operation.

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 Experiment # 9
Objective
To find the surface texture of given specimen using surface texture meter

Apparatus
 Surface Texture meter
 Specimen

Theory
Surface quality of the machined parts is very critical for their proper functioning and
long life. It is also a measure of the
technological quality of a product, a factor
that greatly influences manufacturing cost.
Achieving the desired surface finish is very
crucial for long life of the components;
therefore, much research for optimization of
surface roughness is underway. A good
quality machined surface significantly
improves the corrosion resistance, fatigue
strength, and creep life. For example, an
engine today requires an almost mirror-like
finish on the block deck and cylinder heads surfaces to seal the head gasket properly.
Therefore, many machine shops may require either maintaining or upgrading their machine
tool equipment to achieve the smoother finishes. For example, let us consider an old engine
made of cast iron having conventional soft-faced head gaskets on the cylinder head and deck
of block. As long as the surface roughness, Ra, on both parts is approximately around 60 to
100 μ-inches, the soft faced head gasket will cold seal and stay leak-free. But on latest
modern engines of bimetal having either cast iron block aluminium head or all aluminium
engines, smoother surface finishes are required for a couple of reasons for long life of the
engine.

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Surface Texture
Surface texture can be defined and classified according to the following aspects. A
surface is a boundary that divides an object or substance from another object or substance.
The intended surface is called the nominal surface. The nominal surface of an object is
usually dimensioned and shown on a drawing. The nominal surface does not contain the
intended surface roughness. A real surface is the actual boundary of an object. It may deviate
from the intended surface as a result of machining process that is used to generate it For
example, in machining process, the abrasive processes the interactions of the cutting tool
edge and work piece being cut both contribute to the roughness. Similarly, in the molding or
forming process, the impression presents in molds are generally the factors that contribute
towards an increase in the surface roughness.

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Roughness Amplitude Parameters
The term “surface roughness” and “surface finish” are used widely in industry. These are
generally used to quantify the smoothness of the surface finish. Surface roughness has been
defined in term of the concepts of surface metrology and terminology, such as

 Surface texture
 Real surface
 Roughness
 Roughness width,
 Roughness width cutoff
 Waviness
 Waviness height
 Waviness width
 Lay
 Flaws
 Roughness sampling length.

Average Roughness (Ra):

Average surface roughness is also identified as Centre Line Average (CLA),
Arithmetic Average (AA), or Arithmetical Mean Deviation (AMD) of the profile. The
average roughness can be defined as the integral of the absolute value of the roughness
profile height over the evaluation length or the area between the roughness profile and its
mean line

Surface Roughness Measurement Techniques

Generally speaking, the techniques of measuring roughness of machined parts can be
classified into two categories, contact and non-contact surface roughness measurements
technique. An instrument used to measure surface roughness is a stylus profiler. This
instrument uses a diamond stylus profiler to directly touch the part’s surface and measure its
surface roughness value by averaging the value in the cutoff. The stylus profile is one of the
most widely used instruments to measure contact surface roughness in industry and academic
laboratories. Among its many advantage are that it is easy and quick to use, has good

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repeatability, and is relatively inexpensive. The Ra value from a profiler is usually employed
as a basic index, which is taken and compared with other surface roughness measurement
techniques. Another surface roughness device is the scanning force microscope (SFM), which
is used to study the characteristic of precise surface roughness, such as precision machined
surface roughness. A three-dimensional (3D) image at any rotation angle can indicate
roughness heights. The measuring sample is fixed on a piezoelectric scanner. The
piezoelectric scanner travels the measuring sample in the horizontal x and y directions. The
vertical z direction movement of the measuring sample is obtained by a stationary tip
mounted on a cantilever. The tip contacts the surface roughness of the measuring sample and
applies a small force. In the current study, a stylus profiler was employed to measure surface
roughness of the parts. Although this measurement has a fairly good resolution, its main
disadvantage is that it is generally not suitable for in-process measurement. Monitoring
surface roughness is often done by manual contact inspection of part surface using stylus
profilers [37]. However, manual contact inspection is time consuming. Thus, several non-
contact measurement techniques have been developed to reduce measurement time, such as
fiber optics, ultrasonic, machine vision, etc.

These can be applied in the surface roughness measurement of in-process machining.

1. Fiber optics: This technique utilizes a lens and fiber optic guide arrangement. This
arrangement develops an interferometer cavity between the surface and lens to compute the
surface height variation of a reflective sample directly. The data acquisition system is an
electronic control. This electronic control also helps in converting the phase change signal
into a voltage signal which is proportional to the sample surface height. This technique
provides good sensitivity for measurement on smooth surface roughness (Ra range:
0.42~2.89 μm).

2. Ultrasonic: This technique is suitable for in-process monitoring in the machining process.
It provides the necessary fluid couplant for an ultrasonic beam in an immersion tank on an x-
y-z table of a CNC machine. The ultrasonic sensor is fixed on housing of spindle. Care
should be taken while fixing as the sensor should be secured close to the actual machining
point. This would help in immediate surface measurement after the machining is over.

3. Machine Vision: This technique uses a CCD camera to compare the picture of the surface
roughness. The surface of the sample is lit up by a white light supply fixed at an inclined
angle. The picture is examined by software installed on a micro-computer. The machine
vision system could also be used in machining processes with adaptive control.

4. Laser technique: Laser devices have been used to measure the intensity and spatial
distribution of light reflected and diffracted from the surface roughness of the machined parts.
The range from 1 to 500 micro inches Ra can be measured in the laser measurement.
Therefore, the laser technique can be used in very precise requirements of surface roughness
checking.

5. Capacitance-based measurement: This technique features a probe containing a metallic

capacitive sensor pad. The sensor is covered with an insulation film to electrically isolate it

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from the conductive or semi-conductive part surface. Capacitance is established and a signal
is transmitted to the system’s electronic circuitry, when the probe is pressed against the part.

The above mentioned technique could be used to measure the surface roughness of a
part being machined. However, they are not good for in-process measurement, since the non-
contact technique, such as machine vision, needs to be mounted on the machines. The coolant
or chips may cover the measured surface of the machined parts during machining, resulting in
difficulty for the non-contact technique to measure surface roughness in process.

Surface roughness is also measured by one of three different methods: profile, area, and
comparison;

Profile: The profile method of surface roughness measurement is the one in most general
use. It consists of measurements taken with a stylus of a single line, of a designated length,
that is representative of the entire surface. Two types of the stylus instruments are shown in
Fig. 2.5.

Area: capacitance, optical and pneumatic systems are employed to measure an area of a
surface and, when compared to a known acceptable master, may be used to check a process.
A profile check is normally used in conjunction.

Comparison: surfaces with a comparatively “rough” surface texture requirement (above 60

μinch) may be compared with a known sample such as an approved sample part or with
commercial standard roughness specimens. The check is made by visual comparison and
sometimes by tactual fingernail check.

Stereoscope comparison microscopes are also available and usually used in the
surface roughness range of from 20 μinch to 60 μinch or above.

46 | P a g e
 Experiment # 10
Objective
To find the profile angles of a specimen using universal profile projector.

Apparatus
 Universal profile projector
 Specimen

Theory
Hardness is a resistance to deformation. Hardness is more likely to mean the
resistance to indentation. Hardness has a variety of meanings.
To the metals industry, it may be thought of as resistance to
permanent deformation. To the metallurgist, it means resistance
to penetration. To the lubrication engineer, it means resistance
to wear. To the design engineer, it is a measure of flow stress.
To the mineralogist, it means resistance to scratching, and to
the machinist, it means resistance to machining. Hardness may
also be referred to as mean contact pressure. All of these
characteristics are related to the plastic flow stress of materials.

Tests for measuring hardness

Hardness is indicated in a variety of ways, as indicated by the names of the tests that follow:

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  Static indentation tests: A ball, cone, or pyramid is forced into the surface of the
metal being tested. The relationship of load to the area or depth of indentation is
the measure of hardness, such as in Brinell, Knoop, Rockwell, and Vickers
hardness tests.
 Rebound tests: An object of standard mass and dimensions is bounced from the
surface of the work piece being tested, and the height of rebound is the measure of
hardness. The Scleroscope and Leeb tests are examples.
 Scratch file tests: The idea is that one material is capable of scratching another.
The Mohs and file hardness tests are examples of this type.
 Plowing tests: A blunt element (usually diamond) is moved across the surface of
the work piece being tested under controlled conditions of load and shape. The
width of the groove is the measure of hardness. The Bierbaum test is an example.
 Damping tests: Hardness is determined by the change in amplitude of a
pendulum having a hard pivot, which rests on the surface of the work piece being
tested. The Herbert Pendulum test is an example.
 Cutting tests: A sharp tool of given shape is caused to remove a chip of standard
dimensions from the surface of the work piece being tested.
 Abrasion tests: A work piece is loaded against a rotating disk, and the rate of
wear is the measure of hardness.
 Erosion tests: Sand or other granular abrasive is impinged on the surface of the
work piece being tested under standard conditions, and loss of material in a given
time is the measure of hardness. Hardness of grinding wheels is measured by this
testing method.
 Electromagnetic testing: Hardness is measured as a variable against standards of
known flux density.
 Ultrasonic testing: A type of indentation test

The hardness test is, by far, the most valuable and most widely used mechanical test
for evaluating the properties of metals as well as certain other materials. The hardness of a
material usually is considered resistance to permanent indentation. In general, an indenter is
pressed into the surface of the metal to be tested under a specific load for a definite time
interval, and a measurement is made of the size or depth of the indentation. The principal
purpose of the hardness test is to determine the suitability of a material for a given
application, or the particular treatment to which the material has been subjected. The ease
with which the hardness test can be made has made it the most common method of inspection
for metals and alloys.

Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material
under a preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been
reached, an indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter and so responds
to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a datum position. While the
preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is applied with resulting
increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When equilibrium has again been reach, the additional
major load is removed but the preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the

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additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of penetration (Fig.
1C). The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application and
removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.
HR = E - e
F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf F1 = additional major load in kgf F = total load in
kgf e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1 measured in units of
0.002 mm E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130
units for steel ball indenter HR = Rockwell hardness number D = diameter of steel ball

Fig. 1.Rockwell Principle

Scal Minor Major LoadF1 Total LoadF Value of
Indenter
e LoadF0 kgf kgf kgf E
A Diamond cone 10 50 60 100
B 1/16" steel ball 10 90 100 130
C Diamond cone 10 140 150 100
D Diamond cone 10 90 100 100
E 1/8" steel ball 10 90 100 130
F 1/16" steel ball 10 50 60 130
G 1/16" steel ball 10 140 150 130
H 1/8" steel ball 10 50 60 130
K 1/8" steel ball 10 140 150 130
L 1/4" steel ball 10 50 60 130
M 1/4" steel ball 10 90 100 130
P 1/4" steel ball 10 140 150 130
R 1/2" steel ball 10 50 60 130
S 1/2" steel ball 10 90 100 130
V 1/2" steel ball 10 140 150 130
HRA . . . . Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case hardened steel
HRB . . . . Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminium alloys, malleable irons, etc
HRC . . . . Steel, hard cast irons, case hardened steel and other materials harder than 100 HRB HRD . .
. . Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron
HRE . . . . Cast iron, aluminium and magnesium alloys, bearing metals
HRF . . . . Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals
HRG . . . . Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons
HRH . . . . Aluminium, zinc, lead
HRK . . . . }
HRL . . . . }
HRM . . . .} . . . . Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRP . . . . }
HRR . . . . }
HRS . . . . }
HRV . . . . }

49 | P a g e
 Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness
number readout and rapid testing time. Disadvantages include many arbitrary non-related
scales and possible effects from the specimen support anvil (try putting a cigarette paper
under a test block and take note of the effect on the hardness reading! Vickers and Brinell
methods don't suffer from this effect).

The Brinell hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm
diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials
the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is
normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds
in the case of other metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is
measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell harness number is calculated by
dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.

The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the
use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell hardness.
A well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75
HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm
diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests
of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Compared to
the other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so
the test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately
account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material.
This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly
those materials with heterogeneous structures.

References:
http://www.hardnesstesters.com/Applications/Rockwell-Hardness-Testing.aspx

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