NUR81012 HEALTH CARE ETHICS

2. Special Ethics
INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH CARE • Applied ethics: applies principles of general
ETHICS ethics
contents: • Individual: God, self
I. Ethics • Social: Family, state, world
a. Definition 3. Virtue Ethics
b. Branches of Ethics • “What kind of person should I be"
II. Morality • Three concepts
III. Professional Code of Ethics 1. Arete (virtue/ excellence)
o Desirable, admirable morally valuable
a. Historical Perspectives
b. Fundamental Concept character traits, perfection of character
o To possess a virtue is to be a person with
IV. Nurses’ Primary Responsibility
V. Bioethics a complex mindset
a. Ethical Concerns in Healthcare 2. Phronesis (practical wisdom)
o Judgment to act virtuously
b. Bioethics Committee
VI. Who and What is a Person? o Desirable act
o Knowledge/ understanding to do the
VII. Key Concepts
VIII. Values and Values Clarification right thing
o Sensitive perception
a. Respect for Person
o Includes thinking and caring
IX. Human Rights
o Aspects:
X. Human Dignity
a. Basis of Human Dignity § Mindful of consequences
b. Significance of Being a Person § Recognize situations more important
c. Principles of Human Dignity than others (knowing how to live well)
o Includes thinking, caring and sensitive
XI. What is a Patient?
XII. Human Acts vs Acts of Man perception
o Prudent person
XIII. Morality
XIV. Norms and Standards of Behavior § Consistently makes judgments about
a. Natural Law the rightness/ appropriateness of
b. Conscience what is to be done and be motivated
by these judgments to act in
I. ETHICS accordance with them
3. Eudaimonia (true happiness/ well-being)
Definition
o At the end of the day you should be
• Greek word ethos -> character, human behavior,
happy with being virtuous (E.g. When
custom
you make a charitable act, you feel
• Declaration of rightness and wrongness of an act
o Choose what is less evil happy)
o A good life is a eudaemon life
o Process-oriented, involves critical analysis of
o Virtue enables man to be eudaemon
action
§ Feeling for the loss/suffering of
• Reflects "should" of the human behavior
o Difference of wants and needs another with an attempt to help or
o In ethics there's always limits avoid that loss/suffering
• Study of moral conduct or principles of underlying
II. MORALITY
desirable types of human conduct
o Since it follows what should be done, there are a. Morals
principles/ guidelines/ norms to follow • It is where you define what is right and wrong
• Science of ideals • Latin word mos/moris meaning custom (what
o Guides your judgment concerning morality of you grew up knowing)
human acts • Refers to human conduct itself
• Seek to point out to men true values of life • Application of ethics
• Fundamental standards of right or wrong that an
individual learns or internalizes
o Usually during early childhood
Branches of Ethics
o E.g. "after playing you need to clean up"
1. General Ethics
o Ethics is subjective because it depends kung
• Presents truth about human acts --- general
anong kinalakihan nya
principles of morality
• Reflects what is done in a situation
• "Do good, not bad"

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b. Morality IV. NURSES’ PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY
• Measure of relation between the human act • Preserve health at all cost (preventive & promotive)
performed and its norm according to the • Responsibility of nurses:
dictates of right reason, human nature, and 1. Promotion of Health
ultimately, God’s Eternal Law 2. Prevention of illness
• Reflects to the practical application of ethical 3. Alleviation of suffering
principles in determining good moral behavior 4. Restoration of health
• Questions:
o What should I do in this situation? V. BIOETHICS
o Do I have the right to do this? a. Definition
o Am I willing to be accountable for the • Bio (life) + ethos (behavior) = study of behavior or
consequences of my action? ethics applied to life
c. Morals vs Ethics • Application of ethical theories and principles to
Morals Ethics problems in healthcare
Principles or right conduct Formal reasoning process to • Christian Bioethics: study of the concepts and
determine right conduct principles of Christianity
Private, personal Professional and publicly b. Why Study Bioethics:
stated • Scientific advances: sometimes we go overboard
Commitment to principles Process of questioning with inventions
and values are usually o What’s technologically possible is not always
defended in daily life ethically justifiable
• Inequalities in socio-economic, educational and
III. PROFESSIONAL CODE OF ETHICS political positions
• The normative principles which govern a o E.g. In a hospital, there’s a place for VIP
professional’s standards of behavior both as patients and a place for the less fortunate.
individual and as he/ she relates with society, the o Should you pick your patients?
environment, and God • Finitude of resources
• The “Code of Ethics for Nurses” BON Resolution o E.g. When there is limit of vaccines, you
220 series 2004- provides guidance for carrying out need to choose the patients who need it the
nursing responsibilities consistent with the ethical most
obligations of the profession • Changes in the doctor-patient relationships
o Doctor without ethics is only a technician,
Historical Perspectives but with ethics, he is properly called a
a. 1982 physician
• Rampant unethical behavior
• PNA Special Committee headed by the late
Dean Emeritus Julita V. Sotejo developed a • Legal concerns
Code of ethics for Filipino nurses. This was
approved by the House of Delegates but was not Ethical Concerns in Healthcare
implemented • Confidentiality of records
b. 1984 • Right to privacy
• BON Resolution # 633 was issued and adopted • Right to information
the Code of Ethics of the International Council • Competent consent to treatment
for Nurses, adding the promotion of spiritual • Right to refuse treatment
environment as the fifth-fold responsibility of the • Termination of treatment
nurse. This was enforced up to 1989. • End of life decisions (DNR, Advance directive)
c. 1989
• PNA promulgated a new Code of Ethics and was Bioethics Committee
approved by the BON through its BON a. Bioethics Committee
Resolution # 1955 s. 1989 • Issues of patient care that presents as ethical
d. BON Resolution No. 220 Series of 2004 - dilemmas
Promulgation of the Code of Ethics for Registered • The institution's ability to protect the rights and
Nurses interests of clients in general
• The development of institutional policies and
Fundamental Concept educational programs on ethical issues
• Health is the fundamental right of every individual • Primary responsibility:
o Educate people about ethical principles; how
to act in ethical situations; PREVENTIVE not
intervene
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 o Create institutional principles § E.g. You have a special event in your family,
• (Not all hospitals have this) It is composed of although it is also your RLE day, what will you
professionals such as nurses, doctors, priests, prioritize?
dietician, relative of a patient, layman person • Values are directed by:
(neuter) 1. Attitudes - one’s disposition toward an object or a
• Provide ethics education programs for staff situation; emotional or mental mindset; positive
• Advisory Function – formulate policies or negative
• Consultative Function 2. Beliefs - ideas that one accepts as true- one that
o Should not exercise decision-making power changes the least- opinions, decisions
o Only recommendatory 3. Behaviors - observable actions or reactions in
• Other functions: relation to the environment
o In the absence of Institutional Review • Value Awareness
Board (IRB), it can review research o “Can I accept this or live with this?”
protocols on its ethical aspects o “Who does it bother me?”
o It can also serve as advocates for o “What would I do or want done in this situation?”
legislative development on health and
contributes its share to public debate on VII. KEY CONCEPTS
healthcare issues All human interactions are value based
•
b. Committee Composition Nurses must clarify and respect the values of others
•
• Must have a well-balanced representation from and examine their own values
medical, nursing & administrative staff
• Knowledge and skill can help in making a healthcare
• Representatives from pastoral care, social work & decision which will reflect our needs and values
other areas involved in patient care
• True worth and dignity of human in making ethical
• A lawyer can be an effective committee member decisions protects the human values
as long as he is careful not to put legal concern
• To understand and respect the values of others:
above ethical concerns o Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• A liaison from the administration should be an 1. Physiologic Needs
active member of the committee 2. Safety Needs
*A committee that does not have the full support of the 3. Belonging Needs
administration is doomed to fail 4. Esteem Needs
c. Nursing Bioethics Committee 5. Self-Actualization
• Must have a well-balanced representation from o St. Thomas Aquinas - need to preserve life; need
medical, nursing & administrative staff to procreate; need to know the truth and the need
• Help nurses increase their knowledge about to live in society
applied ethics 1. The need to preserve life
• Assist nurses in making ethical judgments and 2. The need to procreate
decisions 3. The need to know the truth
• Serve as nursing representatives in the hospital’s 4. The need to live in society
multidisciplinary ethics committee
*Values are enhanced and refined by experiences that
VI. WHO AND WHAT IS A PERSON? cultivate values development such as interactions with
• From the time of conception to natural death people of differing values and viewpoints and experiences
1. Personhood that challenge one’s way of thinking
o Philosophically – consciousness, ability to *Ethical problems exist when we have to make decisions
reason, self- awareness, able to so that all these needs will be satisfied in an integrated and
communicate consistent manner
o Theologically – relationships with other
human beings with God
VIII. VALUES AND VALUES CLARIFICATION
• All Human beings have needs
• Ethical problems result from changes in society,
• Anything that fulfills a need is a VALUE
o Values give direction and meaning to life and advances in technology and the nurse’s conflicting
loyalties and obligations
guide a person’s behavior
o Values are shaped by culture, ethnicity, family, • Nurse’s ethical decisions will be influenced by their
moral theories and principles, levels of cognitive
environment and education
o Values are freely chosen, cherished and development and personal and professional values
o E.g. Moral theories, although at the end of the
consistently incorporated into one’s behavior
day, it is still based on your own values

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• The goal of ethical reasoning is to reach a mutual, • Rational beings – sense of right and wrong; free will
peaceful agreement that is in the best interests of the
patient Significance of Being a Person
o Take into consideration what is best for the • Has an inherent dignity which must be respected
patient and what is lesser evil o A person should not be destroyed; uniqueness
must not be altered; genes can’t be manipulated;
IX. HUMAN RIGHTS organs removed without any reason; one can’t be
• Needs and values as it relates to other human cloned
beings o Actions must be done to satisfy one’s needs not
• It is universal another’s interest. One cannot be examined,
• Equal among everybody treated experimented, studied on for another
• Not a product of human creativity but inherent to us person’s gain
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) – • Has an ultimate destiny - to live with God
respects the dignity of a human person o To fulfill this, one has needs that must be met,
resources must help one meet these needs, but
Respect for Person he is only a steward
• Most fundamental human right • Lives with other persons in the community
• Foundation of all ethical principles o Interacts with people; helps them in times of need
• Respecting the worth and values of a person
(Human Dignity) Principles of Human Dignity
• All ethical decisions (made by patients and
X. HUMAN DIGNITY healthcare givers) must aim basically and ultimately
“Human Dignity is used to indicate that persons should at human dignity
always be treated as ends in themselves and never merely • They must protect, defend, enhance and enable the
as a means” (Thomas Aquinas & Emmanuel Kant) person’s worth
• They must aim for the maximum and integrated
• Latin word “dignos” meaning human worth satisfaction of every person’s needs, as an individual
• Value, meaning, importance and members of his community
• Goal of bioethics o As healthcare workers we need to take care of
• Every human being has an inner worth and inherent them which shows respect
dignity. These he possesses not because of what he
has or what he does but because of what he is: a XI. WHAT IS A PATIENT?
human person • The patient is the most important person in the
• As a human person, he must be respected regardless hospital
of the nature of his health problem, social status, • The patient is not an interruption of our work- he is
competence, past actions the purpose of it. He gives meaning and nobility to
• Decisions about health must aim at the maximum our profession
integrated satisfaction of his needs: biological, • The patient is not an outsider of our day to day
psychological, social and spiritual operations. He is our concern
• Certain actions may never be done because • The patient is a person, not a statistic
performing them would constitute a violation against • He has feelings, emotion, wants, aspirations and
the person’s dignity dreams
• It is our business to satisfy him
Basis of Human Dignity • Above all, he is an instrument of our ultimate
• Salvation History – where did people come from, how salvation
did God create and protect us
1. Creation of man “So in everything, do to others what you would have them
2. Fall of Man do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets”
3. Promise of a Savior Matthew 7:12
4. Preparation for the Coming
5. Fulfillment of the Promise
6. Establishment of the Church
7. Heavenly Kingdom
• Image and Likeness of God – highest order and worth
• Christ redeemed us – “humanity is worth saving”
• Ultimate destiny to fulfill – ultimate union with his
creator
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 XII. HUMAN ACTS VS ACTS OF MAN E.g. Nurse Jeremy is going to administer the drug to
lower the temperature of the patient
HUMAN ACTS ACTS OF MAN • Object – administer the drug
Voluntary – under your Involuntary • Motive – to lower the patient’s temperature
knowledge, control and • Circumstance (person) – nurse who increases
will goodness of the act
Deliberate Act Instinct good + good + good = moral
Elements: All elements are absent
1. Knowledge – aware E.g. Nag nakaw si Mang Pepe para may maipakain sa
2. Freedom – will mga anak
3. Voluntaries – desire • Object – nag nakaw
+ act • Motive – para mapakain ang kanyang anak
• Circumstances (quantity) – dalawang beses
• Human Acts – they are conscious bad + good + bad = as long as there is bad, even though
o Even though you are drunk you still know what may good it is still considered immoral
you are doing “the end does not justify the means”
o E.g. If you are a nurse assigned in a ward and
you give medication to a patient, firstly we learn circumstance can occur more than once
about the drug; what is it, aware of doctor’s
orders (knowledge) E.g. Nurses are expected to do nursing care
o E.g. Getting the vital signs of a patient to see if compassionately with TLC; si nurse Jackie scolded the
you’ll give an anti- hypertensive drug (freedom), patient upon helping her during delivery
patient’s BP is lower, so now you have a desire to • circumstance (quality) – scolded the patient
help the patient, but you decide to refer first to
the doctor (voluntaries) E.g. Place – pinag chichismisan patient sa hospital (not
• Acts of man is influenced by ignorance and done right place)
unconsciously
o E.g. Digestion, beating of the heart E.g. Time - may kilala ka na kailangan talaga ng pera,
alam mong gipit siya tapos gusto mo kunin lupa niya,
XIII. MORALITY “Eto ang pera, pero kapalit neto ay lupa niyo”
a. Definition
• An agreement or disagreement of the act to its *A formed & informed conscience is that which knows how
norm to make a proper judgment on an act as truly good to be
• moral – if within the norm done or truly evil to be avoided in its three moral
• immoral/ illicit – not within the norm determinants: act itself, motive of the agent &
b. Sources or Determinants of Morality circumstances surrounding the act
1. Object of the Act
o Refers to what the person does XIV. NORMS AND STANDARDS OF BEHAVIOR
o The effect which an action directly causes a. Law
o e.g. Jeremy is going to administer the drug • Ordinance
to the patient because he is experiencing • Of reason (something created na pinagisipan)
fever • Promulgated (no ignorance)
2. Motive of the Agent • By a duly constituted authority
o Intention of the agent • For the common good
o “Why an act was done” b. Eternal Law
o E.g. Jeremy is going to administer the drug • The divine will or command that directs all actions
to the patient to lower his temperature and movements in the universe
3. Circumstances • Commands that the natural order of things be
o Increase or diminish the goodness of the act preserved and forbids that it be disturbed
o Types: • From God itself, universal
§ Person (performing or to whom the act is • Natural Law
done) o Divine Law
§ Quantity (repeated measure) or quality of o Human Law
the act § Ecclesiastical
§ Place § Land
§ Means or instrument
§ Manner – how you acquire things
§ Time
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 Natural Law 2. Objective Value
a. Definition o Correct – subjective conforms to the
• Participation of creatures in the divine will, objective moral values; E.g. As a nurse you
therefore, we will fulfill the provision of the divine are expected to report everything that
law happens with your patient, in correct, you
• Something you expect for all; as a person, you are report it
expected to do good o Objective – norms of morality
• Human reason and experience used to determine o Erroneous – lack of conformity to the
what actions best serve true human welfare objective norms of morality; Judgment of an
• Prohibits the destruction of such nature-nature of act as good when it is evil and an act as evil
human being when it is good
b. Properties of Natural Law: § E.g. Gave wrong medicine to the
• Universal patient, nurse is expected to report it,
• Recognizable but says “wala naman nangyari sa
• Obligatory – E.g. obligated to follow the laws in patient” so does not report it
the city o Culpable – one is in error and therefore
• Unchangeable responsible; one who has an erroneous
c. Contents: conscience through his own fault and neglect
1. Fundamental Principles o Inculpable – has erred in good faith; one who
o “Good is to be done and evil to be avoided” has an erroneous conscience through no
o “Never do to others what you would not want fault of his own & w/o any knowledge about
them done unto you” being in error
o it is natural, and everyone should do it § Happy go lucky type of people; submit
2. General Principles of Behavior ko nalang to kay maam bahala na siya
o “Adore God, honor your father and mother”; 3. Moral Attitude
Obligation to preserve one’s life o Lax – careless in its effort to seek the truth;
3. Application to Specific Situation E.g. Teacher saw 2 students fighting, yung
o Health care; beneficence may kasalanan konti lang yung wounds nya,
d. Divine Law in lax, you don’t find out the truth, “basta
• Divine will of God is to respect nature importante na report ko sila”
• When human is lead to its natural goal, respect o Strict – follow to the letter; did not consider
the nature of things emotions or the situation
o Scrupulous – tends to judge sin to be present
Conscience when there is none; E.g. mga praning
a. Definition o Pharisaical – judgmental towards another;
• Con – with ; Science – knowledge E.g. napakagaling mong tao, lagi ikaw tama,
• An act of judgment tas mali yung iba
• Determines whether an act is good or bad o Clear – no anger, makes a decision without
hindrances
b. “To follow one’s conscience” o Callous – worst- type; no sensitivity to sin; e.g.
• To follow feelings or emotions nahuli ka ng police because you beat the red
• To follow custom – kinalakihan, what did your light, inulit ulit parin kasi alam mo senator
parents teach you? yung tito mo
• Personal belief – it is something individualized; 4. Degree of Certitude
super- ego is a big factor o Perplexed – wrong if you don’t do; wrong if
• Moral code (human law) you did
“The capacity to make practical judgements (right/ wrong) § E.g. Boys can relate (pertaining to girls’
in matters involving ethical issues” attitudes) na if either gagawin ng guy
“If an act is good, it should be done…. If it is evil, it should or di gagawin, magagalit parin yung
be avoided” girl
o Doubtful – lack of sufficient evidence; not
c. Qualities of Conscience sure judgment of whether an act is good or
1. Personal Freedom bad; e.g. when doctors make a diagnosis
o Free o Probable – made a decision already but still
o Unfree – impeded by some obstacles such as admitting the possibility that the opposite is
fear and anger true; E.g. Regretting about buying something
in the grocery earlier

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 o Certain - An assured & firm judgment of an involving an ethical question, people are morally
act w/o any fear of being in error obliged to do the following:
1. Know the facts; Inform themselves as fully as
d. Conscience Formation practically possible about the facts and the
• Diligently learning the laws of moral life ethical norms
• Seeking expert advice on difficult cases; asking 2. Know the law related to the facts; Form a
God for light through prayer morally certain judgment of conscience on the
• Removing the obstacles to right judgement basis of this information
• Personal examination of conscience 3. Make a decision according to the facts; Act
• ”my conscience is my guide” - true according to this well-formed conscience
• “what I don’t know can’t hurt me” – false, ignorance 4. Be responsible; accept responsibility for their
is not an excuse; e.g. giving an unknown drug to actions
a patient
• “It is God’s will” – false, hindi lahat; “sa atin ang
gawa, sa Diyos ang awa”
• “We must follow our decision only after we have
done our best to search for the truth regarding the
issues facing us”
• At times, when faced with a specific ethical
dilemma, one can often not find a solution that is
satisfying to everybody; you cannot please
everyone
o E.g. Merong mag-lolo at isang kabayo at
lilipat sila ng baryo, sinakay ang bata sa
kabayo, at habang nag lalakad sabi ng
mga tao, ano bang batang to, hinayaan
ang lolo maglakad, so bumaba yung bata
at sumakay ang lolo, tas may nakakita at
sinabi ano ba tong lolo na ito, yung bata
pudpod na ang sapatos, bumaba silang
dalawa, at may nagsabi ano ba tong
dalawang to kaya nga may kabayo eh, so
sumakay silang dalawa, nang may
nakakita sa kanila, ano ba yan di na sila
naawa sa kabayo
• One should be willing to struggle with the issue,
move beyond opposing views to a realm of moral
certitude and make the required hard choices
• In the process of forming our conscience we use:
o Heart - prayer, openness to conversion,
desire to be a disciple of Jesus, willingness to
say “yes” to God’s will for us, a deep “gut-
level” sense of what is right/wrong
o Head - study, learn, ask questions, know
facts, seek advice, pray, be willing to change
one’s minds, prudently deciding the best
course of action
o Hands - consistently put the right choice into
practice, taking responsibility for
consequences, integrating our lives around
patterns of virtue, pray, connect to
communities/ groups that support good
moral values

e. Principle of Well- formed Conscience

• To attain the true goals of human life by
responsible actions, in every free decision

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 • Respect for person worth/dignity
• Person’s action right if it follows moral rules-fair,
XV. THEORIES OF ETHICS honest, doing good
Teleology • A person’s action is wrong, without exception, if it
• Telos - “end”, “goal” violates these rules
• To justify or reject an action by determining whteher • Consequences (-), action still ethically right if the
it is an effective or self- defeating means to the goal original motive is consistent with moral precepts
of true human fulfillment • Kantianism
• Ultimate criterion is true happiness o “One treats others always as ends and never as a
• Often referred to as consequentialism means”
o Consequentialism - action is judged as good or o Respect for person
bad in relation to the consequence, outcome or o Making a person’s end your own
end that is derived from it o Treating others the same way you treat yourself
o To make moral choices we have to understand • Nurses code of ethics- importance of fulfilling duties
what will result from our choices that are inherently owed to patients
• Right action is that which has the greatest utility and o E.g. If the client asks the nurse to promise to tell
no action is in itself either good or bad the truth regarding her diagnosis and prognosis,
• Utilitarianism the nurse is duty bound to keep this promise
o Action is judged as good or bad in relation to the • The nurse is duty bound to act under moral rules that
consequence, outcome or end that is derived establish the right or wrong:
from it 1. Duty to honor a patient’s autonomy
§ An action is right if it brings increased 2. Duty to promote good and well-being
happiness or benefit for those concerned 3. Duty to be just and fair
§ An action is wrong if it decreases people’s 4. Duty to do no harm
happiness or benefit 5. Duty to tell the truth
o “The end justifies the means”- sometimes it is 6. Duty to keep promises and confidentiality
possible to do wrong to achieve “right” • A person has free will and self-determination and can
o The only right action are those that produce the refuse any medical or nursing treatment or
greatest happiness to all concerned procedure
o “Primary responsibility is to support the interest of • A right action is only right if it is done out of sense of
the group” duty
o “The greatest good for the greatest number of • Advantages
people” o Provides clear guidelines for judging the
o “The greatest happiness principle” rightness and wrongness of an act
o E.g. one child policy of china; poor man stealing o Recognizes the dignity and autonomy of
to feed his family individuals and allows all people equal
• Advantages: consideration
o Easy to use • Disadvantages
o Can justify many decisions based on the o Problem with disregard for consequences
happiness principle o All ethical precepts are viewed as equally
• Disadvantages: important
o Average happiness of all or total happiness for o Exceptionless and rigid
few
o Harm can be done to the minority Virtue Ethics
o What constitutes happiness? Who determines • An approach that deemphasizes rules,
what is good? consequences and particular acts and places the
o End justifies the means focus on the kind of person who is acting
• Upbringing is very important in moral development
Deontology • Providing students with appropriate role models/
• Deon - “Duty”, “duty oriented” developing habits appropriate to a virtuous person
• Adherence tp independent moral rules or duties by observation of virtue in action
• Rationalist view that the rightness or wrongness of an • 2 important points on virtue ethics:
act depends upon the nature of the act rather than 1. Choice to do the right thing
the consequences that occur as a result of it 2. Appropriate emotion
• Human beings have the freedom, thoughtfulness • Virtues are admirable character traits, perfection of
and sensibility to act in a moral manner- knows what character
he/she ought to do • Vices: Opposite
• Theological virtues
AMCTAYAG · YDMTUZON 2NUR9
 a. Faith (including oneself) according to their God-
b. Hope given and graced human nature
c. charity 2. Among possible actions that might seem to be
• Cardinal virtues: means of fulfilling that commitment, exclude
a. Prudence any that are contradictory to it (intrinsically evil)
b. Justice 3. Also consider how one’s own motives and
c. Temperance and other circumstances may contribute to or
d. Fortitude nullify the effectiveness of these other possible
• Moral acquired virtues: actions as means to fulfill one’s fundamental
a. Fidelity - Faithfulness to trust and promise commitment
b. Honesty - Truthfulness and integrity 4. Among the possible means not excluded or
c. Humility - Recognizing one’s capabilities and nullified, select one by which one is most likely
limitations to fulfill that commitment and act on it
d. Compassion
e. Justice - Constant will to give another his due
f. Courage - Doing what is right without undue
fear
g. Prayfulness - Inclines one to week God’s help in
everything he does
• Virtue Ethics in Healthcare
1. The right thing to do cannot always be laid down
in a rule. Perception of the particular case or
situation is needed
2. It matters what one feels and thinks as well as what
one does
3. Good and inspirational practice involves an
element of perfection
• Claims of Virtue Ethics
1. An action is right if and only if it is what the agent
with a virtuous character would do in the
circumstances
2. Goodness is prior to rightness- person matters
before the action
3. The virtues are irreducibly plural intrinsic goods-
virtues cannot be reduced to just one value but
various virtues are necessary for good actions
4. Some intrinsic goods are agent relative- every
action depends on the person
5. Acting rightly does not require we maximize the
good- good is not enough- “excellence” is
needed

XVI. HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT IS ETHICAL?

RELIGIOUS SECULAR
Revelation Reason
Scriptures Experience and
Observation
Church Tradition Intuition
Experience Social Agreement or
contract

XVII. PRINCIPLES
a. Principle of Moral Discernment
• To make a conscientious ethical decision, one
must do the following:
1. Proceed on the basis of a fundamental
commitment to God and to human persons
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