SHS

English for
Academic and
Professional
Purposes
Quarter 1 – Module 1:
Reading Academic Text

GOVERNMENT PROPERTY | NOT FOR SALE

English for Academic and Professional Purposes
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 – Module 1: Reading Academic Text
First Edition, 2020

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Published by the Department of Education Secretary:

Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio

Development Team of the Module

Writers: Raymund C. Francia, Adelaido P. Pinawin, Ferica C. Aloner, Ma. Christina

R. Beli, Shahani S. Flores, Marilou D. Maas, Guadalupe C. De Jesus
Radgel L. Morales, Winalyn L. Macalinao, Madel D. Malaluan, and
Mikael Sandino T. Andrey

Content Editors: Rejulios M. Villenes & Cheene M. Dino-Aparicio, Phd

Reviewers: Bernardo P. Altamira & Eric A. Molines
Illustrator: Raymund C. Francia
Layout Artist: Raymund C. Francia
Management Team: Elias A. Alicaya, Jr., Ed.D, OIC - Schools Division Superintendent
Gregorio T. Mueco, OIC – ASDS In-charge of CID
Lorena S. Walangsumbat, Ed.D, Chief, CID
Jee-Ann O. Borines, EPS – LR
Juanito A. Merle, EdD, EPS – SHS
Rejulios M. Villenes, PSDS
Joe Angelo L. Basco, PDO II LR

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English for Academic
and Professional
Purposes
Quarter 1 – Module 1:
Reading Academic Text
 Introductory Message
For the facilitator: For

the facilitator:

Welcome to the English for Academic and Professional Purposes Grade 11

Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on Reading Academic Text!

This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators both
from public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher or facilitator in helping
the learners meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming their
personal, social, and economic constraints in schooling.

This learning resource hopes to engage the learners into guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also aims to help
learners acquire the needed 21st century skills while taking into consideration their
needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of
the module:

Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that
will help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module. You
also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage their
own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners as
they do the tasks included in the module.

For the learner:

Welcome to the English for Academic and Professional Purposes 11 Alternative

Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on Reading Academic Text!

The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often used to
depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and
accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner
is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant competencies and
skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in your own hands!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for
guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to
process the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Need to Know
 What I Know you are expected to learn in the module.

This part includes an activity that aims to check

what you already know about the lesson to take. If
you get all the answers correct (100%), you may
decide to skip this module.
What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link the
current lesson with the previous one.
What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be introduced to
you in various ways such as a story, a song, a
poem, a problem opener, an activity or a situation.

This section provides a brief discussion of the

What is It lesson. This aims to help you discover and
understand new concepts and skills.

This comprises activities for independent practice

What’s More to solidify your understanding and skills of the
topic. You may check the answers to the exercises
using the Answer Key at the end of the module.

This includes questions or blank

sentence/paragraph to be filled in to process what
you learned from the lesson.
What I Have
Learned This section provides an activity which will help you
transfer your new knowledge or skill into real life
situations or concerns.

What I Can Do

This will give you an idea of iii

the skills or competencies
Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your level of
mastery in achieving the learning competency.

Additional Activities In this portion, another activity will be

given to you to enrich your knowledge or skill of the
lesson learned. This also tends retention of
learned concepts.

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the

module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in developing

this module.
The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the
module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.

If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are
not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and
gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

iv
 What I Need to Know

This learning package is designed for learners to gain decent

academic English. It offers reading strategies for better understanding of academic
texts in diverse fields. To ease the learning development, discussion of topic in every
lesson is presented from simple to complex. Vocabulary words and practice exercises
are written within the context of learner’s understanding. Towards the end, learners
are hoped to collect information gathered from various academic texts.

The module is divided into nine (9) lessons, namely:

• Lesson 1 – Essential Features of Academic Text

• Lesson 2 – Structure and Content of Specific Academic Text
• Lesson 3 – Language Used in Academic Texts

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Increase knowledge about essential features of academic texts;

2. Determine the structure of a specific academic text;
3. Distinguish language used in academic text;
4. Identify the specific ideas contained in various academic texts;
5. Collect information from various academic texts.

What I Know

I. Multiple Choice: Read each question carefully and choose the correct
answer from the set of choices in every item. Copy the letter of your
answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. It is a reading material that provides information which include concepts and

theories.
a. Slide deck
b. Academic text
c. Poem
d. Comics
2. It is a written record on the main points of a text or lecture, for a learner’s
personal use.
a. Notes
b. Report
c. Project
d. Essay

1
 3. The most common type of written work, with the title given by the teacher,
normally 1000 - 5000 words.
a. Notes
b. Report
c. Project
d. Essay
4. It sets the purpose of the text including the thesis statement.
a. Abstract
b. Introduction
c. Method
d. Body
5. It presents the findings and arguments which supports the thesis statement
or questions.
a. Abstract
b. Introduction
c. Body
d. Method
6. The results of something are explained.
a. Comparison and contrast
b. Cause and effect
c. Problem and solution
d. Chronological order
7. Information is organized in order of time.
a. Comparison and contrast
b. Cause and effect
c. Problem and solution
d. Chronological order
8. Two or more things are described; their similarities and differences are
discussed/analyzed.
a. Comparison and contrast
b. Cause and effect
c. Problem and solution
d. Chronological order
9. A problem is described and a response or solution is proposed or explained.
a. Comparison and contrast
b. Cause and effect
c. Problem and solution
d. Chronological order
10. Information is organized in steps; a process is explained.
a. Sequence / process
b. Cause and effect
c. Problem and solution
d. Chronological order

II. Read each item carefully. Delete or replace the underlined word in each sentence
to produce a most acceptable academic language style.

2
1. Learners in the basic education level are mostly kids.
2. Our boss used to delegate task in the morning.
3. Spaniards colonized Philippines hundreds of years ago.
4. Surprisingly, the guest speaker took a photo op with the graduates.
5. The content of the speech didn’t encourage the workers to stop the protest.

3
 Lesson
Essential Features of
1 Academic Text
The Essential Features of Academic Text provides learners with basic
understanding about the academic text. Academic texts as a reading material
contain information which is well-written for specific discipline or field. Each type of
academic text has shared and unique characteristics which depend on its structure
or pattern of writing.

What’s In

Directions: These items are taken from the lessons about paragraph. From the set
of choices in every item, copy the letter of your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. It is a group of related statements that a writer develops about the subject. a.
Paragraph
b. Main idea
c. Supporting details
d. Conclusion
2. It states the purpose and sets the direction of a paragraph or passage.
a. Composition
b. Main idea
c. Supporting details
d. Conclusion
3. It may be stated in the first sentence of a paragraph and then be repeated or
restated in the end of a paragraph. a. Thesis statement
b. Main idea
c. Supporting details
d. Conclusion
4. It is the main section of a paragraph and it should also be the longest part. a.
Introduction
b. Body
c. Discussion
d. Conclusion
5. It gives support to the main idea of a paragraph.
a. Introduction
b. Supporting details
c. Discussion
d. Conclusion

4
 Notes to the Teacher
To facilitate understanding of this lesson, a teacher/facilitator of
this subject/topic should have ample background about
understanding the basics of reading and writing academic texts
specifically its essential features. This knowledge may help
understand the unique and shared characteristics of each
academic text.

5
 What’s New

Here is an abstract of a research article published in online journal1.

Read it carefully and note its essential features.

For learners to acquire language, meaningful communicative opportunities for

negotiation and interaction are needed (Beckett, 1999; Swain, 1995; Kern
&Warschauer, 2000). Likewise, the integration of instructional materials (IMs)
augments the stimulation of ideas for classroom activities (Cunnigsworth, 1995;
Dudley-Evans & St.John, 1998). Hence, this paper aimed to reboot the ESL
Classroom via technology-based instructional materials (TBIMs). Specifically, it
sought answers to the following objectives: (1) identify the TBIMs in ESL classrooms;
(2) determine the problems encountered on TBIMs; (3) present the implications of
TBIMs; and (4) propose augmentation on TBIMs. The descriptive type of research and
the stratified random sampling technique were employed. Respondents were drawn
from the senior high school students of Grade 11 enrolled in English for Academic
and Professional Purposes (EAPP) during first semester of school year 2017-2018,
and five (5) English Language Teachers at San Francisco B National High School,
Lopez, Quezon. The collection of data was accomplished through: (1) administration
of a modified questionnaire on TBIMs and (2) conduct of a follow-up interview on the
encountered problems and implications of TBIMs. The findings revealed that
respondents have an unenthusiastic perception on the feasibility/effectiveness of
TBIMs to supplement the teaching and learning of the language. Nevertheless, the
findings showed more affirmative viewpoints that TBIMs had somehow increased
their level of interest in English and boot up the ESL classroom as well. Even though
TBIMs remained insufficient and usually unavailable, the researcher still considered
the returns of being equipped with knowledge and gadgets. But still, in order to
employ TBIMs in supplementing the English language teaching and learning,
auxiliary and in-depth discussions and scrutiny about the applicability of TBIMs
have to be made. A very short course or workshop (technology-based teaching and
learning camp) is suggested to ESL teachers in order to help them increase knowledge
in TBIMs and to create a link between the virtual world and the real world among the
students.

How well did you understand the passage? Let us check your comprehension by
answering some questions about its content.

1. What issue or concept is presented in the text?

2. Why was this research conducted?

3. Have you noticed how this passage is different from other types of text?

State your point?

1 Pinawin, “Rebooting”, 26
6
_______________________

What is Academic Text?

Academic text is a reading material which contains idea or concept written in a formal
language intended for specific discipline. It is also organized in a specific way and is
presented in a clear and logical manner2. Most academic texts are written by learner
complying with the course requirement and by scholar addressing the needs on their
field of expertise such as art, business, law and others.

Types of Academic Texts

The types of academic texts vary hence to distinguish each, the list in Table 1 shows
a brief description2.

Table 1. Types of Academic Texts and Its Description

Academic Text Description

Notes A written record of the main points of a text or
lecture, for a student’s personal use.
Report A description of something a student has done e.g.
conducting a survey.
Essay The most common type of written work, with
the title given by the teacher, normally
1000–5000 words.
Dissertation/Thesis The longest piece of writing normally done by
a student (20,000+ words) often for a higher
degree, on a topic chosen by the student.
Paper A piece of research, either individual or group work,
with the topic chosen by the students.

Studying in specific field require a lot of reading and it’s much easier to get
what you need out of a text if you know where it’s likely to be. This means you need
to know a bit about the typical ways that academic texts of various kinds are
organized. Probably the most common types you will encounter are journal articles,
books and reports.

Ways of Organizing Academic Text

Table 2 – Two Ways of Organizing Academic Text3

2 Bailey, 4
3 Master, English Grammar, 224-226

7
_______________________

2Bailey, Academic Writing, 3

Short Essays
Name of Description
Section
Introduction Presentation of topic in context, background information,
purpose of the text, a thesis statement and a technique to catch
the reader’s interest.
Main Body Presentation of findings and arguments which support the thesis
statement or questions; discussion of the detailed information
including the examples, statistics, graphs, tables and charts to
support the ideas and analyzes the evidences.
Conclusion Repetition of the thesis statement; summarizing the main points
and formulation of recommendations.

Research Reports
Name of Description
Section
Title Concise topic of the report.
Abstract • The ‘shop window’ for your report.
• Very brief presentation of purpose, methods, main findings,
conclusions and recommendations of the report.
Introduction • Presentation of the problem. The start of the introduction is the
presentation of the problem, that is, what the problem is all about.
• The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that
needs a solution.
• A desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of a situation,
circumstance or phenomenon. Explain the researcher’s earnest
desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of the situation
so that he will be in a better position to initiate remedial measures.
• A desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a
product. The researcher must also explain his desire to find a
better way to improve the system.
• A link between the introduction and the statement of the problem.
Discuss the connection between the problem and the reason of the
researchers in conducting the study.

8
 Literature • A survey of publications and reporting of work that has already
survey done on the topic of your report.
• Written like an essay in discursive style with an introduction, main
discussion grouped in themes and a conclusion.
• Explaining how you went about finding your materials and any
clear trends in research that have emerged.
Methods • Stating clearly how you carried out your investigation.
• Explaining why you choose this particular method and any
equipment, techniques and instrument you used.
• Detailed discussion how participants were chosen.
Results • Presentation of the research findings.
• Using format presentation such as text, graphs, tables and
diagrams.
Discussion • Showing findings respond to the introduction and the previous
research surveyed.
• Discursive style – discuss not only what the findings show but why
they show this, using evidences from the previous research.
Conclusion A short section without new arguments or evidence.
Sum up the main points of your research.
References List of works you have referred to in the report including books,
journals, websites and other materials.
Appendices • Additional information that may help the reader but is not
essential to the report’s main findings: anything that ‘adds value’.
• May include survey question including the cover letter.

Let us see if the lesson has been made clear to you, answer the following questions
listed below.

1. What is academic text? What are the types of academic text? How academic
text is written?
2. Among the academic texts presented, can you make a brief distinction
according to its difficulty?
3. What are the ways of organizing academic text? Which of these ways is
suitable for you as learner? Which one is best for your teachers? Why?

What’s More

You are senior high school learner enrolled in Academic/Tech-Voc. Read the text
extracts 1–2 below and decide which are the most suitable for Academic/Tech-Voc.
use, and why.

Academic Text Suitability

9
 1.

2.

Text No. 1
An electrically safe work condition will be achieved and verified by the following
process: (1) Determine all possible sources of electrical supply to the specific
equipment. Check applicable up-to-date drawings, diagrams and identification tags;
(2) After properly interrupting the load current, open the disconnecting device(s) for
each source; (3) Where it is possible, visually verify that all blades of the
disconnecting devices are fully open or that draw out type circuit breakers are
withdrawn to the fully disconnected position; (4) Apply lockout/tagout devices in
accordance with a documented and established policy; (5) Use adequately rated
voltage detector to test each phase conductor or circuit part to verify they are
deenergized. Before and after each test, determine the voltage detector is operating
satisfactorily; and (5) Where the possibility of induced voltages or stored electrical
energy exists, ground the phase conductors or circuit parts before touching them.
Where it could be reasonably anticipated that the conductors or circuit parts being
de-energized could contact other exposed energized conductors or circuit parts, apply
ground connecting devices rated for the available fault duty 4. (, 2000 Edition)

Text No. 2
The 21st century learners’ demand in acquiring knowledge for its application in real
life situation changes gradually for these digital age individuals and is becoming more
active and aggressive. This is a challenge to the educational system. Teachers have
to stimulate their interests and critical thinking skills to learn new concepts. This is
done through the application of relevant strategies which is becoming more intricate.

Games are part and parcel of students’ daily activities. According to Pearson
Innovation and Research Network, 97% of students who are 12-18 years old play
some kind of digital games. These games serve students various purposes, like fun,
entertainment, satisfaction, and acquisition of new strategy or technique to learn
new things, to master things, and even to defeat opponents as most gamers would
claim. Digital Game-Based Learning either non-digital and digital games have
consistently promoted learning and /or reduced instructional. 5

What I Have Learned

I have learned that a concept paper…

4 Electrical Safety Requirements

5 Pearson Innovation

10
 1. Academic text is a reading material which contains idea or concept written in
a formal language intended for specific discipline. It is also organized in a
specific way and is presented in a clear and logical manner.
2. Academic texts include notes, report, essay, dissertation / thesis and research
articles.
3. Other essential features of academic texts are formal vocabulary, use of
references, impersonal style and long complex sentence.
4. There are two ways of organizing academic text: the first way is for short essay
with three (3) sections namely – introduction, main body and conclusion and
the other one is for research reports with ten (10) sections namely – title,
abstract, introduction, literature survey, methods, results, discussion,
conclusion, references and appendices.
5. Each section or part has a clear description; the amount of information to be
incorporated is also highly emphasized hence it helps the reader to locate the
information easily.

____________________________
What I Can Do

Task 1 - The table below lists the different types of academic texts which are
commonly used by the learners as source materials or references. Work with a
partner and identify its advantage and disadvantages.

Academic Text Advantage Disadvantage

Book
Research / Journal article
Newspaper
Report
Essay

Task 2 - Read the text carefully then identify the essential features of academic texts
listed in the table below. Find examples of each feature.

Equally, from a political perspective, the nature of state involvement in and policies
for tourism is dependent on both the political-economic structures and the prevailing
political ideology in the destination state, with comparisons typically made between
market-led and centrally planned economies. For example, the Thatcher–Reagan
inspired neo-liberalism of the 1980s, and the subsequent focus on privatization and
the markets in many Western nations contrasted starkly with the then centrally
planned tourism sectors in the former Eastern Europe (Buckley and Witt, 1990; Hall,
1991). At the same time, of course, it has also long been recognized that the
politicaleconomic relationship of one nation with another or with the wider
international community (that is, the extent of political-economic dependency) may
represent a significant influence on tourism development (Telfer, 2002). Thus, in
short, tourism planning and development in the destination tends to reflect both the

11
structures and political ideologies of the state and its international political economic
relations7.

Feature Example/s
1. Formal vocabulary
2. Use of references
3. Impersonal style
4. Long complex sentence
____________________________

7Bailey, 13

Assessment

A. TRUE or FALSE: On a sheet of paper, write True if the statement

expresses correct ideas if not write False.
1. Academic text is written for specific discipline.
2. Academic text contains ideas written in a formal language.
3. Academic text includes research articles and essay.
4. Academic text offers rich source of materials for research in varied
disciplines.
5. Academic text is written by a learner a requisite for a subject or
course of study.

B. Directions: Read each statement carefully. Find the word/s in the lists that
match the following definitions.

Literature survey Results Methods Discussion

Appendices References

1. It is a survey of publications and reporting of work that has already done

on the topic of your report.

2. It presents the findings and arguments which support the thesis statement
or questions.

12
 3. It explains why you choose this particular method and any equipment,
techniques and instrument you used.

4. It is best done in discursive style – discuss not only what the findings show
but why they show this, using evidences from the previous research.

5. It is an additional information that may help the reader but is not essential
to the report’s main findings: anything that ‘adds value’.

Additional Activities

Task 1 - What is normally found in an essay introduction? Place a check ( ̸ ) under

the column that represents your answer. Work with a partner and evaluate its
content by considering the worksheet below.

Suggested Content of Introduction Yes No

Definition of any unfamiliar terms in the title.
Your opinions on the subject of the essay.
Mention of some sources you have read on the
topic.
A provocative idea or question to interest the
reader.
Your aim or purpose in writing.
The method you adopt to answer the question
(or an outline).
Some brief background to the topic.
Any limitations you set yourself.

Task 2 - A research report is used in academic writing to present the results of a

study. The core of research report is the materials, methods and results of the study.
The task below will help you to prepare the method.

Directions: The scrambled procedural steps below describe the method used to
determine the growth and survival index of certain plants. Organize them into
chronological order6.

6 Master, 219-220
13
 A. Soil moisture and leaf-water potential were continuously recorded and
adjusted to the original values by rewatering the sand.
B. After four months, the relative longitudinal growth and the survival index
(total live plants) were determined.
C. Seedlings of batch X1-3 and batch X1-4 were cultured for two weeks in a
growth chamber under the following conditions: 60 x 103 lux, 30◦ C, 12/12hour
photoperiod, model R-500 rooms.
D. Dry weight was determined after drying samples for twenty-four hours at 105◦
C. Water content was calculated from the difference between fresh and dry
weight.
E. From each batch, 100 plants were selected and kept under the same
environment conditions.
F. White, washed sand in round 50 x 60 cm. pots was used as a substrate.
G. Samples of old and new leaves were detached and used for chemical analysis.

______________________

Lesson
Structure and Content of
2 Specific Academic Text
The Structure and Content of Specific Academic Text delivers learners with the basic
knowledge and practical strategies in organizing academic text. Mostly, academic
texts observe standard and precise structuring in order to achieve the minimum and
maximum contents of it. The use of sections makes it easy for the reader to jump
straight to the information they need.

What’s In

Directions: These items are taken from the lessons about essentials of academic text.
From the set of choices in every item, copy the letter of your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. It is a written record of the main points of a text or lecture, for a

student’s personal use. a. Notes
b. Essay
c. Report
d. Paper

14
2. It is a description of something a student has done e.g. conducting
a survey.
a. Notes
b. Essay
c. Report
d. Paper
3. The most common type of written work, with the title given by the
teacher, normally 1000–5000 words. a. Notes
b. Essay
c. Report
d. Paper

4. The longest piece of writing normally done by a student (20,000+

words) often for a higher degree, on a topic chosen by the student.
a. Notes
b. Essay
c. Thesis
d. Paper
5. A piece of research, either individual or group work, with the topic
chosen by the students. a. Essay
b. Thesis
c. Notes
d. Paper

Notes to the Teacher

To facilitate understanding of this lesson, a teacher/facilitator of
this subject/topic should have ample background about
organizing and structuring content of specific academic text. This
knowledge may be very helpful input to distinguish academic text
from others.

15
 What’s New

Analyze the paragraph by completing the left-hand column in the table below
with the following types of sentence: Supporting point 1, Supporting point 2,
Supporting point 3, Example, Reason, Topic7.

Despite this, many countries encourage the growth of

home ownership.
Ireland and Spain, for example, allow mortgage payers
to offset payments against income tax.

It is widely believed that owning your own home has

social as well as economic benefits.

Supporting Compared to renters, homeowners are thought to be

Point 1 more stable members of the community who contribute
more to local affairs.

In addition, neighborhoods of owner occupiers are

considered to have less crime and better schools.

But above all, ownership encourages saving and allows

families to build wealth.

1. How did you come up with your answer?

2. How do you characterize each part/sentence of a paragraph: topic, reason,
supporting point?
3. What makes a good paragraph? Can you enumerate the principles of a good
paragraph? Describe each briefly.
4. How is your knowledge in paragraph writing relevant to understanding text
structure?

_____________________

7 Oshima and Hogue, Introduction, 3

16
 What is It

Academic Text Structure

A “structure” is a building or framework. Text structure” refers to how a piece of text

is built8. Constructors can use different kinds of structures to build different things.
A skyscraper, for example, is a different kind of structure from a house. Writers use
different structures to build their ideas. Each text structure communicates ideas in
a different way. Hence, the different types of informational passages have different
text structures. Text structures are organizational patterns. Authors use certain
text structures to help their audience better understand the information presented.
The most common text patterns are cause and effect, comparison and contrast,
problem and solution, chronological order and description.

a. Cause and Effect9

WHY WOMEN LIVE LONGER
Some British scientists now believe that women live longer than men because of T
cells, a vital part of the immune system that protects the body from diseases.
Previously, various theories have attempted to explain longer female life expectancy.
Biologists claimed that women lived longer since they need to bring up children.
Others argued that men take more risks, as they die earlier. But a team from Imperial
College think that the difference may be due to women having better immune
systems. Having studied a group of men and women they found that the body
produces fewer T cells as it gets older, because of the ageing process. However, they
admit that this may not be the only factor, and as a result another research project
may be conducted.

A writer may choose to put the emphasis on either the cause or the effect. Cause is
why something happened while effect is what happened. In both cases, either a verb
or a conjunction can be used to show the link.

(a) Focus on causes

With verbs
The heavy rain caused the flood.
created led
to resulted
to
produced
With
conjunctions
Because of Due the heavy rain there was a flood.
to
Owing to
As a result

8 Lucero and Torrecampo, Communication, 57

9 Bailey, Academic Writing, 109-113
17
____________________________________

(b) Focus on effects

With verbs
The flood was caused by the heavy rain.
resulted from
was produced by
(use of passives)
With conjunctions
There was a flood because of the heavy rain.
due to as a
result
***Conjunctions are commonly used with specific situations, while verbs tend to be used in
general cases.

b. Problem and solution 10

HOW CAN ROAD CONGESTION BE REDUCED?
Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive in terms of delays to the
movement of people and freight. It is commonly suggested that building more roads,
or widening existing ones, would ease the traffic jams. But not only is the cost of
such work high, but the construction process adds to the congestion, while the
resulting extra road space may encourage extra traffic. Therefore, constructing more
roads is unlikely to solve the problem, and other remedies, such as road pricing or
greater use of public transport, should be examined.

Problem and solution tell about a problem (and sometimes says why there is
a problem) then gives one or more possible solutions. The common signals include
question is, dilemma is, the puzzle is, to solve this, one answer is and one reason for
the problem is. Here is the how this text is organized.

Section Example
(a) Problem Currently, roads are often congested, which is
...
(b) Solution A It is commonly suggested that building more
roads, or widening . . .
(c) Arguments against solution A But not only is the cost of such work high, but
...
(d) Solutions B and C . . . other remedies, such as road pricing or
greater use . . .

The following words can be used as synonyms for problem and solution: the
three main difficulties have arisen . . ., the main challenge faced by . . ., one of

10 Bailey, 145-146

18
the concerns during the recession . . ., the new process created two questions . . .,
the team faced six issues . . ., our principal worry/ dilemma was . . ., the best
remedy for this may be . . ., two answers have been put forward . . ., another
suggestion is . . ., Matheson’s proposal was finally accepted, this was finally
rectified by . . .

_____________________
c. Comparison and Contrast11
Growing up in Philippines during the 1990s was much different from growing
up today. Children as young as 10 years old held full time jobs in order to
help their families. Many of these children worked 14 hours a day for as little
as 100 pesos. Today, however, children are not allowed to hold part-time jobs
until they are at least 14 years old. Philippine laws also restrict the number
of hours teenagers work. While some teenagers today work out of necessity
to help their families, most do so to earn spending money or to save for college.

Comparison is pointing out similarities. Contrasting is pointing differences.

You should have no difficulty applying this to your paragraph writing. However, you
should have a set of criteria or items as basis for comparison and contrast. Not only
your comparison will make unfamiliar familiar but it will also make a critical
appraisal of what you compare. These are the common signals: same as, similar,
alike, as well as, not only-but also, both, instead of, either-or, on the other hand,
different from, as opposed to.

There are two ways to present similarities and differences.

1. The block pattern presents the object or item being compared and/or
contrasted one at a time.
2. The alternating pattern moves from the first object to the second as it presents
comparison or contrast point by point.

d. Chronological Order 12
What about preparing an appetite-whetting chicken ham for dinner? Have a kilo
of chicken ham, one and a half cup of brown sugar, one-half cup of corn syrup,
a half-cup of orange juice and a cup of marmalade ready. Preheat the oven to
375◦F. Next, you combine the orange juice, sugar, corn syrup and marmalade.
Mix these well until the sugar particles are dissolved. Are the lumps all gone?
Then, you are ready to pour this syrup on the ham and bake it for fifteen to twenty
minutes. After baking, baste the ham with marinade three to four times. And to
give the ham an appetizing glaze, boil the remaining syrup until it is thick. Pour
this thick syrup on top of the chicken ham and garnish with orange slices,
cherries and parsley. That’s Chicken L’ Orange for you.

Authors use chronological order to explain how things happen in order.

Chronological order is also called sequence or time order. You will know that you are

11 Baraceros, Communication, 171

12 Baraceros, 175
19
reading a text in chronological order because you will see words like first, next, later,
then, and finally.

_______________________
e. Description13
Finally, we rounded a deep curve and suddenly came upon a shanty, all but ready,
it seemed, to crumble in a heap, its plastered walls rotting away, the floor hardly a
floor from the ground. I thought of the cottages of the poor colored folk in the South,
the hovels of the poor everywhere in the land. This one stood all by itself, as though
by common consent, all the folks that used to live here had decided to stay away,
despising it, ashamed of it. Even the lovely season could not color it with beauty.

Description may either be: informative or objective description and evocative or

impressionistic description. The focus of the former is the object – its physical
properties and characteristics; the latter, the emotions or moods of the reader. The
writer of an evocative description does not only aim at presenting facts about this
subject but also wishes to “communicate a mood or feeling or establish an attitude
toward his subject.”

What’s More

Directions: Read each entry carefully. Place a check ( ̸ ) mark under the
column that best describes the characteristic of each text pattern.
Characteristics Cause Problem Comparison Chronological Description
and and and contrast order
Effect solution
1. The results of
something are
explained
2. Information is
organized in order of
time
3. Two or more things
are described; their
similarities and
differences are
discussed/analyzed

13 Lucero and Torrecampo, Communication, 66-66

20
 4. A problem is
described and a
response or solution
is proposed or
explained
5. Information is
organized in steps; a
process is explained

________________________
What I Have Learned

The most common text patterns are cause and effect, comparison and contrast,
problem and solution, chronological order and description.

1. Cause and effect explain why things happened and what happened.
2. Comparison and contrast show how two or more things are similar and/or
how they different.
3. Problem and solution tell about a problem (and sometimes says why there
is a problem) then gives one or more possible solutions.
4. Chronological order which is also called sequence or time order explains
how things happen in order.
5. Description may either be: informative or objective description and evocative
or impressionistic description.
6. Each text pattern or structure has appropriate language that helps the
reader distinguish them.

What I Can Do

Task No.1 – Combine/match the causes in column A with their likely effects in
column B and apply/write sentences linking them together 14.

Causes Effects
Cold winter of 2015 more tourists arriving
Higher rates of literacy a new government being formed
Constructing an airport reduced infant mortality
Last year’s national election greater demand for secondary education

14 Bailey, 150
21
 Installing speed cameras on main roads increased demand for electricity
Opening a new hospital in 2021 a fall in the number of fatal accidents

1. Owing to the cold winter of 2015, there was increased demand

for electricity.
2. _____________________________________________________________ 3.
_____________________________________________________________ 4.
_____________________________________________________________ 5.
_____________________________________________________________ 6.
_____________________________________________________________

_______________________
Task No. 2 - Think of a similar problem in your subject area. Complete the table and
write a paragraph that leads to a conclusion17.
Topic
Problem
Solution A
Argument against A
Solution B
Argument for / against B
(Solution C)
Conclusion

Task No. 3 – Read this sample paragraph of informative or objective description then
extract the descriptive words18.

The fence grew moldy and inclined to one, the child of Aling Ibiang grew up into a
sickly boy with hollow dark eyes and shaggy hair, and the child that was born to
Aling Sebia grew up into a girl, a girl with rugged features, a simous face, and a
narrow brow – but not a word had passed across the fence since that night.

Vivid images Meaning

Assessment

Directions: Read each paragraph carefully then identify its text structure. Write your
answer on a separate sheet of paper19.

22
 1. My neighbor, Mr. Clark, just bought a new car. It is a beautiful, 2008, black
Mercedes. He chose gray leather interior and the seats are even heated for
those cold, Kansas winters. He washes it every weekend, so that it always
looks shiny.
2. One of my favorite things to eat in the summer time is tomatoes. Because they
are so expensive at the store, I decided to grow my own tomatoes last summer.
Unfortunately, the plants didn’t produce many tomatoes. One day, I thought
I had better look at the plants carefully to see what the problem might be. Sure
enough, I found little white bugs all over the leaves.

_______________________

Bailey, 151
Baraceros, 181
Oshima and Hogue, Introduction, 15-17
3. Holly and Molly are identical twins. Although they look exactly alike,
everything else about them is different. Holly likes to play sports and enjoys
listening to rock and hip-hop music. Molly would much rather read and play
classical music on the piano with her free time. They dress differently, too.
Holly likes to wear casual clothes, but Molly prefers to dress up every day.
Even though they lead very different lives, Holly and Molly love each other very
much and enjoy discussing their day every night.
4. Last night, I made chocolate chip cookies. First, I pre-heated the oven to 375°.
Then, I blended butter, brown sugar and an egg together. After that I stirred
in flour, salt and baking soda. Next, I stirred in chocolate chips. Finally, I
dropped them by the spoonful on a baking sheet. After twelve minutes, they
were done. We let them cool for another couple of minutes. At last, we ate!
Yum, yum!
5. Mark was very upset. He tore his house upside down looking for the science
study guide his teacher had given him. He had a very important test the next
day, and he needed a high score to get a good grade in science. Just when he
was about to give up, he thought of a great idea. He would call his friend Jeff.
Jeff was in the same class; he would be able to tell him what was on the study
guide. Mark called Jeff. Jeff was more than happy to help. They studied
together on the phone for an hour. When Mark hung up, he was relieved. He
was thankful for Jeff’s help. He was confident that he would get an “A” on the
science.

Additional Activities

Supposed that you are going to evaluate a work of your classmate (peer
evaluation) in writing academic text structure. What set of criteria will you use for

23
reach type of text pattern? Prepare a rubric based on your understanding about the
structure of specific academic text. Observe the following reminder:

1. Your rubric is either holistic or analytical method.

2. It should have at least five (5) components with clear numerical equivalent.
3. It should be objective or free from bias.
4. It should be applicable to all types of text pattern or structure.

Lesson
Language Used in Academic
3 Text
The Language Used in Academic Text gives some guidelines for an appropriate
language style and academic vocabulary. The precision of language helps the
learners to construct a well-organized and comprehensive paragraph while the right
choice of words creates clarity of meaning. As a whole, style and vocabulary need to
harmonize to each other as effective medium of communication.

What’s In

Directions: These items are taken from the lessons about structure and content of
academic text. Match Column A with Column B. Copy the letter of your answer on
a separate sheet of paper.

Column A Column B

1. Kaingin system A. are fruits.

2. Eagles are endangered B. Make laws to protect them.
3. Apples and oranges C. led to denuded forest. 4.
Chronological signals D. have the same colors.
5. Description E. focuses on physical properties.
F. First, second, after, then

24
 Notes to the Teacher
To facilitate understanding of this lesson, a teacher/facilitator of
this subject/topic should have ample background about
appropriate language style and vocabulary of academic text. This
knowledge may be very helpful to construct a well-organized, clear
and comprehensive paragraph.

What’s New

Study this paragraph and underline any examples of poor style15.

How to make people work harder is a topic that lots of people have written about in
the last few years. There are lots of different theories etc and I think some of them
are ok. When we think about this we should remember the old Chinese proverb, that
you can lead a horse to water but you can’t make it drink. So how do we increase
production? It’s quite a complex subject but I’ll just talk about a couple of ideas.

Some of the problems with the style of this paragraph can be analyzed as follows:

How to make people work harder . . . Imprecise vocabulary – use ‘motivation’

. . . lots of people . . . Vague – give names

15 Bailey, Academic Writing, 150-151

25
 . . . the last few years. Vague – give dates
lots of different . . . Avoid ‘lots of’
. . . etc . . . Avoid using ‘etc’ and ‘and so on’
. . . I think . . . Too personal
. . . are ok. Too informal
When we think about this . . . Too personal
. . . the old Chinese proverb . . . Do not quote proverbs or similar
expressions
So how do we increase production? Avoid rhetorical questions
It’s quite a . . . Avoid contractions
. . . I’ll just talk about a couple . . . Too personal and informal

The paragraph could be re-written:

Motivation has been the subject of numerous studies during recent decades, but this
essay will focus on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory (1943) and Herzberg’s
twofactor theory (1966). Their contemporary relevance to the need to motivate
employees effectively will be examined critically, given that this can be considered
crucial to a firm’s survival in the current economic climate.

1. How is the rewritten passage different from the original one? Why?

2. Do you have other ways of improving a paragraph? Discuss it briefly.

_______________________
What is It

Language Used in Academic Text

There are no rules for academic style that apply to all situations. The following are
guidelines that should help you develop a style of your own 21.

(a) Do not use idiomatic or colloquial vocabulary: kids, boss. Instead use standard
English: children, manager.

(b) Use vocabulary accurately. There is a difference between rule and law, or weather
and climate, which you are expected to know if you study these subjects.

(c) Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures. Avoid phrases such
as about a hundred or hundreds of years ago. If it is necessary to estimate
numbers use approximately rather than about.

26
(d) Conclusions should use tentative language. Avoid absolute statements such as
unemployment causes crime. Instead use cautious phrases: unemployment may
cause crime or tends to cause crime.

(e) Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude: luckily, remarkably, surprisingly.

(f) Do not contract verb forms: don’t, can’t. Use the full form: Do not, cannot.

(g) Although academic English tends to use the passive more than standard English,
it should not be over-used. Both are needed. Compare:
Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter.
The moons of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo.

In the first case, the focus is on Galileo, in the second (passive) on the moons.

(h) Avoid the following:

• like for introducing examples. Use such as or for instance.
• thing and combinations nothing or something. Use factor, issue or topic.
• lots of. Use a significant / considerable number.
• little / big. Use small / large.
• ‘get’ phrases such as get better / worse. Use improve and deteriorate.
• good / bad are simplistic. Use positive / negative, e.g. the changes had several
positive aspects.
(i) Do not use question forms such as Why did war break out in 1914?
Instead use statements: There were three reasons for the outbreak of war . . .

_________________________
Bailey, 152
(j) Avoid numbering sections of your text, except in reports and long essays. Use
conjunctions and signposting expressions to introduce new sections (Turning to
the question of detecting cancer . . .).

(k) When writing lists, avoid using etc or and so on. Insert and before the last item:
The main products were pharmaceuticals, electronic goods and confectionery.

(l) Avoid using two-word verbs such as go on or bring up if there is a suitable

synonym. Use continue or raise.

(m) Repetition means repeating a word instead of using a synonym to provide variety,
which makes the text more interesting22. So instead of:
Most family businesses employ less than ten people. These businesses . . . Use:
Most family businesses employ less than ten people. These firms . . .

(n) Redundancy, i.e. repeating an idea or including an irrelevant point, suggests that
the writer is not fully in control of the material. It gives the impression that either
he does not properly understand the language or is trying to ‘pad’ the essay by
repeating the same point. Avoid phrases such as: Homelessness is a global
problem in the whole world.
Good writing aims for economy and precision: Homelessness is a global problem.

27
(o) Short sentences are clear and easy to read:
Car scrappage schemes have been introduced in many countries.

(p) But too many short sentences are monotonous:

Car scrappage schemes have been introduced in many countries. They offer a
subsidy to buyers of new cars. The buyers must scrap an old vehicle. The schemes
are designed to stimulate the economy. They also increase fuel efficiency.

(q) Long sentences are more interesting but can be difficult to construct and
Read23:
Car scrappage schemes, which offer a subsidy to buyers of new cars, who must
scrap an old vehicle, have been introduced in many countries; the schemes are
designed to stimulate the economy and also increase fuel efficiency.

(r) Effective writing normally uses a mixture of long and short sentences, often using
a short sentence to introduce the topic:

Car scrappage schemes have been introduced in many countries. They offer a
subsidy to buyers of new cars, who must scrap an old vehicle. The schemes are
designed to stimulate the economy and also increase fuel efficiency.

________________________
22Bailey, 153-154

23Bailey, 155

To read and write academic texts effectively students need to be familiar with the
rather formal vocabulary widely used in this area.

Adjective Noun Verb

achievable achievement achieve
acquired acquisition acquire
analytical analysis analyze
contributory contribution/contributor contribute
creative creation create
definitive definition define
derived derivation derive
distributive distribution distribute
emphatic emphasis emphasize
evaluative evaluation evaluate
hypothetical hypothesis hypothesize

28
 indicative indication/indicator indicate
interpretative interpretation interpret
invested investment invest
predictive prediction/predictor predict
reliable reliability reliable
responsive response respond
significant significance signify
synthetic synthesis synthesize
variable variation/variable vary

The following adjectives are best understood and learnt as opposites:

Absolute relative
Abstract concrete
Logical illogical
Metaphorical literal
Precise vague or approximate or rough
Rational irrational
Relevant irrelevant
Subjective objective
Theoretical practical or empirical or pragmatic

Academic writing tends to use rather formal verbs to express the writer’s meaning
accurately:
In the last decade the pace of change accelerated.
Could Darwin have envisaged the controversy his work has caused?

In spoken English we are more likely to use ‘speed up’ and ‘imagined’.

Verb Example of use

to adapt the health system has been adapted from France
to arise a similar situation arises when we look at younger children
to conduct the largest study was conducted in Finland
to characterize developing countries are characterized by . . .
to clarify the project was designed to clarify these contradictions
to concentrate on that study concentrated on older children
to be concerned with the program is concerned primarily with . . .
to demonstrate further research has demonstrated that few factors.
to determine the water content was experimentally determined to
discriminate a failure to discriminate between the two species to
establish the northern boundary was established first to exhibit
half of the patients exhibited signs of improvement to focus on
her work focused on female managers to generate a question which
has generated a range of responses to hold Newton’s second
Law, F=ma, holds everywhere to identify three main areas
have been identified to imply his absence implies a lack of
interest to interact understand how the two systems interact to
interpret the result can be interpreted as a limited success to

29
manifest as manifested in anti-social behaviour to overcome
both difficulties were overcome in the first week to propose
they propose that social class is the main factor to prove the use
of solar power is proving successful to recognize he is now
recognized as a leading expert to relate to the pattern was
related to both social and physical factors
to supplement the diet was supplemented with calcium and iodine
to undergo the system underwent major changes in the 1980s to yield
both surveys yielded mixed results

What’s More

Directions: In the following sentences, underline examples of bad style.

1. Another thing to think about is the chance of crime getting worse.

__________________________________________________________ 2.
Regrettably these days lots of people don’t have jobs.
__________________________________________________________ 3.
Sometime soon they will find a vaccine for malaria.
__________________________________________________________
4. A few years ago the price of property in Japan went down a lot.
__________________________________________________________

5. You can’t always trust the numbers in that report.

__________________________________________________________

6. Sadly, the high inflation led to poverty, social unrest and so on.
__________________________________________________________ 7.
He was over the moon when he won the prize.

__________________________________________________________

8. I think we should pay students to study.

__________________________________________________________ 9.
A few years ago they allowed women to vote.

__________________________________________________________

10. What were the main causes of the Russian revolution?

__________________________________________________________

30
 What I Have Learned

1. There are suggested guidelines that help learners develop a language

style in academic writing. These include precision (academic) of
vocabulary, and clarity of sentence structure.

What I Can Do

Task No.1 – In the following text, remove all repetition and

redundancy, re-writing where necessary16.

FAST FOOD
Currently these days, fast food is growing in popularity. Fast food is a kind of food
that people can buy ready to eat or cook quickly. This essay examines the advantages
of fast food and the drawbacks of fast food. First above all, fast food is very
convenient. Most of the people who work in offices are very busy, so that they do not
have time to go to their homes for lunch. But the people who work in offices can eat
in restaurants such as McDonalds, which are franchised in hundreds of countries.
In addition, the second benefit of fast food is its cheapness. As it is produced in large
quantities, this high volume means that the companies can keep costs down. As a
result fast food is usually less expensive than a meal in a conventional restaurant.

______________________

16 Whitaker, Academic, 58-59

31
Task No. 2 – Re-write the following paragraph so that instead of six short sentences
there are two long and two short sentences 17.

Worldwide, enrolments in higher education are increasing. In developed countries

over half of all young people enter college. Similar trends are seen in China and South
America. This growth has put financial strain on state university systems. Many
countries are asking students and parents to contribute. This leads to a debate about
whether students or society benefit from tertiary education.

Assessment

Directions: Think of the most suitable word ending in each case18.

1. She invest________________ all her capital in the business.

2. The company puts emph________________ on the reliab________________
of its products.
3. The essays were evaluat________________ in terms of content and
accuracy.
4. Nylon was one of the first syn________________ fabrics in common use.
5. Gandhi made a significant cont________________ to Indian history.

______________________

17 Whitaker, 60-61
18 Guffey, Rhodes and Rogin, Business, 45

32
 6. In the 1950s nuclear power was pred________________ to be cheap and
clean.
7. A signif________________ number of students have chosen to do that
project.
8. The rate of increase var________________ between 5 per cent and 8 per
cent during the 1990s.
9. The first computer was creat________________ during the second world
war.
10.Researchers frequently need to ask hypoth________________ questions.

Additional Activities

Directions: The following sentence is too long. Divide it into shorter ones 19.

China is one developing country (but not the only one) which has imposed fees on
students since 1997, but the results have been surprising: enrolments, especially in
the most expensive universities, have continued to rise steeply, growing 200 per cent
overall between 1997 and 2001; it seems in this case that higher fees attract rather
than discourage students, who see them as a sign of a good education, and compete
more fiercely for places, leading to the result that a place at a good college can cost
$5000 per year for fees and maintenance.

Directions: Complete each sentence with a suitable word (Noun, Adjective, Verb) 20.
1. The experiment’s results were confusing; each researcher had her own
______________________________.
2. The word ‘algebra’ is ______________________________ from Arabic.
3. They received the Nobel Prize for their ______________________________ in
developing a new vaccine.
4. Dr Wagner published the ______________________________ work on South Asian
snakes last year.
5. Over 3,500 questionnaires were ______________________________ in terms of
social class.
6. Three ______________________________ need to be considered when forecasting
an economic upturn.

19 Bailey, 157
20 Bailey, 158
33