1

BEOWULF
750

ANON.

(Verse translation by Charles W. Kennedy)

Beowulf, which is the only complete Old English epic that has been preserved, survives in one manuscript (Cotton Vitellius A XV),
now held in the British Museum. The manuscript was written about the year 1000, but the poem itself was probably composed
around 750. Nothing is known of the so-called Beowulf Poet. The evidence of the poem itself suggests that the author had some
clerical learning, was acquainted with conduct at the royal court, was familiar with the heroic legends of his race, and was expert
in the composition of alliterative poetry. Like many epic poets, he was an admirer of old times and old ways; he emphasized
established ideals of social and personal conduct by embodying them in the figure of a hero whom his audience could strive to
emulate. Beowulf is fully acquainted with the etiquette demanded of a chieftain of his importance. He is brave and physically
strong. His stoical attitudes toward time and fate endowed him with a world view which would have been wholly admirable to
the Christianized audience of the eighth century.

PLOT

“Beowulf begins with a history of the Danish kings, starting with Shild (whose funeral is described in the Prologue) and leading
up to the reign of King Hrothgar, Shild’s great-grandson. Hrothgar is well loved by his people and successful in war. He builds a
lavish hall, called Herot, to house his vast army, and when the hall is finished the Danish soldiers gather under its roof to
celebrate.

Grendel, a monster in human shape who lives at the bottom of a nearby swamp, is provoked by the singing and carousing of
Hrothgar’s followers. He appears at the hall late one night and kills thirty of the warriors in their sleep. For the next twelve years
the fear of Grendel’s potential fury casts a shadow over the lives of the Danes. Hrothgar and his advisers can think of nothing to
appease the monster’s anger.

Beowulf, prince of the Geats, hears about Hrothgar’s troubles, gathers fourteen of the bravest Geat warriors, and sets sail from
his home in southern Sweden. The Geats are greeted by the members of Hrothgar’s court, and Beowulf boasts to the king of his
previous successes as a warrior, particularly his success in fighting sea monsters. Hrothgar welcomes the arrival of the Geats,
hoping that Beowulf will live up to his reputation. During the banquet that follows Beowulf’s arrival, Unferth, a Danish soldier,
voices doubt about Beowulf’s past accomplishments, and Beowulf, in turn, accuses Unferth of killing brothers. Before retiring for
the night, Hrothgar promises Beowulf great treasures if he meets with success against the monster. Grendel appears on the
night of the Geats’ arrival at Herot. Beowulf, true to his word, wrestles the monster barehanded. He tears off the monster’s arm
at the shoulder, but Grendel escapes, only to die soon afterward at the bottom of his snake-infested swamp. The Danish
warriors, who had fled the hall in fear, return singing songs in praise of Beowulf’s triumph. The heroic stories of Siegmund and
Hermod, and of the Frisian king Finn, are performed in Beowulf’s honor. Hrothgar rewards Beowulf with a great store of
treasures. After another banquet the warriors of both the Geats and the Danes retire for the night.

Unknown to the warriors, however, Grendel’s mother is plotting revenge. She arrives at the hall when all the warriors are
sleeping and carries off Esher, Hrothgar’s chief adviser. Beowulf, rising to the occasion, offers to dive to the bottom of the lake,
find the monster’s dwelling place, and destroy her. He and his men follow the monster’s tracks to the cliff overlooking the lake
where Grendel’s mother lives. They see Esher’s bloody head floating on the surface of the lake. While preparing for battle,
Beowulf asks Hrothgar to protect his warriors, and to send his treasures to his uncle, King Higlac, if he doesn’t return safely.
During the ensuing battle Grendel’s mother carries Beowulf to her underwater home. After a terrible fight Beowulf kills the
monster with a magical sword that he finds on the wall of her home. He also finds Grendel’s dead body, cuts off the head, and
returns to land, where the Geat and Danish warriors are waiting expectantly. Beowulf has now purged Denmark of the race of
evil monsters.

The warriors return to Hrothgar’s court, where the Danish king delivers a sermon to Beowulf on the dangers of pride and on the
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fleeting nature of fame and power. The Danes and Geats prepare a feast in celebration of the death of the monsters. In the
morning the Geats hurry to their boat, anxious to begin the trip home. Beowulf bids farewell to Hrothgar and tells the old king
that if the Danes ever again need help he will gladly come to their assistance. Hrothgar presents Beowulf with more treasures
and they embrace, emotionally, like father and son.

The Geats sail home. After recounting the story of his battles with Grendel and Grendel’s mother, Beowulf tells King Higlac about
the feud between Denmark and their enemies, the Hathobards. He describes the proposed peace settlement, in which Hrothgar
will give his daughter Freaw to Ingeld, king of the Hathobards, but predicts that the peace will not last long. Higlac rewards
Beowulf for his bravery with parcels of land, swords, and houses. The meeting between Higlac and Beowulf marks the end of the
first part of the poem.

In the next part Higlac is dead, and Beowulf has been king of the Geats for fifty years. A thief steals a jeweled cup from a sleeping
dragon who avenges his loss by flying through the night burning down houses, including Beowulf’s own hall and throne. Beowulf
goes to the cave where the dragon lives, vowing to destroy it single-handed. He’s an old man now, however, and his strength is
not as great as it was when he fought against Grendel. During the battle Beowulf breaks his sword against the dragon’s side; the
dragon, enraged, engulfs Beowulf in flames and wounds him in the neck. All of Beowulf’s followers flee except Wiglaf, who
rushes through the flames to assist the aging warrior. Wiglaf stabs the dragon with his sword, and Beowulf, in a final act of
courage, cuts the dragon in half with his knife. Yet the damage is done. Beowulf realizes that he’s dying, that he has fought his
last battle. He asks Wiglaf to bring him the dragon’s storehouse of treasures; seeing the jewels and gold will make him feel that
the effort has been worthwhile. He instructs Wiglaf to build a tomb to be known as “Beowulf’s tower” on the edge of the sea.
After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf admonishes the troops who deserted their leader when he was fighting against the dragon. He tells
them that they have been untrue to the standards of bravery, courage, and loyalty that Beowulf has taught. Wiglaf sends a
messenger to a nearby encampment of Geat soldiers with instructions to report the outcome of the battle. The messenger
predicts that the enemies of the Geats will feel free to attack them now that their king is dead. Wiglaf supervises the building of
the funeral pyre. In keeping with Beowulf’s instructions, the dragon’s treasure is buried alongside Beowulf’s ashes in the tomb.
The poem ends as it began - with the funeral of a great hero.”

SAMPLE OF THE ORIGINAL OLD ENGLISH TEXT

Hwaet! we Gar-Dena in geardagum,

þeodcyninga þrym gefrunon,
hu þa aeþelingas ellen fremedon!
Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum
monegum maegþum meodosetla ofteah,
egsode eorlas, syððan aerest wearð
feasceaft funden; he þaes frofre gebad,
weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah
oð þaet him aeghwylc þara ymbsittendra
ofer hronrade hyran scolde,
gomban gyldan; þaet waes god cyning!

I. Introduction to the analysis

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1. Read Zgorzelski, pp. 13-20 (with particular focus on the Beowulf section) and the selected excerpts from Beowulf in Section II.
Check ALL new vocabulary.

2. At home, prepare answers to the following questions:

 What are the main characteristics of the heroic epic?

 What are the functions of Anglo-Saxon heroic poetry? Consider and explain the following elements:

entertainment;
preservation of the tradition and history of Germanic tribes;
perpetuation of social and cultural patterns.

 Find and prepare definitions of the following poetic/mnemonic devices (what does mnemonic mean?) that point to the fact
that Beowulf is an oral poem:

direct addresses to the audience,

digressions,
alliterative meter (alliteration, half-lines, caesura, stresses),
kennings

STUDY TIP: Use all kinds of resources when preparing for the class: use online dictionaries/search enginges (as well as books in
your library on the 1st floor: see the references section below) in order to check the meaning of the words/terms you are not
certain of.

References:

Beowulf. Transl. J. R. R. Tolkien (English), Agnieszka Sylwanowicz, Katarzyna Staniewska (Polish). Prószyński Media, 2017.

Zgorzelski, Andrzej. Lectures on British Literature. A historical survey course. Wydawnictwo Akademickie WSSP, Lublin 2008.

Trapp, J.B. Medieval English Literature (Oxford Anthology of English Literature). New York : Oxford University Press, 1973.

II. Beowulf - excerpts

a) SETTING: time and space - (1) the world of humankind and (2) the world of Nature
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 Compare and contrast: how do the descriptions of these two settings differ? Check the following elements:

 colours
 direction (up versus down)
 time
 characters who live there
 tone/mood

 What is the function of these elements? What do they symbolize?

 Notice the use of ALLITERATION in line beginning with “Hrothgar and Hrothhulf...” which sound is repeated? How many
syllables per half-line can you find?

(1) Heorot/culture/civilization:

Onward they hurried in eager haste

Till their eyes caught sight of the high-built hall,
Splendid with gold, the seat of the king,
Most stately of structures under the sun;
Its light shone out over many a land.
The coast-guard showed them the shining hall,
The home of heroes.
***
In joyful haste was Heorot decked
And a willing host of women and men
Gaily dressed and adorned the guest-hall.
Splendid hangings with sheen of gold
Shone on the walls, a glorious sight
To eyes that delight to behold such wonders.
/.../ Soon was the time when the son of Healfdene
Went to the wine-hall; he fain would join
With happy heart in the joy of feasting.
I never have heard of a mightier muster
Of proud retainers* around their prince. *=servants
All at ease they bent to the benches,
Had joy of the banquet; their kinsmen bold,
`Hrothgar and `Hrothulf,1 *** `happy of `heart,*
In the high-built hall drank many a mead-cup.
The hall of Hrothgar was filled with friends;

(2) Nature:

From the stretching moors, from the misty hollows,

Grendel came creeping, accursed of God,
***
The mother of Grendel, a monstrous hag,
Brooded over her misery, doomed to dwell
In evil waters and icy streams
***
Wild and lonely the land they [Grendel and his mother] live in,
Wind-swept ridges and wolf-retreats,

1
Hrothulf, son of Hrothgar's younger brother Halga.
 5
Dread tracts of fen where the falling torrent
Downward dips into gloom and shadow
Under the dusk of the darkening cliff.
Not far in miles lies the lonely mere
Where trees firm-rooted and hung with frost
Overshroud the wave with shadowing gloom.
And there a portent appears each night,
A flame in the water; no man so wise
Who knows the bound of its bottomless depth.
The heather-stepper, the horned stag,
The antlered hart hard driven by hounds,
Invading that forest in flight from afar
Will turn at bay and die on the brink
Ere ever he'll plunge in that haunted pool.
’Tis an eerie spot! Its tossing spray
Mounts dark to heaven when high winds stir
The driving storm, and the sky is murky,
And with foul weather the heavens weep.

[Description of the cave in which Grendel’s mother lives:]

The she-wolf bore
The ring-prince down through the watery depths
To her den at the bottom; nor could Beowulf draw
His blade for battle, though brave his mood.
Many a sea-beast, strange sea-monsters,
Tasked him hard with their menacing tusks,
Broke his byrny and smote him sore.
Then he found himself in a fearsome hall
Where water came not to work him hurt,
But the flood was stayed by the sheltering roof

b) Description of ANGLO-SAXON SOCIETY

 What kind of duties are described in the excerpt below? What were the responsibilities of the ruler towards his
retainers, and vice versa?

To Hrothgar was granted glory in war,

Success in battle; retainers bold
Obeyed him gladly; his band increased
To a mighty host. Then his mind was moved
To have men fashion a high-built hall,
A mightier mead-hall than man had known,
Wherein to portion to old and young
All goodly treasure that God had given,
/.../ The task was speeded, the time soon came
That the famous mead-hall was finished and done.
To distant nations its name was known,
The Hall of the Hart;2 and the king kept well
His pledge and promise to deal out gifts,
78 Rings at the banquet.

2
Hall of the Hart: or Heorot, so called from the antlers with which the gables of the building were ornamented. The hart was
a symbol of royalty.
 6
 In the speech below Beowulf describes his 50 years as a ruler. What makes him such an exemplary king?

[from Beowulf’s final speech]

‘For fifty winters I've ruled this realm,
And never a lord of a neighbouring land
Dared strike with terror or seek with sword.
In my life I abode by the lot assigned,
Kept well what was mine, courted no quarrels,
Swore no false oaths. And now for all this
Though my hurt is grievous, my heart is glad.
2590 When life leaves body, the Lord of mankind
Cannot lay to my charge the killing of kinsmen!’
***
Beowulf spoke, as he gazed on the gold:
‘For this goodly treasure whereon I gaze
I give my thanks to the Lord of all,
To the Prince of glory, Eternal God,
2640 Who granted me grace to gain for my people
Such dower of riches before my death.
I gave my life for this golden hoard.
Heed well the wants, the need of my people;
My hour is come, and my end is near.

 What was scops’ [=bards] role in preservation of the tradition and history of the Germanic people? Consider the
following aspects in these fragments:

Preservation of history:

Lo! we have listened to many a lay3

Of the Spear-Danes’4 fame, their splendour of old,
Their mighty princes, and martial deeds!
Many a mead-hall Scyld, son of Sceaf,5
Snatched from the forces of savage foes.
From a friendless foundling, feeble and wretched,
He grew to a terror as time brought change.
/.../ A good king he!

Moralising function:

19 So must a young man strive for good

With gracious gifts from his father’s store,
That in later seasons, if war shall scorge,
A willing people may serve him well.
`Tis by earning honor a man must rise

3
lay: a narrative poem.
4
Spear-Danes: The Danes are called by a number of names: Scyldings, Ingwines, Spear-Danes, Ring-Danes, Victory-Danes,
Bright-Danes, East-, West-, North-, and South-Danes.
5
Scyld, son of Sceaf: At a time when the Danes were greatly oppressed by their enemies, a ship came mysteriously to their
shores bearing a baby and rich treasures. The baby grew up to lead the Danes victoriously in battle and to establish their dynasty
of kings. At his death he passed away to the great deep whence he had come, probably on the very ship that had brought him.
Sea burials of this sort were common in Scandinavia from the fourth to the sixth centuries.
 7
In every state.

Religious instruction:

[during a feast in Heorot]

A skillful bard sang the ancient story
Of man's creation; how the Maker wrought
90 The shining earth with its circling waters;
In splendour established the sun and moon
As lights to illumine the land of men;
Fairly adorning the fields of earth
With leaves and branches; creating life
In every creature that breathes and moves.

Preservation of important cultural role models of great heroes:

Beowulf’s prowess was praised in song;

And many men stated that south or north,
Over all the world, or between the seas,
Or under the heaven, no hero was greater,
More worthy of rule./.../
Time and again a gleeman6 (scop, bard) chanted,
A minstrel mindful of saga and lay.
820 He wove his words in a winsome pattern,
Hymning the burden of Beowulf s feat,
Clothing the story in skilful verse.

 What were the values of the warlike society of Anglo-Saxons? How do the descriptions of their appearance (weapons,
armour) as well as behaviour during times of peace and war present them as men of honour?

Appearance:

[this passage describes the arrival of Beowulf’s warriors to Denmark]

And the Weder people waded ashore
With clatter of trappings and coats of mail;
Gave thanks to God that His grace had granted
Sea-paths safe for their ocean journey.
Then the Scylding coast-guard watched from the sea-cliff
Warriors bearing their shining shields,
Their gleaming war-gear, ashore from the ship.
***
Boar-heads glittered on glistening helmets7
Above their cheek-guards, gleaming with gold;
300 Bright and fire-hardened the boar held watch
Over the column of marching men.

Code of conduct:

[the description of Beowulf’s warriors in Heorot]

A host of heroes guarded the hall
As they oft had done in the days of old.
They stripped the benches and spread the floor
6
a gleeman, a scop or bard.
7
Boar- heads . . . helmets. The helmets were crested with the images of boars.
 8
With beds and bolsters. But one of the beer-thanes
Bowed to his hall-rest doomed to death.
They set at their heads their shining shields,
Their battle-bucklers; and there on the bench
Above each hero his towering helmet,
His spear and corselet hung close at hand.
1140 It was ever their wont to be ready for war
At home or in field, as it ever befell
That their lord had need. ‘Twas a noble race!
***
Death is better for every earl
Than life besmirched with the brand of shame!'

c) CHARACTERS: hero and anti-hero

 The characterisation of an Anglo-Saxon HERO. Describe his

 appearance: armour/weapon - what makes them unique?

 features of character,
 typical reactions,
 patterns of behaviour.

 What is the purpose of these elements? Why is Beowulf described in such a detailed way? What does his description tell
us about his role in the Anglo-Saxon society?

Then tales of the terrible deeds of Grendel

Reached Hygelac's thane8 in his home with the Geats;
Of living strong men he [Beowulf] was the strongest,
Fearless and gallant and great of heart.
***
Sea-faring men who have voyaged to Geatland
With gifts of treasure as token of peace,
Say that his [Beowulf’s] hand-grip has thirty men's strength.
***
The stranger from far [Beowulf], the stalwart and strong,
780 Had purged of evil the hall of Hrothgar,
And cleansed of crime; the heart of the hero
Joyed in the deed his daring had done.
***
Beowulf donned his armour for battle,
Heeded not danger; the hand-braided byrny*, *= chain mail/coat of mail
Broad of shoulder and richly *bedecked, *=adorned
1330 Must stand the ordeal of the watery depths.
Well could that corselet defend the frame
Lest hostile thrust should pierce to the heart.
Or blows of battle beat down the life.
A gleaming helmet guarded his head
As he planned his plunge to the depths of the pool
Through the heaving waters – a helm adorned
With lavish inlay and lordly chains,

8
Hygelac's thane: Beowulf. A thane is a military attendant or retainer. Geats, sometimes called the Weders. Weder itself
means "weather" or "storm" and has reference to the nature of the coast on which the Geats lived.
 9
Ancient work of the weapon-smith
Skillfully fashioned, beset with the boar,9
1340 That no blade of battle might bite it through.
Not the least or the worst of his war-equipment
Was the sword the herald of Hrothgar10 loaned
In his hour of need – Hrunting its name --
An ancient heirloom, trusty and tried;
Its blade was iron, with etched design,
Tempered in blood of many a battle.
Never in fight had it failed the hand
That drew it daring the perils of war,
The rush of the foe.

[before Beowulf’s final battle with the dragon]

For the last time Beowulf uttered his boast:
‘I came in safety through many a conflict
2370 In the days of my youth; and now even yet,
Old as I am, I will fight this feud,
Do manful deeds, if the dire destroyer
Will come from his cavern to meet my sword.’
The king for the last time greeted his comrades,
Bold helmet-bearers and faithful friends:
‘I would bear no sword nor weapon to battle
With the evil worm, if I knew how else
I could close with the fiend, as I grappled with Grendel.
From the worm I look for a welling of fire,
2380 A belching of venom, and therefore I bear
Shield and byrny.

 The characterisation of an Anglo-Saxon ANTI-HERO. Describe Grendel’s

 appearance,
 features of character,
 typical reactions,
 behaviour.

 Notice the biblical allusions used in the description of the monster. What is their purpose?

 How is Grendel contrasted with Beowulf? Find elements which show that Grendel is the opposite of Beowulf in terms of
physical appearance as well as code of conduct. Would you call Grendel an honourable warrior?

9
beset . . . boar, embossed figures about the crown of the helmet, not a boar crest as in previous instances of this word in
the poem.
10
herald of Hrothgar, Unferth. Note his changed attitude toward Beowulf.
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Then an evil spirit11 who dwelt in the darkness
Endured it ill that he heard each day
The din of revelry ring through the hall,
The sound of the harp, and the scop's sweet song.
/.../
So the lordly warriors lived in gladness,
At ease and happy, till a fiend from hell
Began a series of savage crimes.
They called him Grendel, a demon grim
/.../
He bore the curse of the seed of Cain12
Whereby God punished the grievous guilt
Of Abel's murder.
***
So Grendel raided and ravaged the realm,
One against all, in an evil war
Till the best of buildings was empty and still.
/.../
Like a dark death-shadow the ravaging demon,
Night-long prowling the misty moors,
160 Ensnared the warriors, wary or weak.
No man can say how these shades of hell
Come and go on their grisly rounds.
With many an outrage, many a crime,
The fierce lone-goer, the foe of man,
Stained the seats of the high-built house,
Haunting the hall in the hateful dark.
But throne or treasure he might not touch,
Finding no favour or grace with God.
***

[Grendel’s attack on Heorot]

From the stretching moors, from the misty hollows,
Grendel came creeping, accursed of God,
A murderous ravager minded to snare
Spoil of heroes in high-built hall.
Under clouded heavens he held his way
Till there rose before him the high-roofed house,
680 Wine-hall of warriors gleaming with gold.
Nor was it the first of his fierce assaults
On the home of Hrothgar; but never before
Had he found worse fate or hardier hall-thanes!
Storming the building he burst the portal,
Though fastened of iron, with fiendish strength;
Forced open the entrance in savage fury
And rushed in rage o'er the shining floor.
A baleful glare from his eyes was gleaming
Most like to a flame. He found in the hall
690 Many a warrior sealed in slumber,
A host of kinsmen. His heart rejoiced;
The savage monster was minded to sever
11
evil spirit: Grendel.
12
seed of Cain: Grendel is thought of as being descended from Cain, who, because of the murder of his brother Abel, was
cursed by God (Genesis, 4: 10-16).
 11
Lives from bodies ere break of day,
To feast his fill of the flesh of men.
But he was not fated to glut his greed
With more of mankind when the night was ended!
***
[T]he shepherd of sins
Soon found that never before had he felt
710 In any man other in all the earth
A mightier hand-grip; his mood was humbled,
His courage fled; but he found no escape!
He was fain to be gone; he would flee to the darkness,
The fellowship of devils.

d) Anglo-Saxon CUSTOMS, RITUALS and BELIEFS

 Before you read the excerpts, check and explain the following terms:
 Wyrd
 feasting
 boasting

 Christianity/Wyrd: what is the difference between the pagan concept of fate and that of Christian Providence?
(opatrzność)

[pagan beliefs described as Devil worshipping]

From time to time in their heathen temples13
Paying homage they offered prayer
That the Slayer of souls [=Devil] would send them succour* *=help,relief
From all the torment that troubled the folk.
Such was the fashion and such the faith
Of their heathen hearts that they looked to hell,
180 Not knowing the Maker, the mighty Judge,
Nor how to worship the Wielder of glory,
The Lord of heaven, the God of hosts.
***

Fate goes as fate must.

 Feasting: what is the mood of the celebration? What is its purpose?

Sit now at the banquet, unbend your mood,

Speak of great deeds as your heart may spur you!’
Then in the beer-hall were benches made ready
For the Geatish heroes. Noble of heart,
Proud and stalwart, they sat them down
And a beer-thane served them; bore in his hands
The patterned ale-cup, pouring the mead,
While the scop's sweet singing was heard in the hall.
There was joy of heroes, a host at ease,
480 A welcome meeting of Weder and Dane.
***

13
heathen temples: In the opinion of the Christian poet, the ancient Germanic peoples worshipped the devil (the “Slayer of
souls”) and sacrificed to idols. Elsewhere in Beuwulf, Hrothgar's religious sentiments seem definitely Christian. The poet seems
to imply that, in a time of stress, the Danes reverted to their heathen faith.
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Notice the ritual observed during the feast at Heorot: who is the first person to receive the cup from the queen, and
why? What does it tell us about the social, but also political importance of the feast?

There was revel of heroes and high carouse,

Their speech was happy; and Hrothgar's queen,
Of gentle manners, in jewelled splendour
Gave courtly greeting to all the guests.
The high-born lady first bore the beaker
To the Danish leader, lord of the land,
/.../ Then to all alike went the Helming14 lady
Bearing the beaker to old and young,

 Boasting: what is the function of boasting? Think about its connection with a warrior’s social status amongst his peers.

[Beowulf boasts in front of Hrothgar]

The best of my people, prudent and brave,
Urged me, King Hrothgar, to seek you out;
They had in remembrance my courage and might.
Many had seen me come safe from the conflict,
Bloody from battle; five foes I bound
Of the giant kindred, and crushed their clan.
Hard-driven in danger and darkness of night
I slew the nicors that swam the sea,
Avenged the woe they had caused the Weders,
And ended their evil – they needed the lesson!
410 And now with Grendel, the fearful fiend,
Single-handed I'll settle the strife! /.../
With hand-grip only I'll grapple with Grendel;
Foe against foe I'll fight to the death,
And the one who is taken must trust to God's grace!

 Mourning/funerals/burials: examine the differences between the funerals described below.

How do the participants behave?
What is the proper ritual observed during Scyld’s and Beowuf’s funerals?
How does the last description (the Last Survivor) differ from the first two?

Scyld’s funeral
Then his hour struck,
And Scyld passed on to the peace of God.
As their leader had bidden, whose word was law
In the Scylding realm which he long had ruled,
His loving comrades carried him down
To the shore of ocean; a ring-prowed ship,
30 Straining at anchor and sheeted with ice,
Rode in the harbour, a prince's pride.
Therein they laid him, their well-loved lord,

14
Helming, the tribe to which Wealhtheow belonged, possibly Celtic.
 13
Their ring-bestower,15 in the ship's embrace,
The mighty prince at the foot of the mast
Amid much treasure and many a gem
From far-off lands.

Beowulf’s funeral
The Geat folk fashioned a peerless pyre
Hung round with helmets and battle-boards,
With gleaming byrnies as Beowulf bade.
In sorrow of soul they laid on the pyre
Their mighty leader, their well-loved lord.
2940 The warriors kindled the bale on the barrow,
Wakened the greatest of funeral fires.
***
Then round the mound rode the brave in battle,
The sons of warriors, twelve in a band,
Bemoaning their sorrow and mourning their king.
They sang their dirge and spoke of the hero
Vaunting his valour and venturous deeds.
2970 So is it proper a man should praise
His friendly lord with a loving heart,
When his soul must forth from the fleeting flesh.
So the folk of the Geats, the friends of his hearth,
Bemoaned the fall of their mighty lord;
Said he was kindest of worldly kings,
Mildest, most gentle, most eager for fame.

Lay (=song) of the Last Survivor:

[the final words of the last living member of a tribe]
Into the barrow* the ring-warden bore *=burial mound
The princely treasure, the precious trove* *=collection
Of golden wealth, and these words he spoke:
‘Keep thou, O Earth, what men could not keep –
This costly treasure – it came from thee!
Baleful slaughter has swept away,
Death in battle, the last of my blood;
They have lived their lives; they have left the mead-hall.
/.../
No mirth* of gleewood,16 no music of harp, *=joy
No good hawk swinging in flight through the hall;
2130 No swift steed stamps in the castle yard;
Death has ravished* an ancient race.’ *=destroyed
So sad of mood he bemoaned his sorrow,
Lonely and sole survivor of all,
Restless by day and wretched* by night *=unhappy, miserable
Till the clutch* of death caught at his heart. *=grip, hold

15
ring-bestower: A kenning for "king." Rings or other presents, the usual reward for services rendered, were given out by the
king of the tribe or nation at the banquet or feast held in celebration of the deed performed. On less formal occasions, too, a
king would distribute gifts among the chief warriors of his tribe to insure their service to him in the future.
16
gleewood, a kenning for "harp".
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