GKC431/451/461/491/881 Unit - 5 : Environmental Studies - Social Issues

UNIT - 5. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

SOCIAL ISSUES

1. SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1.1 WATER CONSERVATION
Meaning: Water conservation refers to reducing the use of fresh water, through
technological or social methods.

Need of water conservation: It is essential to conserve water to meet the following

needs:

(1) Sustainability:

To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water

from an ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate.

(2) Energy Conservation:

Water pumping, delivery and waste water treatment facilities consume a

significant amount of energy.

(3) Habitat Conservation:

Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water habitats for local
wild life and migrating water animals, as well as reducing the need to build new
dams and other water diversion infrastructure.

Water-Saving devices at home:

1. Low-flow shower heads - as they use less energy, due to less water
being heated.

2. Low-flush toilets, composting toilets and waterless urinals.

3. Faucet aerators, which break water flow into five droplets to maintain
"Wetting effectiveness" while using less water.

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4. Waste water reuse or recycling systems, allowing:

(a) reuse of grey water for flushing toilets or for the garden, and

(b) Recycling of waste water through purification at a water

treatment plant

5. Waterless car/home wash

6. Rainwater harvesting

Agriculture:
For crop irrigation, optimal water efficiency means minimizing losses due to
evaporation or runoff. An evaporation plan can be used to determine how much
water is required to irrigate the land. Overhead irrigation, using centre - pivot or
lateral - moving sprinklers, gives a much more equal and controlled distribution
pattern.

Overhead irrigation, center pivot design

Water conservation by reducing water demand

Simple techniques can be used to reduce the demand for water. The
underlying principle is that only part of the rainfall or irrigation water is taken up by
plants, the rest percolates into the deep groundwater, or is lost by evaporation from
the surface. Therefore, by improving the efficiency of water use, and by reducing its
loss due to evaporation, we can reduce water demand.

There are numerous methods to reduce such losses and to improve soil
moisture. Some of them are listed below.

Mulching, i.e., the application of organic or inorganic material such as

plant debris, compost, etc., slows down the surface run-off, improves the
soil moisture, reduces evaporation losses and improves soil fertility.

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Soil covered by crops, slows down run-off and minimizes evaporation

losses. Hence, fields should not be left bare for long periods of time.

Ploughing helps to move the soil around. As a consequence it retains

more water thereby reducing evaporation.

Shelter belts of trees and bushes along the edge of agricultural fields
slow down the wind speed and reduce evaporation and erosion.

Planting of trees, grass, and bushes breaks the force of rain and helps
rainwater penetrate the soil.

Fog and dew contain substantial amounts of water that can be used
directly by adapted plant species. Artificial surfaces such as netting-
surfaced traps or polyethylene sheets can be exposed to fog and dew.
The resulting water can be used for crops.

Contour farming is adopted in hilly areas and in lowland areas for

paddy fields. Farmers recognize the efficiency of contour-based systems
for conserving soil and water.

Salt-resistant varieties of crops have also been developed recently.

Because these grow in saline areas, overall agricultural productivity is
increased without making additional demands on freshwater sources.
Thus, this is a good water conservation strategy.

Transfer of water from surplus areas to deficit areas by inter-linking

water systems through canals, etc.

Desalination technologies such as distillation, electro-dialysis and

reverse osmosis are available.

Use of efficient watering systems such as drip irrigation and sprinklers

will reduce the water consumption by plants.

The most important step in the direction of finding solutions to issues of

water and environmental conservation is to change people's attitudes and habits,
this includes each one of us. Conserve water because it is the right thing to do. We
can follow some of the simple things that have been listed below and contribute to
water conservation.

Try to do one thing each day that will result in saving water. Don't
worry if the savings are minimal, every drop counts! You can make a
difference.

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Remember to use only the amount you actually need.

Form a group of water-conscious people and encourage your friends and

neighbours to be part of this group. Promote water conservation in
community newsletters and on bulletin boards. Encourage your friends,
neighbours and co-workers to also contribute.

Encourage your family to keep looking for new ways to conserve water
in and around your home.

Make sure that your home is leak-free. Many homes have leaking pipes
that go unnoticed.

Do not leave the tap running while you are brushing your teeth or
soaping your face.

See that there are no leaks in the toilet tank. You can check this by
adding colour to the tank. If there is a leak, colour will appear in the
toilet bowl within 30 minutes. (Flush as soon as the test is done, since
food colouring may stain the tank.)

Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily. Put a brick or any other device
that occupies space to cut down on the amount of water needed for each
flush.

When washing the car, use water from a bucket and not a hosepipe.

Do not throw away water that has been used for washing vegetables,
rice or dals, use it to water plants or to clean the floors, etc.

You can store water in a variety of ways. A simple method is to place a

drum on a raised platform directly under the rainwater collection source.
You can also collect water in a bucket during the rainy season.

Some tips for water conservation

• Use only as much water as you require.

• Close the tap well after use.

• While brushing your teeth do not leave the tap running, open it only
when you require it.

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• See that there are no leaking taps. Get a plumber to come in and seal all
leaks.
• Use a washing machine that does not consume too much water.
• Do not leave the taps running while washing dishes and clothes.
• Install small showerheads to reduce the flow of water.
• Water in which the vegetables and fruits have been washed can be used
to water the flowers and ornamental potted plants.
• At the end of the day if you have water left in your water bottle do not
throw it away, pour it over some plants.

1.2 RAINWATER HARVESTING

It is the principle of collecting and using
precipitation from a catchment surface. In urban areas,
the construction of houses, footpaths and roads has left
little exposed earth for water to soak in. In parts of the
rural areas of India, floodwater quickly flows to the
rivers, which then dry up soon after the rains stop. If
this water can be held back, it can seep into the ground
and recharge the groundwater supply.

This has become a very popular method of conserving water especially in the
urban areas. Rainwater harvesting essentially means collecting rainwater on the
roofs of building and storing it underground for later use. Not
only does this recharging arrest groundwater depletion, it also
raises the declining water table and can help augment water
supply. Rainwater harvesting and artificial recharging are
becoming very important issues. It is essential to stop the
decline in groundwater levels, arrest sea-water ingress, i.e.
prevent sea-water from moving landward, and conserve surface
water run-off during the rainy season.

Town planners and civic authorities in many cities in India are introducing
laws making rainwater harvesting compulsory in all new structures. No water or
sewage connection would be given if a new building does not have provisions for
rainwater harvesting. Such rules should also be implemented in all the other cities to
ensure a rise in the groundwater level.

Realizing the importance of recharging groundwater, the CGWB (Central

Ground Water Board) is taking steps to encourage it through rainwater harvesting in

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the capital and elsewhere. A number of government buildings have been asked to go
in for water harvesting in Delhi and other cities of India.

All you need for a water harvesting system is rain, and a place to collect it!
Typically, rain is collected on rooftops and other surfaces, and the water is carried
down to where it can be used immediately or stored. You can direct water run-off
from this surface to plants, trees or lawns or even to the aquifier.

Some of the benefits of rainwater harvesting are as follows

Increases water availability

Checks the declining water table

Is environmentally friendly

Improves the quality of groundwater through the dilution of fluoride,

nitrate, and salinity

Prevents soil erosion and flooding especially in urban areas

1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Meaning:

Environmental ethics means human beings' ethical relationship with the

natural environment. Environmental ethics developed into a specific philosophical
discipline in the 1970s as a consequence of increasing awareness in the 1960s of the
effects that technology, industry, economic development and population growth
were having on the environment. The development of such awareness gained
impetus by the publication of two books at this time. Rachel Carson's 'Silent Spring'
(1962), which alerted readers to how the widespread use of chemical pesticides was
posing a serious threat to public health and leading to the destruction of wild life.
Second was Paul Enrlich's, "The population Bomb" (1968), which warned of the
devastating effects the growing human population has on the planet's resources. The
job of environmental ethics is to outline our moral obligations in the face of such
concerns.

Environmental ethics addresses two basic questions:

1.What duties do humans have with respect to the environment, and (2) Why?

The question of why we have them focuses on issues such as, do we have
environmental obligations for the sake of human beings living in the world, or for

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future generations or for the sake of entities within the environment itself,
irrespective of any human benefits? Due to differences in answers to these questions
of different philosophers, there have emerged different environmental ethics.

Environmental ethics can be 'Anthropocentric", meaning

'human-centered". It refers to an ethical framework that grants 'moral
standing' solely to human beings.

Environmental ethicists claim that ethics must be extended beyond humanity.

Some claim that this extension should run to sentient animals, others to individual
living organisms, and others to holistic entities such as rivers, species and ecosystem.

A. Human Beings:

Most concerns regarding environment are important because of the way they
affect human beings. e.g.

Pollution - Diminishes human health

Resource depletions - threatens our standards of living

Climate change - Puts our homes at risk

Reduction of biodiversity – results in loss of potential medicines

Eradication of Wildness - Loss of source of awe & beauty

In some respect the environment for human well being and prosperity.

B. Animals:

Peter Singer and Tom Regan are the most famous proponents of the view that
we should extend moral standing to other species of animals.

C. Individual Living Organisms:

Albert Schweitzer's "Reverence for Life" ethic claims that all living beings
have a will to live, and that humans should not interfere with or extinguish this will.

D. Holistic Entities:

Ald O Leopold proposes 'holistic' ethics. His 'land ethic' demands that we
stop treating the land as mere object or resource. For him, land is not merely soil,
instead, it is a fountain of energy, flowing through a circuit of soils, plants and
animals. While food chains conduct the energy upwards from the soil, death and

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decay returns the energy back to soil. He argues that to preserve the relations within
the land, we must move towards a 'land ethic', hence granting moral standing to the
land community itself.

The Future of Environmental Ethics

There is evidence for three future developments:

1. Environmental ethics needs to be and will be reformed by changes in

the political effort to ameliorate environmental problems.

2. Environmental ethics concerns formulating our moral obligations

regarding the environment.

3. State intervention will affect the types of ethics that emerge. e.g. the
Kyoto Protocol can be regarded as the first global attempt to deal with
the problem of climate changes

1.4 CLIMATE CHANGE

Meaning:

Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean

state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (decades or
longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forces
or persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land
use. Only the earth has an atmosphere of the depth and chemical composition.
About 30% of incoming energy from the Sun is reflected back into space while the
rest reaches the earth, warming the air, oceans, and land, and maintaining an
average surface temperature of about 15oC.

The chemical composition of the atmosphere is (78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,

and 0.036% Carbon dioxide) responsible for nurturing life. Since the industrial
revolution (about 150 years ago) man made activities have added significant
quantities of Green Houses Gases (GHGS) to the atmosphere. The atmosphere
carries out the function of maintaining life on earth the following way each day,
energy from the sun is absorbed by the land, seas,
mountains etc. The earth both absorbs and releases it
in the form of infra red waves (can be felt as heat). All
this rising heat is not lost to space, but is partly
absorbed by some gases present in very small
quantities in the atmosphere, called GHGS
(Greenhouse gases e.g. CO2, CH4, N2O, O3, water

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vapour), re-emitting some of this heat to the earth's surface. If they did not perform
this useful task, most of the heat energy would escape, leaving the earth cold (about
18° C) and unfit to support life. Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have
grown by about 31%, 151%, and 17% between 1750 and 2000 (IPPCC 2000). Scientists
have observed that over the 20th Century, the mean
global surface temperature increased by 0.6°C. It is
observed that since 1960, the 1990's have been the
warmest decade. Even a small change in temperature
could mean accompanying changes in cloud cover and
wind patterns. Some of these changes may enhance
warming, while others may counteract it.

1.5 GLOBAL WARMING

Definition: Gradual increase in the earth's surface temperature is
known as global warming.

Causes:

a) Human causes: carbon dioxide (CO2), e.g. exhaust from automobiles and
power plants, burning of fossil fuel.

b) Natural causes: some claim the sun is getting hotter.

Effects:

1. Melting of polar ice and glaciers

2. Increase of temperature on the earth by about 3° to 5° C by the year 2100
3. Rise of sea levels by at least 25 metres by the year 2100.
4. Amounts and patterns of precipitation are changing.
5. Increased power of hurricanes

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Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns

increase the frequency, duration and intensity of other extreme
weather events, such as floods, droughts, heat waves and
tornadoes. Other effects are higher or lower agricultural yields,
reduced summer stream flow and species extinction. It also
spreads diseases like malaria, plant and animal range shifts and
population changes, coral reef bleaching, down pours, heavy
snowfalls, and flooding.

A one metre rise could wipe out 20% of the country's land mass, creating 30
million environmental refugees, perhaps as early as 2050. Climate predictions also
envisage shorter but more severe monsoons, longer periods of drought, and more
violent tropical storms, creating lower crop yields and increasing salinisation.

2. HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

2.1 POPULATION GROWTH
Human population growth is the number one threat to the world's
environment. Each person requires energy, space and resources to survive, which
results in environmental losses. To sustain human population, environmental losses
can be balanced with renewable resources and
regeneration. Population growth is exceeding the carrying
capacity of our planet. We need to limit our growth
voluntarily. The population reached 6.1 billions in 2000.
According to UN projections the world population for the
year 2050 could range from 7.9 billions to 10.9 billions.

Effects of Population Growth

1. Scarce water: Water scarcity is a fact of life for 700 million people
around the world, a figure that could rise to more than three billion by
2025, according to the United Nations. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-
Moon called for integrated cross-border water management, since
many of the world's rivers and aquifiers are shared among countries.

2. Scarce cropland 3. Scarce fisheries

4. Scarce forests 5. Global warming

6. Species extinction

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The Dodo, a bird of Mauritius, became extinct

during the mid-late seventeenth century after humans
destroyed the forests where the birds made their homes
and introduced animals that ate their eggs.

The Golden Toad of Costa Rica, has been extinct

since around 1989. Its disappearance has been attributed
to climate change.

Consumption plus population:

Currently, 20% of the world's people in the highest income countries account
for 86% of the total private consumption expenditures, while the poorest consume
only 1.3%.

2.2 ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

Environmental management is the key to
avoiding a quarter of all preventable illnesses which
are directly caused by environmental factors. The
environment influences our health in many ways -
through exposures to physical, chemical and
biological risk factors, and through related changes in
our behaviour in response to those factors.

Thirteen million deaths annually are due to preventable environmental

causes. Preventing environmental risk could save as many as four million lives a
year, of children alone, mostly in developing countries.

Environmental hazards are responsible for about a quarter of the total burden
of diseases worldwide, and nearly 35% in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa.

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Indoor Air Pollution

Exposure to indoor air pollution from solid fuels has been

linked to many diseases, in particular pneumonia among children
and chronic respiratory diseases among adults.

Outdoor Air Pollution

Air pollution continues to pose a significant threat to health

worldwide. Many countries around the world do not have
regulations on air pollution.

Chemical Safety

Ensures early warning and prevention of harmful effects of

chemicals to which humans are being increasingly exposed, and
assesses potential risks to human health.

Children's Environmental Health

Child survival and development hinge on basic needs to

support life; among these, a safe, healthy and clean environment is
fundamental.

Electromagnetic Fields

Electric and magnetic fields are part of the spectrum of

electromagnetic radiation which extends from static electric and
magnetic fields, through radiofrequency and infrared radiation, to
X-rays.

Environmental Health in Emergencies

Death and disease burden from emergencies, disasters and

disease outbreaks associated with environmental risk factors can be
significantly reduced by effective prevention, preparedness and
response capacities.

Environmental Health Impact Assessment

Health Impact Assessment provides decision makers with

information about how any policy, programme or project may
affect the health of people.

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Global Environmental Change

Large-scale and global environmental hazards to human

health include climate change, ozone depletion, loss of biodiversity
and much more.

Health and Environment Linkages Initiative

Is a global effort by WHO and UNEP to support action by

developing country policy makers on environmental problems to
health.

Healthy Settings

A strategy for participatory health protection and promotion

organized around one setting, such as Healthy Cities, Healthy
Schools etc.

Ionizing Radiation

The aim of the Radiation and Environmental Health

Programme is to look for solutions to protect human health from
ionizing radiation hazards by raising people's awareness of the
potential health risks.

Occupational Health

Workplace fatalities, injuries and illnesses remain at

unacceptably high levels and involve an enormous and
unnecessary health burden, suffering, and economic loss.

Quantifying Environmental Health Impacts

The environmental burden of disease quantifies the amount

of disease caused by environmental risks.

Ultraviolet Radiation

Small amounts of UV are essential for the production of

Vitamin D in people, yet overexposure may result in acute and
chronic health effects on the skin, eye and immune system.

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Water, Sanitation and Health

WHO works on aspects of water, sanitation and hygiene

where the health burden is high, where interventions could make a
major difference and where the present state of knowledge is poor.

2.3 VALUE EDUCATION

Education is a systematic and methodical effort towards learning basic facts
about humanity. Value education aims to cultivate essential values in the students so
that the civilizational complexities can be sustained and further developed. It begins
at home and it is considered as one accepts certain things in his/her life through
various media like society or government. Value education is important to help
everyone in improving the value system that one has to use. Once everyone has
understood their values in life they can examine and make effective use. One has to
frequently uphold the various types of values such as individual values, universal
values, and social values.

Value education is always essential to shape one's life and to give an

understanding of oneself on the global stage. The need for value education among
parents has been constantly increasing as we continue to witness increasing violent
activity in the behaviour patterns in society.

The family system in India has a long tradition of imparting value education.
But with modernization and the fast changing role of parents it has not been very
easy for parents to impart value education to their wards. Therefore, many institutes
today conduct various value education programs to solve the problems of modern
society. These programs concentrate on the development of values like happiness,
humility, cooperation, honesty, simplicity, love, kindness etc.

Value education is important to help everyone in improving the value system

that he/she holds and put them to use. Once, everyone has understood their values
in life they can examine and control the various choices they make in their lives. One
has to frequently uphold the various types of values in his life such as cultural
values, universal values, personal values and social values.

Thus, value education is always essential for shaping one's life and for giving
an opportunity to perform on the global stage. The need for value education among
parents, children, teachers etc, is constantly increasing as we continue to witness
increasing violent activities, behavioral disorder, lack of unity in the society etc.

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2.4 HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights refer to those rights which are common to all people by virtue
of their being human. They must be based on guaranteeing those things which all
human beings require to fully participate in a modern society, such as the right to a
livelihood, to education and health care, to protection of their person and the right to
conscience, etc. The term human rights has been made familiar by political
discourse. In short, a right is something to which we are entitled. In ordinary usage it
not only means a lawful entitlement, it also means a just entitlement. The idea of
human rights or rights of the individual is commonly associated with the various
forms of liberal individualism as they developed in the west, particularly in Britain,
France and America in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

The human rights movements began in order to check state violation of

constitutional rights or norms and make state moves accountable. At the global level,
rights norms have been institutionalized in various UN declarations and
conventions. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 10 Dec. 1948 (UDHR) is a
historic document propounding a standard of rights of all members of the human
family, as a foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. It includes
various articles, in short we can understand all articles as -

- Articles 1 and 2 state the general principles.

- Articles 3 to 21 set forth the civil and political rights;

- Articles 22-27 enumerate the economic, social & cultural rights and

- Articles 28-30 refer to collective rights

Civil and political rights include the right to life, liberty and freedom from
slavery, torture and arbitrary assent, right to a fair trial, freedom of opinion and
expression of assembly and association of conscience and religion, the right to free
election and participation in public affairs etc.

Economic, Social & Cultural rights include the right to work for a just reward,
the right to education, the right to participation in the cultural life of a community
etc. Collective rights include the right of groups from discrimination and of nations
to self domination. Civil & Political rights are also referred to as first generation
rights, Economic & Social rights as Second Generation Rights whereas the term third
Generation Rights refers to the right to development & solidarity.

In the human rights discourse, it is sometimes argued that duties or

responsibility constitute an alternative to human rights. Such assertions have been

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made by moralist and reformers, by socialist as well as democratic regimes but most
passionately by authoritarian regimes. Many human rights movements have also
occurred and the issue has become a global agenda since the end of the Second
World War.

Modern Definition of Human rights

In general terms, there are two categories of human rights: entitlement rights
and personal rights. Entitlement rights are those rights which society must provide
every human being so that they can exist in a modern society. Personal rights are
those rights concerning control by an individual of his/her own person.

Entitlement rights, such as the right to a livelihood and to a socially

acceptable level of food, clothing and shelter are rights which, though recognized by
the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, have never been
implemented in Canada. The right to an education, to health care and to economic,
social and personal security are also basic rights of entitlement to which every
individual has claim, but which our society also refuses to recognize and/or
guarantee.

Whereas entitlement rights are demands on society to which every individual

has claim, personal rights concern prohibitions against the violation of the
individual, and of his mind and body, by society. Of these, the right to conscience is
the most fundamental, for without the right to think and express opinions, how can
an individual be considered fully human? The right to privacy and the right of an
individual to sovereignty over his/her own body are also fundamental human
rights.

Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights is considered the foundation of modern international
human rights defense and promotion. The declaration is built on the common sense
idea that human rights are based on the inherent dignity of every person. This
dignity, and the rights to freedom and equality that derive from it, are undeniable.

Though best known as a guarantor of basic civil liberties such as freedom

from repression, freedom of expression and freedom of association, the declaration
explicitly establishes economic security as central to human dignity—on equal
footing with freedom of conscience and essential to human rights.

For example, the declaration says "the right to work, to free choice of
employment, to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection against
unemployment" are basic human rights. The "right to equal pay for equal work" as
well as a worker's "right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his

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interests" are considered essential liberties. Basic and free education is also
established as a universal human right.

More broadly, the declaration asserts: "Everyone has the right to a standard of
living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including
food, clothing, housing, medical care, and necessary social services, and the right to
security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or
other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control."

Together, the economic security articles of the declaration underscore that

political rights can be enjoyed only when basic human needs have been satisfied.
Without economic security, freedom of conscience—the liberty to grow as an
individual—is impossible. As Article 22 states: "Everyone ... has the right to social
security ... [and] the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity
and the free development of his personality."

2.5 HIV / AIDS

The first key fact to know about the AIDS epidemic today is that it is
concentrated in the developing countries of Latin America, Africa, and Asia, with 95
percent of the 40 million people in the world living with HIV located there. Many of
the 25 million plus people who have died of AIDS lived in developing countries as
do most of the some 14 million AIDS orphans in the world today. Of the 40 million
people who are HIV+, 28 millions are in sub-saharan Africa, 6 million are in south
and South east Asia, and 1 million are in North America. Of the 5 million new
infections that occurred in 2001, 3.4 million were in sub saharan Africa. Some 3
million people died of AIDS related causes during 2001. The total number of HIV+
People in the world rose from 10 million in 1990 to 28 million in 1996 to 34 million in
2000 to 40 million in 2002. As Dr. Better Korber, an AIDS researcher at Los Alamos
stated, "The AIDS epidemic is not just about people dying; so are entire nations."

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) occurs when an HIV (Human

Immunodeficiency Virus) positive individual has such lowered immune levels that
he falls prey to a variety of opportunistic infections. It is transmitted through blood,
sexual relations and mother's feeding. HIV is not a common everyday infectious
disease. It cannot be transmitted in contaminated water and food like cholera or
typhoid. The virus can not be transmitted by insects, through air or via physical
touch.

Measures can be taken to control the disease

- Move immediately to mount preventive intervention when the

epidemic is first detected.

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- Provide anti-retroviral drugs free or at reduced price, if the funding

can somehow be found.

- Begin by targeting pregnant women who are HIV positive so as to

prevent children born HIV positive.

- Seek to remove the stigma of HIV/AIDS, so that people living with

HIV/AIDS can live with dignity.

- Address the social problems of poverty & gender, inequality, which are
linked to vulnerability to HIV infection.

Much is yet to be learnt about how to control the AIDS epidemic. The world is
doing a rather poor job of utilizing known communication strategies to control the
spread of HIV. We must do much better in future.

2.6 WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE

The advent of the British in India and Introduction of the western system of
medicine and education in India started changing women's conditions. Gandhiji's
influence brought them into the mainstream of the freedom movement. The
introduction of the concept of equality through various provisions in Indian
constitution followed by laws concerning marriage, divorce, inheritance,
maintenance, widow re-marriage, prohibition of sati, child marriage etc. laid the
foundation of their present status. It has further improved with higher education
and women's participation in the employment market.

Welfare programmes for women and children were initially started by

voluntary agencies. The govt. sponsored welfare programmes for women were
through grants in aid. Apart from giving grants to voluntary agencies for women,
the central social welfare board initiated some new programmes of assistance which
were developmental in nature, such as the schemes of welfare extension project,
socio-economic programmes and hostels for working women. Thereafter, the
ministry of social welfare also sponsored programs of activities for women's welfare
and development, through grants in aid. Other ministries such as Agriculture, Rural
Development, Labour etc. also contributed to the development of women in addition
to the programmes and services of the department of Women and Child
Development which has the coordinating responsibilities.

Some of the official programmes for the welfare of women and children are -

- Construction/Expansion of Hostel buildings for working women.

- Support to Training cum Employment Programme for women (STEP)

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- Schemes for setting up of Women's Development Corporation

- Short stay homes for women & girls
- Setting up Women's Training Centres/Institutions for rehabilitation of
women in Distress.
- Setting up of employment and Income Generating Training cum
employment cum production unit for women (WORAD)
- Condensed courses of Education for Women (CSWB)
- Awareness training and training of Rural women in Public
Cooperation (CSWB)
- Women Research & Training Centres (UGC)
- Training of Rural Youth and Self Employment (TRYSEM) (Ministry of
Rural development)
- Scheme of vocational training (Ministry of Labour)
- After care homes for women received from moral danger (State Govt.
CSWB)
- Homes for Destitute Women (CSWB)
- Short stay homes for women & Children (Dept. of Women & Child
Development)
- Support of family counseling
- Legal literacy & Legal Aid
- Prevention of Atrocities on Women (Det. of WCD)
- Creches and Daycare centre for children of working mothers
(CSWB/DWCD)
- Promotion and strengthening of Mahila Mandals (Ministries of
Agriculture, Rural Development, HRD, DWCD, CSWB)
- Organizational Assistance to women voluntary agencies (DWCD)

With the help of all these programmes, women are getting empowered &
children are getting their rights.

2.7 ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN

ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
We can not imagine our day without information technology. But with the
development of Information technology we are facing challenges to our environment

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and health. Environment affects human health, as does IT. This should be of little
surprise, since many of the concerns we have regarding the environment appear to
be concerns precisely because of the way they affect human beings. For example
pollution degrades our health, resource depletion threatens
our standards of living, climate changes put our homes at risk,
the reduction of biodiversity results in the loss of potential
medicines and the eradication of wilderness means we lose a
source of awe and beauty. Proper environment management
is the key to avoid illness which is directly caused by
environmental factors. The environment influences our health
in many ways: through exposure to physical, chemical and
biological risk factors and through related changes in our behaviour in response to
those factors. Thirteen million deaths annually are due to preventable environmental
causes. Preventing environmental risk could save as many as four million lives a
year, of children alone, mostly in developing countries. Ultraviolet radiation, out
door air pollution etc. creates problems in environment.

Information technology affects human health. Sitting continuously in front of

the computer, playing video games on computer or mobile phones and using
earphones creates many health problems. Mobile users face heart problems in early
age.

Information technology plays an important role in children's lives. They are

no longer interested in outdoor games, playing with their friends and after a time
become lonely. It affects family relationships as well.

Information Technology to Support Bioterrorism Preparedness

• Detection and monitoring systems
support disease and threat surveillance
and collect national health status
indicators.

• Analytical systems facilitate real-time

evaluation of live data feeds and turn
data into information to identify disease
outbreaks.

• Information resources and knowledge management systems provide

reference information, distance learning, and decision support.

• Alerting and communications technologies transmit emergency alerts,

facilitate routine professional discussions, and support collaborative activities.

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• Response systems help manage vaccine distributions, track side effects, and
disseminate public health information

The following technologies and terms are often included in discussions of

information technology in health care:

• Electronic health record (EHR): EHRs were originally envisioned as an

electronic file cabinet for patient data from various sources (eventually
integrating text, voice, images, handwritten notes, etc.). Now they are
generally viewed as part of an automated order-entry and patient-tracking
system providing real-time access to patient data, as well as a continuous
longitudinal record of their care.

• Computerized provider order entry (CPOE): CPOE in its basic form is

typically a medication ordering and fulfillment system. More advanced CPOE
also include lab orders, radiology studies, procedures, discharges, transfers,
and referrals.

• Clinical decision support system (CDSS): CDSS provides physicians and

nurses with real-time diagnostic and treatment recommendations. The term
covers a variety of technologies ranging from simple alerts and prescription
drug interaction warnings to full clinical pathways and protocols. CDSS may
be used as part of CPOE and EHR.

• Picture archiving and communications system (PACS): This technology

captures and integrates diagnostic and radiological images from various
devices (e.g., x-ray, MRI, computerized tomography scan), stores them, and
disseminates them to a medical record, a clinical data repository, or other
points of care.

• Bar coding: Bar coding in a health care environment is similar to bar-code

scanning in other environments: An optical scanner is used to electronically
capture information encoded on a product. Initially, it will be used for
medication (for example, matching drugs to patients by using bar codes on
both the medications and patients’ arm bracelets), but other applications may
be pursued, such as medical devices, lab, and radiology.

• Radio frequency identification (RFID): This technology tracks patients

throughout the hospital, and links lab and medication tracking through a
wireless communications system. It is neither mature nor widely available,
but may be an alternative to bar coding.

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• Automated dispensing machines (ADMs): This technology distributes

medication doses.

• Electronic materials management (EMM): Health care organizations use

EMM to track and manage inventory of medical supplies, pharmaceuticals,
and other materials. This technology is similar to enterprise resource planning
systems used outside of health care.

• Interoperability: This concept refers to electronic communication among

organizations so that the data in one IT system can be incorporated into
another. Discussions of interoperability focus on development of standards
for content and messaging, among other areas, and development of adequate
security and privacy safeguards.

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