The Healing Power

of Ginseng
The Healing Power
of Ginseng

Joseph P. Hou
CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hou, Joseph P., 1929- author.

Title: The healing power of ginseng / Joseph P. Hou.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2019. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018060716| ISBN 9781138594074 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN
9780367211455 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780429489112 (eISBN)
Subjects: | MESH: Panax | Plants, Medicinal | Phytotherapy | Medicine,
Chinese Traditional
Classification: LCC RS165.G45 | NLM QV 766.5.P2 | DDC 615.3/23988--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018060716

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Contents
Foreword................................................................................................................. xiii
Preface...................................................................................................................... xv
Author................................................................................................................... xxiii

Section I  The Herbal Medicines and the

Elixir of Life: Ginseng in the World

Chapter 1 The Chinese Style of Healing: The Best Holistic Medicine

and Herbal Medicine............................................................................. 3
Traditional Chinese Medicine...............................................................3
Early Medical Philosophy.....................................................................5
Tao....................................................................................................5
Yin and Yang Therapy...................................................................... 5
Doctrine of Five Elements................................................................ 6
Features and Techniques of Traditional Chinese Medicine..................7
Diagnosis..........................................................................................7
Acupuncture.....................................................................................7
External Medication......................................................................... 8
Cupping and Moxibustion................................................................ 9
Chinese Herbal Remedies.....................................................................9
Evolution of Herbal Medicine.......................................................... 9
Pen-ts’ao.............................................................................................. 10
Mao’s Modern Chinese Medicine....................................................... 11
People Begin to Accept Alternative Medicine Worldwide................. 13
Theory of Traditional Chinese Medicine............................................ 14
References........................................................................................... 15

Chapter 2 Ginseng in China................................................................................. 17

Panax Ginseng: The Most Precious Herbal Medicine........................ 17
Description of Ginseng...................................................................20
Characteristics of Ginseng Plant....................................................20
Preparation of Ginseng Root.......................................................... 21
How to Keep Ginseng Roots.......................................................... 22
Adulteration.................................................................................... 22
History of the Manroot........................................................................ 22
Virtues of Ginseng in Chinese Medicine............................................24
Classical Ginseng Preparations and Secret Prescriptions...................26
Tsao-shen Wan (Date Ginseng Pills).............................................. 29

v
vi Contents

Chen-Jen Pao-Ming Tan (Sour-Date Ginseng Pills)...................... 29

Sen-shen Kwie-pi Wan (Ginseng Cinnamon Pills)......................... 29
Other Miraculous Roots as Ginseng Substitutes................................. 29
Sha-Shen......................................................................................... 30
Hsuan-Shen.................................................................................... 30
Tan-Shen......................................................................................... 31
K’u-Shen......................................................................................... 31
Tzu-Shen......................................................................................... 31
Tai-Tzu-Shen................................................................................... 31
Tang-shen........................................................................................ 32
References........................................................................................... 32

Chapter 3 Ginseng in North America.................................................................. 33

Discovery Story of American Ginseng............................................... 33
American Ginseng Adventure............................................................. 37
References........................................................................................... 38

Chapter 4 Ginseng in Korea................................................................................. 39

Highlights of Korean Ginseng............................................................ 39
Cultivation of Korean Ginseng.......................................................40
Ginseng Law................................................................................... 41
Remedial Use of Ginseng in Korea..................................................... 41
Modern Korean Ginseng Products...................................................... 43
White Ginseng Root.......................................................................44
Honey Ginseng...............................................................................44
Ginseng Tea....................................................................................44
Ginseng Extract..............................................................................44
Ginseng Capsules...........................................................................44
Cosmetics and Animal Health Products........................................44
References...........................................................................................44

Chapter 5 Ginseng in Japan, Siberia, and Panax Notoginseng........................... 47

Ginseng in Japan and Chikusetsu Nin-Jin.......................................... 47
Ginseng in Siberia............................................................................... 48
Panax Notoginseng............................................................................. 51
References........................................................................................... 53

Section II  The Flourishing Ginseng Business

Chapter 6 The Flourishing American Ginseng Business in Chinese Market..... 57

American Ginseng in Chinese Markets.............................................. 57
Story of American Ginseng Hunting..................................................60
References........................................................................................... 62
Contents vii

Chapter 7 The Flourishing Ginseng Business in Korea, Japan, and Canada...... 65

The Flourishing Korean Ginseng Business......................................... 65
Ginseng Business in Japan.................................................................. 68
Current Regulation of Ginseng Products............................................ 69
Ginseng Business in Canada............................................................... 70
References........................................................................................... 70

Chapter 8 Current American Ginseng Dollar Value........................................... 71

Ginseng Dealers.................................................................................. 72
Reference............................................................................................. 75

Section III  Growing Your Own Ginseng Plant

Chapter 9 Growing Ginseng Plant in China and the United States..................... 79

Growing Your Own Ginseng Plant..................................................... 79
Cultivation of Ginseng in the Orient...................................................80
Growing Ginseng in the United States................................................ 81
Speeding up Germination and Growth...............................................84
References........................................................................................... 85

Chapter 10 American Ginseng Farm in the State of Wisconsin............................ 87

Brief History of Cultivated Ginseng in Marathon County,
Wisconsin............................................................................................ 87
Growth Habits..................................................................................... 88
Environment Requirements................................................................. 88
Climate........................................................................................... 88
Soil.................................................................................................. 88
Seed Preparation and Germination................................................ 89
Cultural Practices................................................................................ 89
Seedbed Preparation....................................................................... 89
Seeding Date.................................................................................. 89
Method and Rate of Seeding.......................................................... 89
Fertility and Lime Requirements...................................................90
Variety Selection............................................................................90
Weed Control..................................................................................90
Diseases and Their Control............................................................90
Insects and Other Predators and Their Control.............................. 91
Harvesting...................................................................................... 91
Drying and Storage......................................................................... 93
Yield Potential and Performance Results............................................ 93
Economics of Production and Markets............................................... 93
References........................................................................................... 93
viii Contents

Section IV  Data and Research

Chapter 11 Ginseng Information and Scientific Research.....................................97

Age-Old Unpopular Panacea...............................................................97
Gap of Scientific Information.............................................................. 98
Modern Scientific Research and Publications on Ginseng.................99
Ginseng Symposium..................................................................... 100
References......................................................................................... 101

Chapter 12 Less Known Benefits of American Ginseng..................................... 103

Scientific Research............................................................................ 103
General Use....................................................................................... 104
References......................................................................................... 104

Section V  Composition of Ginseng

Chapter 13 Chemical Constituents of Ginseng Plants......................................... 107

Chemical Constituents of Asian Ginseng......................................... 107
Chemical Research on Panax ginseng.............................................. 108
Ginseng Saponins.............................................................................. 110
Other Components of Ginseng Root................................................. 113
Ginseng Oil and Phytosterol........................................................ 113
Sugars and Carbohydrates............................................................ 114
Organic Acids............................................................................... 116
Nonprotein Nitrogenous Substances............................................ 116
Amino Acids and Peptides........................................................... 116
Vitamins....................................................................................... 117
Minerals and Trace Elements....................................................... 117
Enzymes....................................................................................... 117
Ginseng Saponins in Leaves and Stems............................................ 117
Chemical Constituents of American Ginseng................................... 118
Secret Principles of Ginseng............................................................. 119
Structural Diversity of Ginsenosides................................................ 120
Constituents of Japanese Ginseng..................................................... 121
Constituents of Siberian Ginseng...................................................... 121
Phytochemicals and Constituents of Siberian Ginseng................ 122
Panax notoginseng............................................................................ 123
References......................................................................................... 124

Chapter 14 How Differences in Chemical Constituents in Ginseng Affect

Medicinal Effects.............................................................................. 127
Contents ix

Ginsenoside Content Comparison..................................................... 130

Medicinal Effects of Ginseng Saponins............................................ 131
References......................................................................................... 132

Section VI  The Healing Power of Ginseng

Chapter 15 Traditional Chinese Medicine Records of Medical Benefits of
Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng.......................................................... 137
Adaptogenic Power of Ginseng......................................................... 139
Adaptogen..................................................................................... 139
Requirements to Be an Adaptogen............................................... 140
Harmless Manroot............................................................................. 140
Stress and Antistress Activity of Ginseng......................................... 140
What is Stress?............................................................................. 140
Stress-Related Diseases................................................................ 141
How Your Body Handles Stress................................................... 141
Typical Stress Examples............................................................... 141
Antistress Effect of Ginseng........................................................ 142
Normalizing Effect of Ginseng......................................................... 146
Siberian Ginseng’s Medical Benefits................................................ 147
Immune System................................................................................. 149
Athletes and Antibiotics.................................................................... 150
References......................................................................................... 150

Chapter 16 What Ginseng Can Do For You........................................................ 153

Safe Tonic and the Antifatigue Effect of Ginseng............................ 153
Fatigue.......................................................................................... 153
Tonic Effect of Ginseng................................................................ 153
Can Ginseng Prevent Cancer?........................................................... 160
Impotence and Aphrodisiac Activity................................................ 162
Aphrodisiac Remedies.................................................................. 163
Ginseng’s Aphrodisiac Action...................................................... 163
Quieting Your Spirit.......................................................................... 165
Improving Mental Efficiency and Working Capacity....................... 167
Regulating Your Blood Pressure....................................................... 168
How Ginseng Acts on the Cardiovascular System....................... 168
Ginseng Controls Body’s Cholesterol and Atherosclerosis............... 170
Ginseng Controls Cholesterol Level............................................. 170
Effect on Lipid Metabolism.......................................................... 171
Antidiabetic Effect of Ginseng.......................................................... 171
Ginseng for Diabetes.................................................................... 172
Remarkable Hematinic Effect of Ginseng........................................ 176
Anemia......................................................................................... 176
x Contents

Ginseng’s Hematinic Effect.......................................................... 177

Effect on RNA, DNA, and Protein Metabolism........................... 177
Improvement or Cure for Indigestion................................................ 178
Ginseng Benefits Weight Loss.......................................................... 178
Women’s Health—What Are the Ginseng Benefits for Women?...... 179
Benefits of Ginseng for Hair Growth................................................ 179
Benefits of Ginseng on Skin.............................................................. 179
References......................................................................................... 179

Chapter 17 Healthy and Successful Aging.......................................................... 183

Longevity Story................................................................................. 183
Dream of Eternal Youth and Longevity............................................ 183
What Is the Aging Process After All?.............................................. 184
Normal Human Growth and Aging Life Cycle................................. 186
What Is Healthy and Successful Aging?........................................... 187
Heredity........................................................................................ 187
Environment................................................................................. 187
Lifestyle........................................................................................ 188
Nutrition....................................................................................... 188
Health........................................................................................... 188
Longevity Techniques in the Orient.................................................. 189
In Early China.............................................................................. 189
In Early Japan............................................................................... 189
Longevity and Centenarians’ Mysterious Long Life Secrets............ 190
Antiaging Herbs: Panax Ginseng and American Ginseng................ 191
American Ginseng (Radix Panax quinquefolium)........................... 193
Chemical Contents....................................................................... 193
References......................................................................................... 194

Section VII  H
 ow to Take Ginseng and
Who Should Not Take It

Chapter 18 Take Ginseng with Care.................................................................... 197

How to Take Ginseng........................................................................ 197
American Ginseng............................................................................ 198
Side Effects................................................................................... 199
Reference........................................................................................... 199

Chapter 19 Possible Interaction of Ginseng with Drugs...................................... 201

Possible Interactions.......................................................................... 201
Contents xi

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors

(Blood Pressure Medications)...................................................... 201
Calcium Channel Blockers (Heart and Blood
Pressure Medications)................................................................... 201
Blood Thinners (Anticoagulants and Antiplatelets)..................... 201
Caffeine........................................................................................ 201
Diabetes Medications, Including Insulin......................................202
Drugs That Suppress the Immune System...................................202
Stimulants.....................................................................................202
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors....................................................202
Morphine......................................................................................202
Furosemide (Lasix).......................................................................202
Other Medications........................................................................202
Veratrum Nigrum..........................................................................202
References......................................................................................... 203
Glossary.................................................................................................................205
Index....................................................................................................................... 213
Foreword
My friend Dr. Joseph P. Hou, who loves Chinese herbal medicine, understands its
health-benefitting power, especially the healing nature of ginseng. Sharing over
50 years of hard work and his collection of ancient and modern scientific information,
he provides a compilation of this rich knowledge in this first English edition of a
masterful work on ginseng that people all over the world can share. This achievement
is rare and admirable.
Ginseng is a famous and magical herbal medicine. Its use began in ancient China
4,000 years ago, but its use is now universal. This plant drug is not easily understood
comprehensively and correctly.
First, ginseng as a therapeutic herbal medicine and also as a health-care product
began in a long history of traditional Chinese medicine. So its use for treating disease
as medicine is based on syndrome differentiation and evidence-based efficiency,
which are not easy for Westerners to understand. Therefore, these profound theories
need to be explained in simple language.
Second, ginseng as a plant, its different species, and its different growth
environments can cause differences in efficacy; therefore, global distribution of
different varieties of ginseng needs to be understood in order to choose the right
kind and avoid misuse.
Furthermore, with a thorough study of the chemical composition and the
pharmacologic function of ginseng, people gradually reveal and recognize the basis of
the mysterious effects of ginseng. As knowledge about ginseng is more scientifically
and deeply understood, ginseng will be used more correctly.
Finally, as the saying goes, the drug is a double-edged sword; correct use can be
lifesaving, and incorrect use can worsen disease. Ginseng is no exception, although
it is a relatively safe plant medicine.
These issues are addressed in this text. The author’s excellent writing skills and
orderly arrangement make reading particularly smooth and easy.
We pay tribute to and thank Dr. Hou for his contribution—we now have this
masterpiece on ginseng.

You-Yu Jin, M.D.

Professor of Pharmacology
Capital University of Medical Sciences
Beijing, China

xiii
Preface
The prime aim of this book is to provide new evidence from scientific studies of
ginseng, thus answering the following questions:

1. Does ginseng really work?

2. Is herbal medicine such as ginseng effective and safe?
3. How does traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) work?
4. Does ginseng really boost energy, prevent fatigue, and improve working capacity?
5. Is ginseng useful for controlling diabetes, treating erectile dysfunction, and
improving longevity?
6. How can I grow my own ginseng plant?
7. What are the differences between Asian ginseng and American ginseng?
8. Where can I buy ginseng, and how much does it cost?

For more than 40 centuries the Chinese, as well as other Asians, have continuously
praised the exotic ginseng root for the healing power they believe it to possess. In
at least 40 diseases, including nervous and gastrointestinal disorders, all forms of
debility, hypertension, diabetes, and diseases of the heart, liver, and kidney found
in the classical Chinese Materia Medica books (Pen-Ts’ao), ginseng may prove to
be effective. Yet what ginseng could assist you to achieve or maintain in strength,
vitality, rejuvenation, and longevity, sounds more attractive to the majority of people,
particularly the aging. There must be medicinal qualities, otherwise ginseng would
not have been called “divine herb,” “immortal herb,” and “herb of the spirit” in the
Orient and sold at prices 10–100 times higher than silver or gold of its own weight by
Chinese druggists in the old days.
To Western doctors, traditional Chinese herbal medicine is somewhat irrational,
enigmatic, and at best, empirical and nonscientific. The herb drugs are nothing but
primitive remedies with a lack of predictable efficacy. However, there are many open-
minded Western scientists and medical doctors who have quite different opinions,
and most importantly, who do not think Chinese medicine is unfounded or based on
superstition.
Professors Takagi, Watanabe, and Ishii of the University of Tokyo, said recently1:

Medical science has not yet studied even a small part of the consolidated experience
gained by the Chinese in the course of time. Oriental [Chinese] medicine dealt primarily
with natural products rather than with synthetic ones. … Oriental medicine employs
drugs of low toxicity. The drugs do not produce a quick symptomatic effect, but rather
work slowly and very often efficaciously to increase natural resistance and recuperative
power of the patient.

Professor Brekhman also said that ginseng is one of the most interesting traditional
remedies that merits serious study.2
Since World War II, ginseng has become an increasingly important plant, receiving
considerable recent publicity in the press all over the world. As a result, significant

xv
xvi Preface

changes have taken place. One of the changes is that ginseng has become the subject
of intensive chemical and biological research in China, Japan, Korea, Bulgaria, the
Soviet Union, and more recently, parts of Western Europe and the United States. One
of the most noteworthy endeavors of ginseng research is to give the benefits of its
achievements to ever wider circles of the world’s population. Another notable change
is the increase in ginseng cultivation centers in China, Japan, the USSR, Korea, and
the United States, and the building up of quite a number of modern and collective
ginseng farms for industrialized production to meet the ever-increasing international
demands for ginseng tonic products and, most important of all, to lower the price.
Natural products remain the primary source of supply of many clinically useful
drugs of ancient heritage. For example, at the discovery of salicin in the bark of
willow trees, no one could predict that one day it could be developed as the most
remarkable, most versatile, and most widely prescribed drug in history—aspirin.
For centuries, the natives of India chewed snakeroot (Rauwolfia cerpentina) for its
calming effect. Soon after the isolation of reserpine from the snakeroot, it became
an exceedingly important tranquilizer and an agent in the treatment and control of
hypertension. With the discovery of Mexican yams, an abundant, inexpensive source
of raw material for the synthesis of numerous steroid hormones became available.
Ephedra, ergot, opium, digitalis, and penicillin are other examples of many natural
agents that have become contemporary therapeutic remedies. The real beauty of
natural products is their low incident of toxicity, which we desire.
Today, in the search for new therapeutic agents (synthetic chemicals, of course),
the Western pharmaceutical industries usually examine hundreds and thousands of
potential candidates of which only a few are clinically investigated. A very small
number or none of these candidates ultimately reach the marketplace. Drug companies
spend an average of 5–10 years and more than $12,000,000 to develop one new drug.
Even so, they still cannot guarantee its complete safety.
Ginseng is an age-old medicine, and its value in promoting health and happiness
has long been recognized in the Orient. Yet it is a rather new wonder substance
to Western people. Many people in the Western countries, particularly young
Americans, have discovered ginseng only recently, and many of them are still
wondering what ginseng is. This is because ginseng is not popular in the United
States. Also, a literature gap exists between the East and West on ginseng. Although
many legendary stories and tales about ginseng now prevail in books on herbs and
medicinal plants, they are written fictitiously and erroneously to make ginseng appear
more attractive and curious to the reader. None of these legends is scientific or factual.
The modern scientific evidence on the pharmacologic properties and the potential
clinical usefulness of ginseng published in the Orient and in the Soviet Union is
totally lacking in virtually all American libraries.
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) originated in ancient China and has evolved
over thousands of years. TCM practitioners use herbal medicines and various mind
and body practices, such as acupuncture and tai chi, to treat or prevent health problems.
In the United States, people use TCM primarily as a complementary health approach.
TCM encompasses many different practices, including acupuncture, moxibustion
(burning an herb above the skin to apply heat to acupuncture points), Chinese
herbal medicine, tui na (Chinese therapeutic massage), dietary therapy, and tai chi
Preface xvii

and qi gong (practices that combine specific movements or postures, coordinated

breathing, and mental focus). TCM is rooted in the ancient philosophy of Taoism and
dates back more than 2,500 years. Traditional systems of medicine also exist in other
East and South Asian countries, including Japan, Vietnam, and Korea. Some of these
systems have been influenced by TCM and are similar to it in some ways, but each
has developed distinctive features of its own.

UNDERLYING CONCEPTS
When thinking about ancient medical systems such as TCM, it is important to
separate questions about traditional theories and concepts of health and wellness
from questions about whether specific interventions might be helpful in the context
of modern science-based medicine and health promotion practices.
The ancient beliefs on which TCM is based include the following:

• The human body is a miniature version of the larger, surrounding universe.

• Harmony between two opposing yet complementary forces, called yin and
yang, supports health; disease results from an imbalance between these
forces.
• Five elements—fire, earth, wood, metal, and water—symbolically
represent all phenomena, including the stages of human life, and explain
the functioning of the body and how it changes during disease.
• Qi, a vital energy that flows through the body, performs multiple functions
in maintaining health.

Chinese Herbal Medicine

The Chinese Materia Medica (a pharmacological reference book used by TCM
practitioners) describes tens and thousands of medicinal substances, primarily plants,
but also some minerals and animal products. Different parts of plants, such as the
leaves, roots, stems, flowers, and seeds, are used. In TCM, herbs are often combined
in formulas and given as teas, capsules, liquid extracts, granules, or powders.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

In both its philosophical content as well as its practical application to the healing of
disease, TCM has a great deal to offer the Western mind. First and foremost, Chinese
medicine operates from the perception that illness is created as a consequence of
a disturbance occurring within a person’s emotional and mental bodies. Western
medicine still neglects this truth. Second, TCM philosophically maintains that
healing is a process that must engage the entire body—that is, regardless of where
in the physical body an illness has developed, the understanding is that the entire
body is ill.
For nearly 40 centuries ginseng has been universally used in TCM as a most
respected and superb health-maintaining tonic remedy. It has been prescribed
repeatedly by doctors for some 40 different types of ailments in China as well as
xviii Preface

other Asian countries. The miraculous power of ginseng no doubt arises from its
many therapeutically effective properties.
The conventional Western view of the human body emphasizes the physical
structure and components that interact in a very subtle and complex manner. The
TCM model is very different. The human body is first and foremost an energy system
in which various substances interact with each other to create the physical organism.
The basic substances, which range from the material to immaterial, are, namely, Yin,
Yang, Qi, Jing, Shen, Blood, Body Fluid, and Meridians.
In TCM and Daoist philosophy, ginseng is considered one of the top Qi tonics
on the planet, meaning that it works to restore, cultivate, and supply Qi energy in
the body, mind, and spirit. Qi loosely translates to life-force energy, which is a form
of subtle energy on which the body and energy bodies run. Qi can be depleted in
a number of ways: stress, poor diet and lifestyle, lack of deep breathing, exercise,
overexertion, sexual overindulgence, and exposure to chemicals and toxins.
According to Chinese medicine and Daoist philosophy, it is this lack of—
or imbalance of—Qi that underlies most disease and dysfunction in the body.
Consequently, abundant, balanced, and flowing Qi energy, which ginseng helps
to regulate, is believed to be at the root cause of good health, longevity, and even
superhuman abilities.
Ginseng also helps to cultivate Jing and Shen energy within the self as well. Jing
loosely translated to primordial essence, and you can think of it like a deeper, systemic
version of Qi that is not as easily restored. “Jing is the deepest and most fundamental
aspect of our energy. It governs the gradual processes of development and aging. Qi
is more of a day-to-day energy, which controls our everyday functioning and overall
health, and Shen relates to our mental, emotional, and spiritual selves.3” When a
plant or medicine supplies Shen energy, it tends to have a balancing, harmonizing,
and uplifting effect on our emotions, spiritual connection, and thoughts, among many
other things. While all types of ginseng have effects of these three energies, each
variety has subtly different properties.
In the United States, more and more health-conscious consumers, physicians,
health-care professionals, and medical authorities, including the World Health
Organization (WHO) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), endorse the benefits
of TCM, herbs, and acupuncture as alternative medicine. Numerous well-known
physicians such as David Eisenberg, Steven Bratman, Andrew Weil, and Jonathan
Wright strongly advocate the benefits of alternative medicine, and it has become
increasingly important to a large segment of the American population. The author
believes that TCM, herbs, and acupuncture will soon be integrated with conventional
(Western) medicine in the health-care field.
Weil recently wrote:

As a practicing physician with a degree in botany for the past 12 years, I have practiced
natural and preventive medicine in Tucson, AZ, using botanical remedies as one modality
of treatment. I estimate that, for every prescription I write for a pharmaceutical drug,
I give out 30 recommendations for botanicals. I get good results with these remedies
and have seen no significant adverse reactions to them. Patients who consult me come
from all over the country. They tend to be intelligent and well-educated, and many say
Preface xix

they have given up on conventional medicine after it failed to help them attain better
health. Acceptance of botanical remedies is high in this group.

At this point, some people might well ask, “Why is herbal medicine necessary?
Why do we have to use ginseng? There are answers. The proper use of phytochemicals
or herbal medicine for prevention or treatment of any ailments, instead of drugs,
would minimize or avoid toxic side effects.
For example, ginseng could be used for flu prevention, and ginseng could improve
the survival of human lung epithelial cells infected with the influenza virus.
Ginseng may help with stimulating physical and mental activity among people
who are weak and often feel tired. We know for sure that ginseng is a powerful tonic
medicine. A Mayo Clinic study revealed that ginseng showed good results in helping
cancer patients with fatigue.
In Germany, plant drugs have a long tradition of use and are highly valued by the
public. The regulatory agency, the Bundesgesundheitsamt, recognizes this and has
made a special effort to evaluate them, not as new chemical entities, but as classic plant
drugs that have a long history of use. A special expert committee, the Commission
E, has been at work since 1978 and has now studied and published its findings on
approximately 300 herbs. Some 200 of these have been found to have a favorable
risk-to-benefit ratio and are currently approved for sale as drugs. Commission E
was proactive in its determination of safety and efficacy. Its standards were those of
absolute certainty of safety and reasonable proof of efficacy. The judgements it has
rendered are basically sound, and the Commission E Monographs published in the
Bundesanzeiger comprise the best formation currently available on the therapeutic
use of herbs and phytomedicines.
Americans have discovered ginseng only recently, and many of them are still
wondering what ginseng is. This is because ginseng is not popular in the United
States. Also, a literature gap exists between the East and the West on ginseng.
Although many legendary stories and tales about ginseng now prevail in books on
herbs and medicinal plants, they are written fictitiously and erroneously to make
ginseng appear more attractive and curious to the reader. None of these legends is
scientific or factual. Modern scientific evidence on the pharmacological properties
and the potential clinical usefulness of ginseng published in the Orient and in the
Soviet Union is totally lacking in virtually all American libraries.
As a China-born American pharmaceutical chemist and acupuncture physician,
I have been studying ginseng for more than 50 years, and I am also a ginseng
enthusiast and user. From my own experience and from that of several members in
my family, ginseng does indeed work. It has kept me disease free, young looking,
and most important of all, able to utilize my time more efficiently and more
productively to accomplish whatever I want to do. The relatively healthy and long
lives of many members of my family confirm the longevity effect of ginseng. From
my past 50 years of experience, it has been proven to me that ginseng is valuable in
my life, and I wish its benefits to be extended to my readers as well. This book is
written for this purpose.
This book is made up of 18 chapters separated into seven parts. China no doubt
is the first country in the world to have discovered the wild mountain ginseng a
xx Preface

thousand years ago and used it as folk medicine for illness. As we talk about ginseng
as an herbal medicine, we cannot avoid discussing TCM. The philosophical and
technical features of TCM are little heard by the American public. Fortunately, at
the beginning of the twenty-first century interest in TCM or alternative medicine has
rapidly expanded in the United States and other European countries. This is stated
in Chapter 1.
Chapter 2 discusses the most precious herb Panax ginseng in China; presented
are the history of the “manroot” and the medicinal value of ginseng as recorded in
ancient Chinese herbal toxicity reports.
The history of the ginseng plant discovered in North America is a slightly different
story than that of Panax ginseng. American ginseng is not as popular and has been
less researched in the last hundred years. American ginseng is not popular with the
American public but has been welcomed by people of the Orient, particularly the
Chinese. This is discussed in Chapter 3.
Korean ginseng is botanically identical to the ginseng in China. As a result of
the historically close association between Korea and China, Chinese medicine is
prevalent in Korea and Korean ginseng was known to the Chinese as early as in
the third century. The climate and geographical conditions may provide optimum
conditions for ginseng cultivation. Korea deserves the title of the “ginseng country.”
This is covered in Chapter 4.
The history of Japan importing the ginseng plant from China and Korea is
recorded as early as in the seventh century. Japan also then imported ginseng seeds
and cultivated ginseng from Korean ginseng farms.
Ginseng is also found naturally in the mountain area of Siberia. Because its
branches are spiked with thorns, it has the nickname of touch me not and devil’s
bush. Siberian ginseng has similar medicinal effects as Panax ginseng. The Chinese
refer to Panax notoginseng as “three seven root,” because the plant has three petioles
with seven leaflets each. The root of Panax notoginseng is a very effective agent
in arresting hemorrhage and bleeding in wounds, including snake and tiger bites.
Internally, it is prescribed in instances of hematemesis and hemorrhage. The three
plants are covered in Chapter 5.
To business-minded readers Chapter 6 will be of interest. It discusses the trade of
American ginseng in the Chinese market in the past, the story of ginseng hunting.
The current flourishing ginseng businesses in Korea and Japan are stated in Chapter 7.
The flourishing American ginseng business and ginseng’s dollar value along with
ginseng dealers and the dollar value of American ginseng are presented in Chapter 8.
If you are interested in growing your own ginseng plant, you must read Chapter 9
carefully. It provides all of the information necessary to grow ginseng.
Excitement about the cultivation of American ginseng began more than 110 years
ago with the Fromm brothers in Hamburg, Wisconsin. Marathon County, Wisconsin,
grows the most praised and demanded American ginseng in the world. Hsu’s Ginseng
Enterprises employs a combination of highly qualified staff and more than 100 during
harvest season. The growing of ginseng, starting from seeding, through growing,
weed control, disease control, up to harvesting, is described in detail. Interested
readers should carefully read Chapter 10.
Preface xxi

As a result of the information gap concerning ginseng between the East and the
United States, the majority of the population in the United States knows little about the
latest developments on ginseng. The latest developments are provided in Chapter 11.
The majority of research has been done on ginseng as well as on Siberian ginseng.
Clinical and chemical research on American ginseng is yet to be done. One reason
for this is the American medical establishment’s skepticism of herbal remedies.
American ginseng may be the best remedy for Americans whose fast-paced and
energetic lifestyles would benefit from an herb that has calming and balancing effects.
Details on this are provided in Chapter 12.
Chapter 13 focuses on the chemistry of all known ginsengs in the world—the
active constituents contained in Panax ginseng, American ginseng, Japanese ginseng,
Siberian ginseng, and Panax notoginseng. The search for economical sources of
ginseng saponins from nature and even chemical synthesis may likely become
the active ginseng research of the future. Controlled medical studies and research
undoubtedly need to develop these natural panacea into useful, efficacious modern
remedies.
Chapter 14 specifically illustrates how differences in the active chemical properties
of ginseng affect medical outcomes. It is nice to see ginseng, which has been touted
for centuries as a trusted herbal remedy, getting the recognition it deserves. Ginseng
is called an “adaptogen,” which is a substance that is supposed to help the body better
cope with mental and physical stress.
Scientific research and evidence of how ginseng really works and its value as a
universal tonic that promotes and maintains good health, particularly for those who
are physically and mentally troubled and aged men and women, have long been
recognized in the Orient and are slowly gaining recognition in the Western world.
The effects of ginseng and Siberian ginseng on health and well-being and its antiaging
effects are summarized in Chapters 15, 16, and 17. The results of biological (animal)
and clinical (human) studies of ginseng by hundreds of scientists all over the world
in the past 150 years are covered in these three chapters.
How to take ginseng, who should not take it, and possible interactions between
ginseng and some of the chemical drugs are discussed in Chapter 17.
This compendium covers a wide range of information about ginseng: from the
manroot story to ginseng hunting, from the two-man walk test to the inhibition
of amnion cell aging, and from panaquilon to ginsenoside. This presentation of
information moves from the myths to the truths about ginseng. This is the first book
in the English language that has ever attempted to encompass the currently available
material about the little known manroot.
A glossary, which contains the most important and commonly encountered
scientific (chemical, pharmacologic, and medical) terms used in this book, is also
provided.
It should be noted that I make no medical or therapeutic claims for any of the
herbal remedies including ginseng listed in this book, although these herbal remedies
have been used for thousands of years in the Orient and are reported safe. Like any
medicine, these materials should be used with care and should be discussed with
physicians who know herbal medicine.
xxii Preface

Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to the library of the Squibb Institute for
Medical Research; the National Library of Medicine; the Gest Oriental Library
of Princeton University; the Office of Monopoly, Korea; and Pharmaton Limited,
Lugano, Switzerland, for providing valuable references and information on ginseng
research. I am also grateful to Mrs. M. Cardona for her valuable assistance in
preparing the glossary of this book.

REFERENCES
1. Chen, K. K. and B. Mjkerji, eds., Pharmacology of Oriental Plants, Pergamon Press,
New York, 1965, p. 1.
2. Brekhman, I. I. and I. V. Drdymo, Lloyda, 32: 46–51, 1969.
3. Hou, J. P. The Myth and Truth About Ginseng, Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc.,
1978.
Author
Joseph P. Hou, Ph.D., AP, holds a doctorate in pharmaceutical sciences and chemistry
from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He is the author of four books: Myth
and Truth about Ginseng (A.S. Barnes, 1978); Alternative Therapies for Cancer
and Common Ailments (1st Books Library, 2002); The Healing Power of Chinese
Herbs and Medicinal Recipes (Haworth Integrative Healing Press, 2005); and Health
Longevity Techniques (Author House, 2010). Hou has published numerous scientific
papers and holds several U.S. new drug patents. Since 1983 he has been the president
of the J.P. Hou Institute for Pain and Integral Health in Orlando, Florida. Hou is the
former president of the Florida Acupuncture Association and a former vice chair
of the Florida Acupuncture Board. He also lectures on complementary/alternative
medicine, acupuncture, and Chinese herbal medicine.

xxiii
Section I
The Herbal Medicines
and the Elixir of Life
Ginseng in the World
 1 The Chinese Style
of Healing
The Best Holistic Medicine
and Herbal Medicine

TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) or Chung-I, is the daily medical practice in
China. Chung-I incorporates traditional techniques and methods as well as herbal
medicine.
The medical agents used for healing are primarily natural products rather than
synthetic chemicals. These natural products are derived not only from herbaceous and
arborous species, but also from animal and mineral sources. The Chinese physician
tailors his treatment to fit the individual patient’s condition as well as the nature of
the disease. His prescriptions usually contain many medicinal substances to produce
synergistic action, or to neutralize negative interactions, and to mask the bitter taste
of the crude drugs. These drugs are administered, in most cases, in the form of a
decoction.1,2 Chinese medicine recognizes complex mixtures of drugs and does not
appreciate the advantage or effectiveness of a single drug entity. This is a fundamental
difference between Chinese and Western medicine.
Acupuncture, the insertion of slender solid needles into specific points in the body,
is a rather elaborate technique of Chung-I. Acupuncture therapy has also been used
in Korea, Japan, and other Southeast Asian countries for thousands of years, and
in France for more than a century. A small but growing group of British physicians
use acupuncture. It is practiced in Germany, and as long as their love affair with
China endured, the Russians used acupuncture and conducted extensive research on
acupuncture. And finally, the people of Canada and of the United States suddenly,
and with characteristic fervor, have discovered acupuncture.3 Acupuncture analgesia,
a highly sophisticated medical technique developed in China only 15 years ago, has
been more impressive and convincing than therapeutic acupuncture. In China it has
now been accepted and is used in surgery in nearly all general hospitals.4
In the last few years, the term acupuncture has become familiar in the United
States. The question raised in 1962 about its usefulness has been answered by a great
number of American doctors who have seen it applied in the People’s Republic of
China. Most of these Western observers have been astounded by the extraordinary
effect of the acupuncture needles in producing surgical anesthesia, profound enough
for the performance of surgical operations.
The New York Times correspondent James Reston experienced acupuncture
therapy in a Peking general hospital. The journalist, as well as all other American
3
4 The Healing Power of Ginseng

physicians who subsequently visited China, observed and testified to the fact that
acupuncture was “verity” and “no delusion.” They brought back from the People’s
Republic of China irrefutable proof in the form of films depicting the performance of
major surgery under acupuncture analgesia with immediate and complete postsurgical
functioning of the patient.5
Although its application in surgery has not been as widely applied as acupuncture
therapy in TCM, some special surgical techniques do exist. A method of cataract
surgery called “coughing,” with a site of scleral incision, had been used centuries
ago in China.4
In addition to herbal medicine, acupuncture, and surgery, physical therapy, diet
therapy, and massage are other features and techniques of traditional Chung-I.
Massage was fully developed during the T’ang dynasty. The simpler hand movements
of massage supposedly stimulate circulation and make muscles and joints supple,
thus reducing pain. Diet therapy is even less known to Westerners, although it is
an indispensable part of Chinese medicine. The first compendium on diet therapy,
written by Sung Ssu-Miao, was published in the T’ang dynasty; several other related
books on diet therapy were also published during the late T’ang and Sung dynasties.
These books discuss the properties, uses, and amounts of specific food substances
for diet therapy and prevention of diseases.
Practitioners of Chung-I (TCM) are generally divided into herbalist and acupuncturist
groups. The former turn to an enormous Materia Medica based on the pharmacological
properties of herbal remedies. Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is the most popular drug and
has been prescribed in practically every prescription—for weakness, debility, fever,
chills, cough, pallor, and of course, to enhance virility and restore health.
The practice of traditional medicine is followed not only in China, but also in
Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Indochina, Singapore, and other parts of Southeast Asia, and
by at least 18 million overseas Chinese. Thus, a third of the world’s people (the
Orientals) receive some form of TCM. For this reason, the term Oriental medicine
has been used by Westerners to describe the traditional medical practice in the Orient.
In Chinese history,6,7 the three legendary emperors Fu-His, Shen-Nung, and
Huang-Ti are the founders of early Chinese civilization. To Fu-His is attributed the
Canon of changes or I-Ching, regarded as the most ancient Chinese philosophy and
medicine. Shen-Nung, also known as Yin-Ti, is the father of agriculture and herbal
medicine. It is said that he tasted hundreds of herbs and other crude drugs in order to
acquaint himself with their properties and usefulness. He is commonly attributed the
compilation of the first Pen-ts’ao, or Chinese Materia Medica. Huang-Ti, the Yellow
Emperor, contributed a complete treatise on the principles of health and medicine
in 2697 bc, known as Huang Ti Nei Ching Su-Wen (The Yellow Emperor’s Classic
of Internal Medicine) or simply called Nei Ching (The Canon of Medicine), which
consisted of 18 volumes with 162 chapters.7 Although it was written more than 4,000
years ago, it has been recognized as a most valuable treatise on internal medicine and
supposedly the world’s oldest extant medical book. TCM can claim to be the world’s
first organized body of medical knowledge.8
The Canon of Medicine was also the most interesting medical book that ever
existed. It was compiled in the form of a dialogue between the emperor and his
physician minister, Ch’i Pai.7 Their discussions included the philosophy of nature,
The Chinese Style of Healing 5

theories of yin and yang, the Five-Elements doctrine, pulse diagnosis, mechanisms
of viscera, the vascular system, the value of life, and achievement of the perfect
body. The same book also illustrated that the prevention of disease can be achieved
by regular habits, a proper diet, a suitable combination of work and rest, and the
maintenance of a peaceful mind.

EARLY MEDICAL PHILOSOPHY

TCM is also the most pervasive and the most unyielding of the indigenous systems.
It is based on the tenet that a human being is a microcosm constantly interacting
with the immense universe, which influences and also controls every aspect of that
person’s life, including his or her health.3
As a matter of fact, early Chinese medicine incorporated philosophy and religion.
Three essential religious philosophy concepts that control early medical thinking are
Tao, yin-yang theory, and the doctrine of Five Elements.7

Tao
During the sixth century bc, Lao Tzu, the spiritual father of Taoism, founded the
natural philosophy. Taoism is a concept common to all Chinese. It is the key to the
mysterious intermingling of Heaven and Earth. Tao means “way” and the method of
maintaining the harmony between this world and the beyond. As in an agricultural
society, the ancient Chinese philosophy is always related to nature and cosmology.
The only manner in which man could attain the right Tao was by emulating the course
of the universe and adjusting completely to it.
Tao plays an important role as the regulator of the universe and the highest code of
conduct. A man’s health and longevity depend on his behavior toward Tao. Longevity
itself became to a certain degree a token of sainthood, since it was an indication that it
had been achieved by personal effort of complete adherence to Tao. Those who follow
Tao achieve the formula of perpetual youth and maintain a youthful body.

Yin and Yang Therapy

Yin and yang are the shady side of a hill (yin) and the sunny side of a hill (yang)
from literary translation. Yang stands for sun, heaven, day, fire, heat, dryness, light,
and many other positive and masculine subjects, while yin represents moon, earth,
night, water, cold, damp, dark, and many negative and feminine subjects. Yang
means motion, hence, life; yin means standstill, hence, death. The principle of yin
and yang is the basis of the entire universe. It is the principle of everything in creation.
However, it must be borne in mind that yin and yang are conceived as one entity
and that both together are ever present. Day changes into night, spring and summer
change to autumn and winter, light changes into dark, and so on. From these striking
manifestations, it was deduced that all happenings in nature as well as in human
life were conditions caused by the constantly changing relationship of yin and yang.
Heat is yang, and cold is yin. In the human body excessive yang causes fever, and
excessive yin causes chills. Every food or medicament has a predominant character,
6 The Healing Power of Ginseng

either of yin or yang. The art of healing is to ascertain where and in which direction the
equipoise of yin or yang has been lost in the balance, then the appropriate medication
or treatment has to be applied to restore it to normal, and to restore internal balance
and harmony. This is the essence of Chinese medical thinking.
The Nei Ching provides us with many examples of this interchange between yin
and yang and of the duality preserved within a single thing. As to the interrelation of
yin and yang in man, male belongs to yang, female belongs to yin, yet both male and
female are products of the two elements, and hence, both qualities are contained in
both sexes. In the dual nature of yin and yang within the human body, yin and yang
correspond to the surface and the interior, respectively. The yin and yang in harmony
means health; disharmony or undue preponderance of one element brings disease and
death. Man received the doctrine of Tao as a means of maintaining perfect balance
and securing for himself health and long life.7

Doctrine of Five Elements

More tangible components of yin and yang are the five elements. Yin and yang, in
addition to exerting dual existence, are subdivided into metal, wood, water, fire, and
earth—the five elements. Man was said to be the product of heaven and earth by the
interaction of yin and yang, and therefore contains the five elements.
The sequence of the five elements varies according to the viewpoint from which
they are enumerated. The Nei Ching explains the mutual victories of the five elements
as follows:

Wood brought in contact with metal is felled.

Fire brought in contact with water is extinguished.
Earth brought in contact with wood is penetrated.
Metal brought in contact with fire is dissolved.
Water brought in contact with earth is halted.

The sequence of subjugations is that metal subjugates wood, water subjugates fire,
wood subjugates earth,0 fire subjugates metal, and earth subjugates water.
The doctrine of Five Elements also extends to grains, fruits, animals, vegetables,
flavors, odors, climates, musical notes, human organs, and many groups, each of
which contains five components. The five grains that act as nourishment are wheat,
glutinous millet, millet, rice, and beans. The five fruits are peaches, plums, apricots,
chestnuts, and dates. The five domestic animals that contribute additional nutrients
are fowl, sheep, beef, horses, and pigs. The five vegetables are mallows, coarse greens,
scallions, onions, and leeks. The human body contains five viscera: liver, lungs, heart,
spleen, and kidneys.
The Nei Ching gives the following explanations of how the natural elements affect
the human body. The climate elements affect the viscera of our body: heat injures the
heart, cold injures the lungs, wind injures the liver, humidity injures the spleen, and
dryness injures the kidney.
The five viscera, of course, control the body: heart controls the pulse, lungs control
the skin, liver controls the muscles, spleen controls the flesh, and kidney controls the
The Chinese Style of Healing 7

bones. The five spiritual resources of our body are also controlled by the five viscera:
liver controls the soul, heart controls the spirit, spleen controls ideas, lungs control
the animal spirit (ghost), and kidney controls the will.
The five flavors affect the body in the following manner: salty flavor hardens the
pulse, bitter flavor withers the skin, pungent flavor knots the muscles, sour flavor
toughens the flesh, and sweet flavor causes aches in the bones. The five flavors are
said to be effective not only on the five viscera but also on all parts of the body that
are connected with the five viscera. If people pay attention to the five flavors and
blend them well, their bones will remain straight, their muscles will remain tender
and young, breath and blood will circulate freely, pores will be fine in texture, and
consequently, breath and bones will be filled with the essence of life.7

FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES OF

TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE
Diagnosis
Diagnosis in Chinese medicine, or zue-chen, is listed in Nei Ching. There are four basic
methods used to diagnose a patient. They are visual observation, questioning about
case history, auditory systems, and taking the pulse. Chinese pulsology, developed in
great detail by Wang Shu-ho, recognizes three spots along the radial artery of each
wrist, detected with the tips of three fingers. The pulse readings reflect the functioning
of different viscera. In Chinese medicine, pulse-taking has been the chief method of
diagnosis. At the three pulse spots each wrist has a deep and a superficial reading, thus
giving a total of 12 different pulses. If the patient is a female, the right radial artery
is palpated first; if a male, the left is palpated first. The rate, strength, and direction
of the beat in each segment of the pulse are determined. A strong pulse indicates a
yang-type disease, while a weak pulse represents a yin-type disease. Only experienced
doctors can diagnose malfunction of any part of the internal organs. Obviously this is
quite a different diagnosis technique from that in Western medicine. The art of pulse
diagnosis is extremely complex in the way it works. This has been the chief point of
controversy between those who understand and those who do not.

Acupuncture
Acupuncture is another important branch of Chinese medicine. The therapeutic art of
acupuncture (not acupuncture anesthesia) had been fully developed by the time of Nei
Ching, in which elaborate descriptions of the practice and principles were recorded.
The rationale of acupuncture historically has been based on stimulation of a Ching-lo
system. Ching-lo is a system of channels and ducts that is anatomically distinct from
the circulatory or nervous systems. Acupuncture has been used to cure many diseases.
It is used most spectacularly to alleviate deafness and induce anesthesia. A publication
from the Research Institute in Beijing makes the following grandiose claims:

Preliminary observations show that acupuncture…can exert influence on the visible

elements of the blood, the peristalsis and secretion of the stomach and intestines, and the
8 The Healing Power of Ginseng

secretion of bile; stimulate the kidney’s power of excretion, and improve the conditions
of blood pressure and cardiac impulse, increase the amount of immunizing agents in
the body, and stimulate the kidney’s power of excretion, and improve the conditions of
blood pressure and cardiac impulse, increase the amount of immunizing agents in the
body, and stimulate cytocannibalism…produce curative effects of the central nervous
system, segmental reflex, blood, and local parts of the body.3

In the classical system of Chinese medicine, acupuncture is used in both diagnosis

and treatment. The theoretical basis is the system of acupuncture points distributed
along the meridian, each linked with one or more internal organs. At least 361
acupuncture points have been identified. The fundamental concept of acupuncture
is that detailed knowledge of the distribution of these points allows both diagnosis
and treatment. Malfunction of an organ may be recognized by hypersensitivity of
the corresponding acupuncture points and relieved by stimulation at the irritable
point. In general, arthritis, neuritis, and paralysis after nerve injury or stroke are
among the disorders treated most successfully. In these conditions the needles are
stimulated electrically, usually with a square-wave alternating pulse at about 200
cycles per minute. The power source is a 6-volt battery. This stimulation causes
obvious muscular twitching at the site of insertion of the needle but apparently no
great discomfort for the patient. Acupuncture therapy has also been widely used in
the treatment of angina, to relieve cardiac pain, for analgesic effect in childbirth, in
migraine, and in many chronic skeletal disorders.8
China’s Xinhua News Agency reported that acupuncture anesthesia was successful
in 95% of the trials on 360 horses and other animals. The fact that so many horses,
mules, donkeys, cattle, and pigs have responded to the method should be an eloquent
denial of some skeptics’ visioning that success with human beings has been due
to psychological preparation (Xinhua News Agency, November 20, 1971). Other
reports from the veterinary medicine field state that acupuncture will increase milk
production in cows and the speed of racing horses.3

External Medication
As to external medication, certain manipulative arts Teri Ma (notable massage)
for reduction of dislocation, treatment of fractures, and bone setting have been
carried out with a high degree of practical skill. The traditional methods of
treating fractures are very different from those in the West. In the traditional
way, reduction of the fracture is achieved slowly, using a short splint fixed with
bandages over soft paper or cloth padding. The splints maintain alignment of the
fracture, but they are not designed to immobilize the joints above and below it.
The rationale of the treatment is that the muscles and joints around the fracture
should retain their mobility; exercise is encouraged, and the splints are adjusted as
often as necessary to cope with the progressive reduction in the swelling around
the injury. It is said that in simple fractures for which it is best used, traditional
treatment achieves rapid relief of pain and swelling and allows early mobilization;
the fractures heal more quickly than those treated in plaster, and the functional
results are better.8
The Chinese Style of Healing 9

Cupping and Moxibustion

These are less well-known techniques to Western physicians; both are age-old medical
techniques in the treatment of counterirritation. Cupping is used for conditions
such as backache, in which the mouth of a glass cup is heated and then applied
to the selected area of the skin. Cooling of the air inside the cup forms a partial
vacuum so causing suction and the formation of a hematoma. Moxibustion is another
technique occasionally used in TCM. The treatment is conducted in conjunction
with acupuncture. After insertion of the acupuncture needles into the afflicted area
of the body, a ball of moxa is applied to the outer end of the needle and ignited.
The moxa ball burns for a few minutes, emitting a fair amount of both heat and
smoke. Good results have been obtained in patients with frozen shoulder, sciatica,
and musculoskeletal disorders.8

CHINESE HERBAL REMEDIES

The Chinese consistently refer to their herbal remedies as being the product of 4,000
years of the people’s struggle against disease, and cite the millennial endurance of
these remedies as adequate empirical proof of their effectiveness. The raw materials
of traditional herbal remedies include not only more than 1,500 plants—dry leaves,
barks, fruits, roots, stems, flowers, seeds, and nuts—but also such exotic objects
as snakes, newts, stalactites, agates, and antlers. These remedies are given as teas,
decoctions, infusions, or as a mixture compounded from the raw materials after
processing by much the same techniques as those used by herbalists in the West—that
is, drying, shredding, grinding, boiling, or infusing with certain solvents to extract
the active principles. More than 10 types of pharmaceutical preparations, such as
powders, granules, pills, masses (in the form of a golf ball), solutions, tinctures,
medicated dressings, adhesive plasters, ointments, and pastes, are commonly found
in the classical Chinese drugstores. Usually, the granules, pills, and masses are coated
with preservatives or stored in beeswaxed shells to preserve the drug from oxidation
and moisture decomposition.

Evolution of Herbal Medicine

It is believed that in ancient times, while fighting for survival, the Chinese and people
in other parts of the world must have acquired experience in selecting naturally
available materials and concocting healing potions to eliminate pain, reduce fever,
control suffering, counteract diseases, and heal wounds. By trial and error, they
gained practical knowledge that was useful in determining what minerals, or what
animals, and which parts of specific plants possess the desired healing activities
and which ought to be discarded because of their toxicity. Knowledge concerning
their medicinal properties and instructions as to their correct uses has been handed
down from one generation to the next. In the course of time, a substantial volume
of information of herbal remedies was thus accumulated. These crude drugs were
classified and compiled in a compendium known as herbal or Materia Medica, and
the particular name of Pen-ts’ao is used in Chinese medicine.
10 The Healing Power of Ginseng

In the Western civilization, Hippocrates (460–370 bc) has been referred to as

the Father of Western Medicine.9,10 Dioscorides wrote his De Materia Medica in
ad 78. In it, he described 600 plants that were known to have healing power. Galen
(ad 131–201) was most famous for his experience in herbal medicines and his
pharmaceutical preparations. Yet it was more than 500 years ahead of Galen that the
Chinese Pen-ts’ao had been fully developed and systematized.
Numerous valuable drugs were derived from nature not only in China but in other
parts of the world as well. Morphine, digitalis, quinine, atropine, ephedrine, and
reserpine are examples of outstanding remedies developed from herbal medicine.
In the People’s Republic of China, most of the herbs grew wild in the past. Herbs
are grown on state or national farms today. The people have been encouraged to
exploit the mountainous areas that are most suitable for cultivation of herbs. Provinces
in South China (Kwang-tung, Kwang-si, Yun-nan, Kwei-chow, and Sze-chwan) are
the leading medicinal herb–producing regions. The experimental plantation of the
Institute of Materia Medica located in the western outskirts of Peking is one of
the biggest government-controlled medicinal herb cultivation centers. About 1,500
species of herbs are under cultivation in an area of about 64 acres. In past years, about
10,000 “barefoot doctors” (health aides with basic-level training) have been trained
there each year to be thoroughly familiar with the commonly used herbal remedies.
The experimental station maintains cultivated ginseng plants with special attention
paid to sunlight exposure and diseases.

PEN-TS’AO
China is perhaps the richest country in the world in natural medicine. These medicinal
agents have been studied by scholars and physicians in the past 40 decades, classified,
and recorded systematically in the compendia called Pen-ts’ao. The Pen-ts’ao in
Chinese medicine is actually a combination of Materia Medica, pharmacology,
and pharmacopoeia. Although Shen-nung is commonly attributed the editing of
the first Pen-ts’ao, it was not until the Later Han dynasty that the great work of
Shen-nung Pen-ts’ao Ching was formally published as the first official dispensatory
(pharmacopoeia) in Chinese history. It contains 365 different medicaments, 237 from
botanical, 65 from animal, 43 from mineral sources, and 20 of unknown origin.
According to their properties and usefulness, these medicaments were classified
into superior (first), middle (second), and inferior (third) classes. The superior drugs,
including ginseng, are absolutely nontoxic and are used for a wide variety of diseases;
the middle-class drugs are effective for limited diseases and are slightly toxic; the
inferior or the third-class drugs are useful only for particular sicknesses and should
be used with caution because of their potent activities and toxicities.11,12
According to the definition of the upper class of drugs, putting ginseng into the
category of a natural health food is entirely proper, too. It is very characteristic that
ginseng has dualism as a drug and a natural food. Such dualism has been thought to
be an ideal feature of a panacea in Chinese medicine.
We can describe the characteristics of Chinese drugs, such as ginseng, in terms of
the prevention of ills which precedes the curing of ills. They can normalize the living
body of man through the adjustment of functions of the whole body. What brings a
The Chinese Style of Healing 11

long duration of youth and longevity is natural drugs, and ginseng is the best of all
natural drugs.
During the Liang dynasty (about ad 500), a great physician, T’ao Hung-ching
(ad 452–536) was born at Mo-ling (now Nanking), and he received exceptional gifts
from an early age and devoted himself to the practice of medicine.6 He re-edited the great
Shen-nung Pen-ts’ao Ching into Shen-nung Pen-ts’ao Ching Chichu. He also composed
another book called Ming-i Pieh-lu, which contains 365 new and effective medicaments
and many prescriptions that had been praised and used by many eminent physicians for
more than 1,000 years during the earlier Chou (1122–255 bc), Ch’in (255–209 bc), the
Former Han (209 bc–ad 23), the Later Han (ad 25–220), and Wei (220–543) dynasties.
Hung-ching was the first who gave the descriptions of Chinese ginsengs (from Koguryo
and Paekche), their pharmacological properties, and the methods of preserving them.
At the end of the Han dynasty, a system of Chinese medicine was firmly
established. A well-known physician, Chang Chung-ching, wrote his famous Treatise
on Fever. Chung-ching was one of the three greatest physicians of the Han dynasty.
The other two outstanding doctors were Hwa T’o and Tsang Kung. Chung-ching
conducted extensive clinical trials with ginseng and invented many prescriptions
containing ginseng properties (odor, color, taste, etc.); his Treatise on Fever presented
indications and pharmacological properties; clinical applications, contraindications,
and precautions; and prescriptions, formulations, and dosages of the drug. This great
writing has been praised the world over, and beginning in the seventeenth century,
it has been translated into Latin and every major Eastern and Western language.11
The greatest pharmacologist and physician Li Shizhen (1515–1593) seriously
studied more than 800 commonly encountered medicaments and traveled thousands
of miles in order to collect known and unknown medical herbs. He carefully examined
past editions of Ben Cao written in the Tang, Song, and Southern Song dynasties, and
based on his own rich knowledge and experience gained during 30 years of hard work
finally composed a monumental masterpiece, Ben Cao Gang Mu (Compendium of
Materia Medica). This book was published in 1596, 3 years after his death.
Also during the Ming dynasty, Western civilization was introduced into China
through Jesuit priests. Father Matteo Ricci was the first to introduce Western medicine
to the Chinese emperor in 1601. Later in the Ch’ing dynasty (1644–1912), most of the
Western medical books and theories were introduced into China. As a result, Chinese
traditional medicine then became a disaster under the pressure of the Western powers.
From the Later Han to the Ch’ing dynasty, more than 50 kinds (editions) of pen-ts’ao
or dispensatories (including compendia on diet therapy) were published officially and
nonofficially. These represent the world’s richest knowledge of herbal medicine.
It is correct to say that traditional Chinese herbal medicine is not just a class of folk
medicine. It is a well-organized medical system developed by individual physicians
and government institutions based on cumulative experience and clinical trials.

MAO’S MODERN CHINESE MEDICINE

Since the nineteenth century, the age-old Chinese civilization, of which traditional
medicine was an integral part, had started to disintegrate under the impact of
Western pressure. The Western missionary movement, specifically the Jesuits at
12 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Beijing, brought Western medicine to an isolated, feudal China. Besides the Western
missionary establishment, the Western military, economic, and political powers
forced China to accept Western culture, commerce, and medicine. Particularly after
the Opium War (1839–1842), all of the Western powers secured a foothold in Chinese
territory. The Manchurian government (the Ch’ing dynasty) soon collapsed, and a
new government, the Republic of China, was born in 1912.
During the Republic of China period (1912–1949), however, the (KMT Party)
government’s decision was to sponsor only Western medicine, while the traditional
medical practice still persisted among the majority of the people, and the fate of Chinese
medicine was seriously threatened and oppressed. The May Fourth Movement of 1919
even denounced traditional medicine as nothing but noxious, backward, superstitious,
irrational, and nonscientific, which had to be destroyed for China to survive in the
modern (Western) world. Further, the government then published a decree officially
prohibiting the practice of Chinese medicine. Soon civil war started, and the military
Japanese invaded China. The whole country turned into a mass disaster.
Civil war ended in 1949 with the victory of the Communist party. The new
government, the People’s Republic of China, without delay set up a different policy
on medical practice in China that took into account the traditional art of medical
practice, and in addition, the herbal medicine and Chinese formulary was to be
restudied extensively by modern scientific methods.
In 1950, Chairman Mao clearly expressed again the same medical policy that he
had announced during the anti-Japanese war. In a directive to the First National Health
Conference in Beijing, he stressed that the Chinese should “unite all medical workers,
young and old, of the traditional and Western school trained, and organize a solid
united front to strive for the development of the people’s health work.”13 The essence
of Mao’s medical thought was that (1) medical and health work should be focused on
the rural areas; (2) medical services must be first for the working class; (3) practitioners
of TCM must be united with Western school–trained doctors; and (4) health work must
be integrated with mass movement. The ultimate goal of Mao’s drive was to produce
a unified system of modern Chinese medicine and Western medicine.
Accordingly, the major effort of medical practice has been to send teams of urban
doctors from large medical centers on periodic tours of duty in the countryside,
thus providing more and better medical service for the relatively poor and neglected
peasantry. Simultaneously, there has been a drive to train a huge number of “basic
level health workers,” the “barefoot doctors” for the mass population. Since the
People’s Republic of China was built up with the working class, to provide them
with suitable medical care is essential.
It is crystal clear that Mao wanted to preserve TCM, develop it, and integrate it
with modern Western medicine. On many occasions he succinctly expressed that
“Chinese medicine is the summation of the experience of the Chinese people in their
struggle against diseases over the past 5,000 years…. Chinese medicine is a great
treasure bank which must be explored and further improved with our new efforts.”
He further announced that “toward world health program [that the] Chinese make a
great contribution is without question, one of these is the Chinese medicine.14,15
In addition to the new public health drive, scientific research at all levels on herb
medicine as well as new antibiotics has made equal progress in the past 20 years. From
The Chinese Style of Healing 13

1950 to 1960, more than 10,000 scientific and clinical papers were published just on
studies of herbal medicine. Few herbal medicines have antibacterial activities; the
search for and manufacture of new antibiotics is similarly urgent. The government is
also trying to put production on a more scientific footing by growing important herbs
such as ginseng on a plantation basis rather than depending on forest collection. In the
past 25 years, Chinese scientists have also developed a number of herbal drugs with
encouraging results for the treatment of coronary diseases, appendicitis, gallstones,
heart diseases, burns, birth control, and cancer.16
The Institute of Materia Medica in Beijing, under the auspices of the Chinese
Academy of Medical Sciences, was established in 1958 for purposes of research on
new herbal drugs and new principles for common diseases. The Shanghai Institute of
Materia Medica, the Institute of Organic Chemistry, and the Institute of Biochemistry
in Shanghai are other leading research centers on modern Chinese medicine. The
present research on herbal remedies is a national dedication to follow Chairman
Mao’s exhortations to explore China’s herbal drugs.
Recently, E. Grey Diamond, director of the Cardiovascular Center in Kansas City,
Missouri, said on his return from his second trip to China in 2 years, “I was extremely
impressed on the tremendous amount of information in the herb medicine. Not a cult,
the Chinese had recorded and codified their herbal medicines, whereas the West had
abandoned analysis of botanical medicine in favor of synthesis.” Regarding the use
of herbal medicine for the heart-troubled patient, he said, “I have case histories of
heart disease which herbal medicines being extremely effective.” Finally, Diamond
speculated that “I predict that herbal remedies would follow acupuncture as the next
medical import from the People’s Republic of China.”17

PEOPLE BEGIN TO ACCEPT ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE WORLDWIDE

In recent years, the general public in the United States as well as other Western
countries in Europe has started to accept the value of alternative medicine. This is
because current chemical drug conventional medicine is in a state of terrible disarray.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, interest in alternative medicine is
rapidly expanding. TCM and acupuncture can deliver holistic health care. To elderly
people, when conventional medicine offers no help for their pains, chronic ailments, and
suffering, acupuncture or TCM can play an important role in improving their health.18
In the United States historically, the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) was
established in 1992 within the organization of the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
The NIH is one of eight health agencies within the U.S. Public Health Service of
the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). NIH is the federal
government’s focal point for biomedical research in the United States. Based on
necessity, the OAM was established to facilitate and coordinate the evaluation of
alternative medical treatment modalities through research projects and other initiatives
with NIH’s institutes and other centers. At that time, OAM’s primary role was to
emphasize the vigorous scientific evaluation of alternative therapies and establish
a clearinghouse to provide information to the public. The OAM was upgraded
6 years later, and the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine
(NCCAM) was initiated in 1998 by the U.S. Congress and signed by President Bill
14 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Clinton on October 21, 1999. The purpose of NCCAM was stimulating, developing,
and supporting research on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for the
benefit of the public. The NCCAM is one of more than 27 institutes and centers (ICs)
composing the NIH.19 And in December 2014, the U.S. Congress, in a measure signed
by President Barack Obama, changed NCCAM’s name to the National Center for
Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH, under US Public Health Services) to
more accurately reflect the center’s commitment to studying various health approaches.
The general public and the government health agencies accept alternative medicine
means in order to accept traditional Chinese medical practice (TCM). The following
briefly explains how TCM works.

THEORY OF TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE

TCM emphasizes the proper balance of bioenergy, or Qi (pronounced “chee”), in
health and disease. TCM consists of a group of therapeutic techniques and methods,
which include acupuncture, moxibustion, herbal medicine, massage, dietary therapy,
and breathing (Qigong) therapy. Chinese medicine views the body as a self-repairing
mechanism, and treatment enables the body to return to its natural balanced state of
health.
According to TCM, there are 14 major pathways, called meridians of bioenergy, in
the human body. Chinese medicine practitioners believe that these meridians conduct
Qi or bioenergy between the surface of the body and internal organs. Qi regulates
physical, mental, and emotional balance. When the flow of Qi is disturbed through
poor health habits, poor nutrition, emotion, aging, or other disturbances, pain and/or
disease can result. Acupuncture, manipulative massage, Tai Ji exercise, and proper
diet or tonic herbs can help to keep the flow of bioenergy, Qi, unblocked.
Acupuncture is an important branch of TCM. Acupuncture is the practice of
inserting thin needles into subcutaneous connective tissue or muscle at specific
points in the body. The specific points are called acupoints. These points are used
by a skilled acupuncture physician to treat a wide variety of illnesses. Acupuncture
unarguably gives pain relief (analgesia effect) to a significant number of people. In
addition, proper diet and medical herbs are essential in the practice of TCM.
Although the exact number of people who use TCM in the United States is
unknown, it was estimated in 1997 that some 10,000 practitioners served more than
1 million patients each year. According to the 2007 National Health Interview Survey
(NHIS), which included a comprehensive survey on the use of complementary health
approaches by Americans, an estimated 3.1 million U.S. adults had used acupuncture
in the previous year. The number of visits to acupuncturists tripled between 1997 and
2007. According to the 2007 NHIS, about 2.3 million Americans practiced tai chi
and 600,000 practiced qi gong in the previous year.
TCM is now practiced in one form or another by more than 300,000 practitioners
in over 140 countries. The first hospital for Chinese medicine in Europe was opened
in Germany in 1990. British general practitioners are increasingly contracting out for
acupuncture services, public health-insurance companies in Germany routinely refund
part of the costs of acupuncture treatment provided by trained doctors, and in France,
acupuncture is a widely accepted part of health-care provision. Degree programs in
The Chinese Style of Healing 15

Chinese medicine are now offered at several British universities, and courses in TCM
are established at European medical schools. Tong ren Tang, Beijing’s oldest pharmacy
founded in the seventeenth century, opened a branch in central London in 1995.
Given the worldwide hegemony of biomedicine throughout most of this century,
the global emergence of TCM is a monumental event. Proponents already speak
of the twenty-first century as the “century of TCM.” More likely it is a continued
integration of TCM into existing health-care systems worldwide.
A remarkable success of alternative medicine is the success of herbal medicine for
treating malaria patients. On October 5, 2015, Chinese herbal researcher Tu YouYou
won the Nobel Prize in Medical Sciences for discovery of the antimalarial herbal
drug Artemisia21, which has saved millions and millions of malaria patients living in
South Asia and Africa. It was reported that she worked on the crude herb Artemesia
apiacea using different solvents at different temperatures, and although she failed
190 times, on October 5, 1971, the 191st experiment using low-temperature extraction
with ether as the extract ingredient was successful in treating malaria.20

REFERENCES
1. Chung Yao Chih (Chinese Herbal Drugs), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences,
Institute of Pharmacology, Vol. 1, Jen Min Wei Sheng Press, Peking, 1959.
2. Ch’ang Yung Chung Yao (Commonly Used Chinese Drugs), Ch’eng Tu Chung I Hsueh
Yuan, Shanghai Jen Min Wei Sheng Press, Shanghai, 1973.
3. Bowers, J. Z., Chemtech, August 1974, p. 458.
4. National Academy of Sciences. Herbal Pharmacology in the People’s Republic
of China, Botanical Medicine, Mary Ann Liebert Inc., Washington, D.C., 1975,
p. 12. https://www.abebooks.com/9780309024389/Herbal-Pharmacology-Peoples-
Republic-China-0309024382/plp
5. Veith, I., J. Am. Med. Assoc., 228: 1577, 1974.
6. Huard, P. and M. Wong, Chinese Medicine, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1973.
7. Veith, I., Huang Ti Nei Ching Su Wen (The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of International
Medicine) (translation), University of California Press, Berkeley, 1966.
8. Smith, A. J. Brit. Med. J., 2: 367, 1974.
9. Claus, E. P. et al., Pharmacognosy, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, 1970.
10. Martin, E. W. and E. F. Cook (Eds.), Remington’s Practice of Pharmacy, 11th ed., Mack
Publishing, Easton, PA, 1956, pp. 7–10.
11. Hsu, K.-C. and Chao, S.-H., Pharmacognosy, Hong Kong Wei Sheng Press, Hong Kong,
1971, pp. 1–34.
12. Hsu, K.-C. et al., Yao Ts’ai Hsueh, Jen Min Wei Sheng Press, Peking, 1961.
13. Horn, J. S., Away With All Pests, Monthly Review Press, New York, 1971.
14. Mao, T.-T., Instruction on Public Health Work, People’s Health Press, June 3, 1967, p. 9.
15. Bowers, J. Z. and E. F. Purcell (Eds.), Medicine and Society in China, William F. Fell,
Philadelphia, 1974.
16. Li, C. P., Chinese Herbal Medicine, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Publication No. (NIH) 75-732, 1974.
17. Wright, R. A., The New York Times, September 13, 1972.
18. Astin, J. A. JAMA, 279(19): 1548, 1553, 1998.
19. NCCAM, About NCCAM. General Information, 2002, http://NCCAM.NIH.gov/an/
general4/15/2002
20. World Journal Today, October 6, 2015.
21. Ch’uo. Herbal Medicine Dictionary, vol. 7, p. 1228, Jiang Su New Medical College,
China, 1975.
 2 Ginseng in China

For centuries, the Chinese were—and they still are—the world’s leading ginseng
users. They value the root as a medicinal, a sort of curative charm. To the average
Chinese, the value of a piece of wild ginseng root means more than gold or silver.
Some authorities believe that ginseng’s chief attraction for the Chinese lies in the
root form, which branches out and resembles the human figure. As a matter of fact,
the word ginseng or Ren-shen stems from two Chinese characters meaning man and
body. The Chinese name of ginseng is often translated in Western works as man-
shaped root or manroot. However, the botanist Professor S. Y. Hu of the Arnold
Arboretum, Harvard University, prefers the term of man-essence for ginseng, since,
according to Hu, ginseng was derived, on one hand, from the fanciful resemblance
of the root to the human body, and, on the other hand, from the belief that this
root represents the essence of the elixir of the earth crystallized in a human form.
Because of this, it carries the nickname of spirit of the earth, and sick people are
relieved from their illnesses after taking the root. Hence, traditionally, the more the
root resembles the human figure, the more potent its healing properties are, and the
greater is its worth.
For nearly 40 centuries, ginseng has been universally used in Chinese medicine
as the most respected and superb health-maintaining tonic remedy. It has been
prescribed repeatedly by doctors for some 40 different types of illnesses in China
as well as in other Asian countries. Although its mechanism remains secret, the
mysterious healing power of the ginseng root is indeed a miraculous and factual
truth. To the average Chinese, ginseng means medicine par excellence (Figure 2.1).1,2
A great deal of interest in ginseng was generated in the mid-nineteenth century in
the Western world. Scientific studies on the “man-essence” were initiated in Europe,
particularly in France, Germany, and the Soviet Union. Recently, Japanese and Soviet
scientists, after years of laboratory and clinical investigation, have confirmed that
ginseng is capable of building up vitality and physical resistance, strengthening
the organism and the endocrine systems, thus overcoming illness and maintaining
homeostasis. Is it not amazing that it took nearly 50 years of endeavor to prove that
the Chinese doctors’ claims about ginseng’s activities were basically correct?3,4

PANAX GINSENG: THE MOST PRECIOUS HERBAL MEDICINE

There are several varieties of ginseng in the world, the one best known being Panax
ginseng C.A. Meyer, which is also called Panax schinseng Need, of the family
Araliaceae. Meyer, who was a Russian, named the plants in 1843. The generic name
of Panax is derived from the Greek pan meaning “all,” and akes (áxéouxi), meaning
“cure” or “heal.” Accordingly, the word Panax means “cure-all,” “all-healing,” or
“panacea.” The word ginseng, or schinseng, or more correctly Jen-shen or ren-shen in

17
18 The Healing Power of Ginseng

FIGURE 2.1  Panax ginseng (Chinese ginseng).

Chinese, may mean ambiguously “human body,” since the terms gin, schin, Jen, and
ren all mean “man”; the terms seng and shen sound identical to “body” in Chinese.5
Panax ginseng is a perennial herb indigenous to the mountainous forests of Eastern
Asia, particularly Eastern Manchuria (Liao-tung area), North China, Korea, and the
maritime area of Siberia. Ginseng is a very long-lived plant. Chinese Materia Medica
books had claimed that only the aged ginseng root, especially the hundred- or even
thousand-year-old root, gives the most potent healing power. Scientifically, this may
Ginseng in China 19

be unfounded, but ginseng’s long life is a fact. Not too long ago, the Soviet botanist
Grushvitzky found a Chinese mountain ginseng in the Manchuria forest, and after
careful examination, the root was determined to be at least 400 years old.6
The Chinese believed that the best ginseng in China was the mountain-type
ginseng grown only in the “Ch’ang-pai Shan” (long white mountains) area, which
lies east of Liao-ning and south of Kirin Provinces in Manchuria. In the old days, this
particular type of top-quality ginseng was extremely scarce as a result of its being
difficult to collect; thus, the price of it was extravagant. This particular ginseng was
called Liao-tung shen, or Manchurian ginseng.
Many mountain areas in North China, however, also produce ginseng, but not
Panax ginseng. The well-known places are Shan-si, Hopei, Shen-si, and other
provinces in northern and central China. Ginseng grown in Shang-tang (now
Lu-an-fu) of Shan-si, was called Tang-shen, and in Tah-Kwan Pen-ts’ao, and many
famous herb doctors claimed this to be the original and genuine Chinese ginseng
with supreme healing power. Until the seventh century, both Tang-shen and Panax
ginseng (Manchurian ginseng) were used widely in medicine. The original Tang-
shen does belong to Araliaceae as can be seen from what is described in Tah-Kwan
Pen-ts’ao.7 However, up until the Ch’ing dynasty, the Tang-shen plant was classified
into Campanulaceae, but no doubt the original Tang-shen has become extinct.
Three kinds of ginseng roots have been used in Chinese medicine: mountain
or wild, transplanted, and cultivated ginseng. Wild ginseng grows naturally in the
mountains, is the most expensive, and is supposedly the most effective. Transplanted
ginseng is grown from young plants moved from the mountains to farms. Cultivated
ginseng is the ginseng plant grown on ginseng farms after seeding. A Chinese ginseng
expert, Li Chun-chin, however, classified Chinese ginseng into six grades according
to the source and age of the plant: old mountain type (over 200-year-old ginseng root
that can only be found in Ch’ang-Pai-shen and has been praised as the most superb
quality); mountain type (a few to 50-year-old root); eradicate type (ginseng plant
that was buried and revived in the mountains); transplanted type, Shih-chu ginseng
(grown particularly in the Kuan-hsun area); and cultivated ginseng. The experienced
ginseng dealer can easily distinguish whether the ginseng is a mountain or cultivated
root and can approximate the age by examining the number of rings on the surface
of the root itself and the above-ground part of the plant. Mountain ginseng was
very scarce even in the old days. It was said that one catty of Manchurian cultivated
ginseng was sold at a price of 2–20 liang of silver or gold, while a catty of the aged
Manchurian mountain ginseng was sold at a few thousand liang of silver or gold
(one catty is about 1.1 pound, or 500 grams; one liang is about 36 grams). At such
extravagant prices, genuine ginseng could hardly be afforded by the common people
for medicinal purposes. Naturally, only the rich, members of the emperor’s families,
and high officials benefited from the precious root.5
It is difficult to know exactly when and where the Chinese started the transplantation
of or growing of ginseng on farms. However, the cultivation of ginseng appeared in
the poems of the T’ang and Sung dynasties. More clearly,00 the Pen-ts’ao Kang-mu
recorded the method for raising ginseng on plantations. Thus, it may be correct that
ginseng cultivation in China started as early as in the fifteenth century, but large-
scale ginseng cultivation in Kirin province did not start until the eighteenth century.
20 The Healing Power of Ginseng

In Manchuria, the counties of Kuan-hsum and Juan-jen of Liaoning province, An-tu,

Tun-hua, Chia-an, Fu-sung, Lin-chiang, and Wang-ch’ing of Kirin province, and
Cheng-an-li of Hei-lung-kiang province are the chief areas producing wild as well as
cultivated Chinese ginseng. Fu-sung is also a well-known area for cultivated ginseng.
It is said that Fu-sung alone produces about 60% of the total ginseng in China. As
a result of the constantly increasing consumption of ginseng in China, with little
increase in production, the ginseng shortage remained as such for thousands of
years, and China has never put great effort into cultivating on a large scale to meet
her demand. Only since 1950 has the People’s Republic of China put great effort
into producing the wonder root under government supervision. The most suitable
conditions for growing ginseng have been under extensive study at the experimental
station of She-Baa-Wang, outside of Beijing.8

Description of Ginseng
The earliest full description of the Chinese ginseng plant was given by Su Sung, in
the eleventh century. In his herbal dispensatory book T’u-ching Pen-ts’ao ginseng
was described as follows:

Ginseng is grown in moist and shaded forest of Chia tree (Chia is Tilis murensis or Tilia
manshuria species). The Chia tree is a broad-leaved tree, thus providing good shade. The
dried ginseng seeds were planted in October as for vegetable seeds. The ginseng dies each
year, and sprouts emerge in the Spring. The young plant is about 3–4 inches high with
only one stem which carries five small, parted, palmate-shaped leaves. Four to five years
later, it grows two stems, but still no flower stem. Until it is ten years old, it has three, later
four stalks all rising from the same center, each carrying five leaflets, three large and two
small. At the center of the apex of the elder plant is a flower stalk. Unlike the majority of
mountain plants, ginseng has only one flower stalk which blossoms in the late spring. The
ginseng blossom is small and umbrella-shaped, the size of a chestnut, and purple-white in
color. It bears 7–8 seeds of soybean size after autumn. The seeds are green in color when
fresh, but turn into red when ripe and drop into the ground automatically.

A Jesuit missionary in China, Fr. Jartoux, was perhaps the first Westerner who
witnessed the gathering and use of ginseng in Manchuria. In a letter from Beijing
dated April 12, 1711, addressed to the Procurator General of the Mission of India and
China, Fr. Jartoux furnished a detailed description of Panax ginseng that he observed
in Manchuria.8

Characteristics of Ginseng Plant

Ginseng is a very slow-growing plant. The root of ginseng is collected only at a
certain age of the plant and at a certain season. For example, the root is firm if it is
collected in September or early October and soft if it is collected in spring or summer.
The outside skin of the fresh root is yellow, but inside the skin is white. The length and
diameter of the root vary with the age of the plant. It can be a few inches (a few years
old root) to a foot (after 10 years). The fresh root tastes slightly bitter and somewhat
sweet, and has a typical ginseng aroma.
Ginseng in China 21

The well-known botanist, Professor Baranov of Arnold Arboretum, Harvard

University, published an article on morphology, cultivation, and use of ginseng.9 The
peculiar behavior of ginseng was described as follows:

Not just mysterious, the ginseng root is also peculiar. It belongs to the category of
contractile roots, and is an important part of a mechanism which ensures proper position
for the “regeneration bud” of ginseng. The root of ginseng is normally crowned with an
underground stem or vertical rhizome called the “neck.” The rhizome grows upwards
and increases yearly in length at the upper end. The regeneration bud is formed at the
apex of the rhizome, and must necessarily find itself just at the soil-level. If the growth
of the rhizome continues uncontrolled, it will finally emerge from ground and bear
regeneration buds above the surface. Such a situation would be a disadvantage for the
plant. Therefore, to counter-balance the lengthening of the rhizome, the ginseng root
shrinks yearly at the same rate at which the rhizome grows upward, and pulls the plant
downward. As a result of their mutually opposed movements, the tip of the rhizome
with the regeneration bud finds itself always exactly at the soil level. This interesting
morphological and biological peculiarities of ginseng plant was discovered only a few
years ago.

Preparation of Ginseng Root

After the ginseng root is dug in late September or October, the root has to be treated
by one of the traditional methods to make commercially acceptable and easily
preserved products. There are at least six kinds of Chinese ginseng root products,
prepared by six different methods.10
Sheng-shai shen (plain, dried ginseng) is made initially by washing and cleaning
the fresh root and carefully freeing it of adhering soil without scraping the outside
skin and small roots. The clean root is hung up in the air and dried completely. It is
usually yellowish and slightly gray in color, with characteristic circular markings that
remain untouched after this process.
Pai-kan shen (dried white ginseng) is made by cutting off the small roots and the
hairy roots, scraping the outside skin from them, and drying completely in the sun.
The root thus prepared is very white and smooth.
Ta-li shen (dried ginseng root) is made after carefully freeing the root from the
soil, cutting off the small roots, the branches, and the hairy roots, then boiling briefly
and drying in the sun or above a charcoal fire to complete dryness.
T’ang shen (sweetened ginseng) is made after cleaning the root, briefly boiling and
puncturing the root, and then putting it in syrup for about 24 hours. The sweetened,
sugar-preserved ginseng root then is dried in the sun to complete dryness. The root
thus prepared is white and sweet.
Hung shen (red ginseng) is made after carefully freeing the root of soil with a
brush, cutting off the hairy and branched roots, and brushing the skin until it looks
white. Then the root is put in a steamer to steam for about 3 hours. Then it is dried in
the sun to complete dryness. The root thus prepared is semitransparent and reddish-
brown in color. This is the most popular ginseng root preparation.
Shen-shu (ginseng tails) are the small ginseng roots and hairy roots that can also be
made into different forms, white or red, according to the methods for the main roots.
22 The Healing Power of Ginseng

How to Keep Ginseng Roots

Ginseng roots should be kept in a dry and dark place. Since it is subject to being
worm-eaten and very liable to be attacked by insects, the root must be kept in a
hermetically sealed container or jar.

Adulteration
Since the beginning of the ginseng trade, the adulterated roots were found present
and fraudulently substituted for genuine ginseng on the market. The roots of
several campanulaceous plants, such as Sha-shen (Adenophora verticillata), Chi-ni
(Adenophora remotifolia), Ti-ni (Adenophora tracheloides), and Chieh-keng
(Platycodon grandiflorum), bear close resemblance to those of ginseng and are most
frequently the adulterated species. These plants and their overall pharmacologic
properties, however, are different from ginseng. For example, the root of Sha-shen
is more spongy and slightly cooling and demulcent. Sha-shen is used in Chinese
medicine as an expectorant.5 The root Chi-ni resembles that of Sha-shen. The root of
Chi-ni is sweet and cooling. Chi-ni and Chieh-keng are botanically alike, and their
medicinal values are also as expectorants.11

HISTORY OF THE MANROOT

The first august sovereign and the first unifier of China, Shih Huang Ti of the Ch’in
dynasty (221–209 bc), sought to create a durable, centralized, and unified empire
that would last ten thousands of years. Legalism became the state orthodoxy. The
emperor decreed the burning of all political writings and undesirable books. Toward
the always dangerous enemies from the North and the West, the emperor built up the
Great Wall of China, a solid, dense barrier from the sea to the west desert along the
mountains that marked the northern boundaries of ancient China. The emperor also
wanted longevity and immortality. Without losing any time, the emperor dispatched
a group of three thousand young men and three thousand young women headed by
Hsu Fu to the mountains in a remote eastern place that, he once heard, produced the
“divine herb.” This place, called Pong-lai, was later confirmed to be Japan. The divine
herb that the emperor desired was said to produce rejuvenation and longevity. The
supreme desire in human life is unreachable by the common man. Unfortunately, this
group of immortal herb collectors never returned to China, and the great emperor
never had his desire of immortality fulfilled. Later people speculated the “miracle
herb” could be ginseng.12
During the Sui dynasty (ad 581–601) in the reign of Emperor Wen, the history
book of Kwang-wu Hsing-chi records the man-shaped ginseng cry story.1 At Shang-
tang (now Lu-an of Shan-si province), at the back of a family’s home, each night the
imploring voice of a man was heard and nothing was found when searches were made
for the source of the noise. At a distance of about a li (a li is about three-quarters of a
mile) from the house, a remarkable plant was seen. A root was secured after digging
into the ground to the depth of about 5 feet. The root had the shape of a man with
four extremities resembling legs and arms. After this, the noise ceased, and so it was
Ginseng in China 23

said that this plant had caused the crying out in the night with a man’s voice. Thus,
the root was called “spirit of the ground.” The mysterious nature of the man-shaped
root may thus have been started.12
Some of the dry ginseng roots indeed vaguely resemble the human figure, with
the head (the above-ground part) on the top, and the arms and legs on the upper and
lower parts of the root, the side roots). It was said that the “man-shaped” root could
be made artificially by traders or hunters. The man-shaped root usually is worth much
more than the random-shaped root, which normally occurs.
In the old Chinese rural society, under the strong influence of Taoism and
Buddhism, the objects encountered by the ancient Chinese people were veiled with a
great deal of mystery as to their color, shape, size, smell, taste, etc., most especially so,
their use as food and medicine. Wild (mountain) ginseng was believed to give better
healing power than cultivated ginseng. The man-shaped ginseng root was regarded as
the “divine” or “immortal” herb; after taking the root people were thought to become
long-lived or “immortal.”
There were quite a number of legendary stories about ginseng in ancient China.
Because of the superstitious nature of the Chinese, one finds recorded in the Pen-ts’ao
Kang-mu at least 10 names, strangely enough, to describe the ginseng plant and its
root. Kuei-kai, translated as “ghost umbrella,” means the ginseng plant is a shade
(dark)-lover, and is always hiding itself from the sunshine.
Shen-ts’ao, translated as “divine herb,” means the ginseng plant has panacea power
over disease.
Tu-ching, translated as “the spirit of the earth,” and Ti-ching, translated as “the
spirit of the ground,” mean the mysterious nature of the ginseng root, which may be
equivalent to “ghost” or “spirit of the earth.”
Shueh-shen and Hung-shen, translated as “blood-root” and “yellow root,” mean
the ginseng root is tonic to the spleen (yellow in nature), which in turn produces
blood.
Jen-wei, Jen-hsien, Hai-yu, and Chou-mian-huan-tan are strange names without
any clear meaning.
It is difficult to know exactly when ginseng was first used in Chinese medicine.
Shen-nung Pen-ts’ao Ching gives descriptions of ginseng and classifies it as a superior
and nontoxic drug. Ming-I, Pieh-lu has more entries about the uses of ginseng. In
Chang Chung-ching’s famous medical book The Treatise of Fevers, written in the
Later Han dynasty (circa ad 195), 21 out of a total of 113 prescriptions contain
ginseng for different ailments. Accordingly, there is no doubt that ginseng had been
used as medicine in China as early as the second century,5 or about 18 years ago.
During the Epoch of Three Kingdoms, the medicinal consumption of ginseng
was much increased. The great surgeon Wa-t’o, discovered the use of ginseng in a
preparation for nasal and internal bleeding.
According to another history book, Wei-shu, Koguryo (Kaoli), a kingdom in the
northern Korean Peninsula, now North Korea and a part of Manchuria, started a
diplomatic relationship with China in the third century (Wei period, 220–264). Within
100 years, more than 92 diplomatic mission trips were made by the Koguryoan envoys.
On each trip, the envoy brought to the Chinese emperor ginseng roots and other
valuable gifts from Koguryo, and on return brought back Chinese silk, culture, and
24 The Healing Power of Ginseng

medicine. During the T’ang dynasty (618–905), the envoy from Silla (another kingdom
in the southeastern part of the Korean Peninsula) made quite a number of diplomatic
mission trips to China, and on five trips brought ginseng from Silla to China. The
Silla ginseng roots were man-shaped, about 1 foot in length, wrapped in red silk,
and contained in wooden boxes. However, another history book, San-kuo Shih-Chi,
recorded that once an envoy from Silla brought to the Emperor The of the T’ang
dynasty a giant 9-foot ginseng root, but the Chinese emperor refused to receive the gift
because it was not a genuine ginseng root.12 As a result of increased communication
between China and the Korean Peninsula, more ginseng roots were sold to China from
Silla and Koguryo, and later the third kingdom, Packche (located in the southwestern
part of the Korean Peninsula), also exported ginseng to China. In other words, since
the third century, the Chinese have been keen users of Korean ginseng.
The book Ming-I Peih-lu gives a brief description of the Koguryoan’s ginseng-
hunting story. The diggers, as a rule, first prayed to their gods of the mountains for
safety and good luck. After worship, as a group, they started their trip and entered
the mountains with enough food, warm clothing, and arms. Conceivably, the ginseng-
hunting trip was fearful and dangerous, and quite often they encountered icy weather
and even cruel wild animals, and no one knew if they would return alive. The people
of Koguryo also have beautiful hymns to praise their mysterious divine root, which
they used to call Hsien-ts’ao, meaning “immortal herb.” The following hymn tells
how the Koguryoans searched for mountain ginseng:

The people of Koguryo (Kao-li) praise their ginseng. The one having the three stems,
five palmate leaflets, facing the shade and away from the sun is ginseng. To search for
ginseng, one must discover Tilia, for Tilia manshuria always accompanies ginseng.

During the Sung dynasty, ginseng fell into seriously short supply, and the quality
of ginseng and adulterated ginseng became quite a problem. One very simple method,
which may be the first pharmacologic test of ginseng in human history, is that according
to Su Sung’s Tu-ching Pen-ts’ao: “In order to test for the true ginseng, two persons
walk together, one with a piece of ginseng root in his mouth and the other with his
mouth empty. If at the end of 3–5 li, the one with ginseng in his mouth does not feel
himself tired, while the other is out of breath, the ginseng is genuine ginseng root.”1
The natural ginseng plants growing in Hopei, Shan-si, and Shen-si provinces were
nearly extinguished up to the Ming dynasty. Manchurian and Korean (Silla, Packche,
and Koguryo) ginseng then became the only supplies available for the great demand.
Korea began to export cultivated ginseng to China during the Ch’ing dynasty at
about 100,000 catties annually. Starting in 1875 China began to import American
ginseng from the United States at about 60,000 pounds annually. As a result of the
sang (American ginseng) boom between 1895 and 1904, an extravagant fortune was
made by the ginseng diggers and traders in the United States.13

VIRTUES OF GINSENG IN CHINESE MEDICINE

Based on accumulated knowledge and experience acquired in the treatment of
patients during thousands of generations, doctors in the Orient, particularly in
Ginseng in China 25

China, do believe the healing power of ginseng. Nobody really knows how many
people have been treated with the manroot in the last 20 centuries. The miraculous
power of ginseng, no doubt, arises from its many therapeutically effective principles.
According to classical Chinese Materia Medica books, ginseng possesses the
following medicinal properties:

• A mild stimulant to the heart, nervous system, and digestive organs

• A tonic to an impaired constitution, to add spirit, to increase digestive juices,
to speed up recovery after a long and serious illness and after a surgical
operation5

Ginseng is an agent that increases digestion after oral administration. It is absorbed

in the small intestine, where it enters the bloodstream. It promotes blood circulation
and new blood formation, thus invigorating your spirit and strengthening your body.
The principal usefulness of ginseng is its tonic effect. It is absolutely essential to
those who are suffering from diseases of consumption, neurasthenia, and its related
dizziness and headache, impotence and related loss of sexual potency, impaired
kidney and uterus functions, and illness due to extensive daily physical and mental
activities or stresses.
In the history of Chinese medicine, the Shen-nung Pen-ts’ao ching was the
first official medical book that stated the pharmacologic virtues of ginseng.14 The
following statements are still true and universally accepted:

• Tonic to the five viscera

• Quieting the spirits
• Establishing the soul
• Allaying fear
• Expelling evil effluvia
• Opening up the heart and brightening the eyes
• Benefiting the understanding
• Invigorating the body and prolonging life, if it is taken constantly

Other famous Chinese medical treatises (see Chapter 1) such as Ming-I Pieh-lu,
Hai-yao Pen-ts’ao, Yao-hsing Pen-ts’ao, and the most famous Chinese doctor,
Chang Chung-ching’s prescription books called Wai-t’ai Mi-yao, Chia-yio Tu Ching
Pen-ts’ao, Pen-ts’ao meng-ch’uan, Sih’s Medical Compendium, and Li, shin-chen’s
Pen-ts’ao Kang-mu also record the medicinal properties and different uses of
ginseng.5
Ming-I Pieh-lu described ginseng as an effective drug for the following:

• Chronic gastrointestinal disability

• Gastric and intestinal pain as a result of swelling and gas
• Dyspepsia (impaired digestion)
• Difficulty in respiration
• Acute gastritis and enteritis, and vomiting
• Increase in digestive functions
• Elimination of thirst and polyuria as a result of diabetes
26 The Healing Power of Ginseng

• A heart tonic, and strengthening of blood circulation

• Inflammation and swelling
• Increase in memory

In the Hai-yao Pen-ts’ao ginseng was recorded to be effective in the treatment of

thirst (as a result of diabetes), mental nervousness, loss of body fluid (as a result of
fatigue), and inhibition of hyperchlorhydria (excess stomach acid).
Most important of all, the famous pharmacologist Li shih-chen, after repeated
testing and experimenting, listed the activities and indications of ginseng in his world-
famous Pen-ts’ao Kang-mu as follows:

• All forms of debility of man and woman

• Various types of severe dyspepsia (impaired digestion)
• Continued fever and cold perspiration
• Drowsiness and headache
• Persistent vomiting of pregnant woman
• Chronic malaria
• Exhausting discharge, polyuria, internal injuries
• Apoplexy (loss of consciousness and sensation)
• Sunstroke and paralysis
• Hematemesis and menorrhagia (excessive menstrual flow)
• Bleeding in feces and urine
• Hemorrhage and puerperal diseases

The Chinese doctors, however, also warned people not to abuse ginseng and not
to take ginseng in large quantities (over 1 liang) without a prudent diagnosis by
an experienced physician. Since ginseng is not a placebo but a potent remedy, its
effectiveness depends on its current use. It is perfectly all right if you take ginseng
tea or small amounts of extract every day for health-maintaining purposes, but if
you are really sick, you ought not to take for granted that ginseng will be effective
in the treatment of certain unknown diseases, in which case it may be harmful or
even hazardous.5

CLASSICAL GINSENG PREPARATIONS AND SECRET PRESCRIPTIONS

Ginseng can be used alone or, as a rule, with several other ingredients in order to
give a multitherapeutic or synergistic effect of healing. As mentioned in the last
chapter, the “complex-remedy therapy” is the characteristic and standard practice of
Chinese medicine. Ginseng extract, decoction, tincture, powder, and pills are the most
commonly used ginseng preparations. According to the prescription, the drugs are
weighed, mixed, and a decoction or other form of preparation is made by the druggist.
The dose and how often the patient has to take the preparation are also indicated in
the prescription. The following are examples that explain what and how the classical
Chinese ginseng preparations are usually made in typical Chinese drugstores.15,16
Ginseng Extract (Jen-shen Kao) This is a watery extract made by fractionally
decocting ginseng root in water and evaporating the extract to a thick liquid in a
Ginseng in China 27

silver or earthenware pot. It was told that ginseng should never be cooked in a metal
pot, except silver. The extract is normally a dark yellow or brown liquid with typical
ginseng bittersweet taste and aroma. This extract is kept in a porcelain container.
According to the Chinese Materia Medica book, Pen-ts’ao Kang-mu, the
previously discussed ginseng extract is made in the following manner: In a silver or
earthenware pot, add 10 liang of ground ginseng, pour into the pot 20 wine-cups of
water, and soak for a little while. Then boil the infusion over a gentle flame until half
of the water is evaporated. The mixture is strained (filtered) through two layers of
cheese-gauze. Then put the filtrate aside. The solid portion is cooked again in the pot
with 10 wine-cups of water boiling the infusion until half of the volume is reached,
and then filter again. Combine the two portions of the filtrate and return them into
the pot, and then boil for some time until this liquid is very thick. Store this ginseng
extract in a covered porcelain container or jar.
If the extract is used for curing disease, usually it is taken once or twice a day
before meals, the dose depending on the requirement of the patient. For tonic purposes
the above extract (containing 10 liang of ginseng) can be divided into 30–40 doses,
which is the usual dose of ginseng for health-maintaining tonic effect.
Ginseng Decoction (Jen-shen t’ang) Most Chinese medicines are administered
in the form of a decoction, which is the simplest way to give medicine. It is made
similarly by boiling the drug ingredients in an earthenware pot with water over a gentle
flame for usually 1–2 hours. Unlike the extract, no further thickening is required. The
decoction can be filtered, and only the liquid portion is used for medicine. The entire
decoction can be administered all at once or divided into several doses depending on
the amount of drug cooked and the prescription.
Many secret prescriptions of ginseng decoction are used in China, Korea, and
Japan. The following are examples of the most popular ginseng formulations for
tonic effect (Table 2.1).
Put the preceding ingredients into an earthenware pot, add water (about 2 cups),
and bring to a boil over a gentle flame and keep boiling for some time. Strain the
mixture, and use the filtrate as medicine. This particular preparation has been very
widely used in China as a tonic for wasting, weakness, and tiredness (Table 2.2).
Put 3 liang of each of the preceding ingredients into an earthenware pot, and add
about 8 pints of water and then bring to a boil. Boil over a gentle flame for some time
or until 3 pints remain. Strain the mixture, and the liquid portion is used. Take 1 pint

TABLE 2.1
Szu-Chun-tze T’ang (Gentlemen’s
Ginseng Decoction)
Ginseng 1 chien (3.6 g)
Pai-chu 2 chien (7.2 g)
Fu-ling (Indian bread) 1 chien (3.6 g)
Licorice root 0.5 chien (1.8 g)
Fresh ginger root 2 slices (2 g)
Red dates 1 each
28 The Healing Power of Ginseng

TABLE 2.2
Chih-Chung T’ang (Resolvent Ginseng
Decoction)
Ginseng 3 liang (150 g)
Pai-chu 3 liang
Dried ginger 3 liang
Licorice root 3 liang

each time, three times a day. It is a wonderful preparation for illness of the lungs,
spleen, heart, and stomach (Table 2.3).1
Add about 6 pints of water to the preceding drug ingredients in a pot and bring
to a boil, boiling until the liquid is reduced to about 2.5 pints. This decoction can
be divided into four doses. It has been used as a general-purpose tonic for weakness
(Table 2.4).1
In a similar manner, the preceding drug ingredients are made into a decoction.
Taken before meals, it serves as a potent tonic for good health and longevity.15
A decoction used for restorative purposes is made with ginseng extract, orange
peel tincture, and ginger juice, each of suitable amounts, taken before meals.

TABLE 2.3
Sze-Shuen T’ang (Four-Drug Decoction)
Ginseng or ginseng extract 2 liang (100 g)
Licorice root 2 liang
Dried ginger 2 liang
Fu-tze-p’ao 2 liang

TABLE 2.4
Ch’ang-Shou-T’ang (Decoction for Longevity)
Ginseng root
Huan-chi (Yellow vetch)
Pai-chu 1 chien (3.6 g)
Tu-chung
Niu-hsi (Ox knee)
White peony
Licorice root 0.6 chien
Wu-wei-tze 12 pieces
Shu-ti-huang 2 chien (7.2 g)
Red dates 1 each
Ginseng in China 29

Another decoction used for restorative purposes is made with ginseng extract,
orange peel tincture, and honey, each of a suitable amount. Mix them together, and
drink it before going to bed.
Ginseng Tincture (Ren-shen chiu) Traditionally, tinctures are made by macerating
the ground drug in a mixture of rice and leaven during the process of fermentation for
producing spirit. However, the modern method of making tincture can be achieved
by extracting the drug with wine or spirit to give an alcoholic tincture. The ginseng
tincture preparation has been made in Chinese dispensatories, but it is not as popular
as ginseng decoctions. However, the ginseng tincture mixed with tincture of Kou-chi
(Lycium Chinense) and/or tincture of Lu-jung (Moaochasme savatieri) has been used
for tonic purposes, especially, for sexual debility and impotence in males.5
Ginseng Powder (Ren-shen San) The powdered ginseng root or the dried ginseng
extract can be used as tea or soup, to drink alone or with another substance such as
sugar or honey. This is a tonic of choice for those who have peptic ulcers and are
unable to take ordinary drinks of coffee or tea.
Ginseng Pills (Ren-shen Wan) In Chinese medicine, pills have been widely
used and are a favorite solid preparation for exhibiting drugs without exposing
disagreeable tastes to the patient. Pills are generally divided into Wan, Tan, and
San, made in all sizes from that of a millet seed to that of a pigeon’s egg. Pills are
usually coated with some typical coating materials to mask the bitter taste. Rice
flour and honey are the most widely used fillers in making pills. Among hundreds of
pills preparations in Chinese medicine, the following are some of the most popular
ginseng pill formulations.

Tsao-shen Wan (Date Ginseng Pills)

These are made of large Chinese red dates and ginseng extract. They are said to be
useful in strengthening the respirative organ.

Chen-Jen Pao-Ming Tan (Sour-Date Ginseng Pills)

These are made of Suan-tsao (zizyphus jujuba), ginseng, Fuling, and T’ien-men-
tung, three chien of each, soaked with wine or spirit for some time (3 days). Then the
alcoholic extract is evaporated to dryness and made into pills. Take one-fourth of the
total pills before going to bed. They are used for increased sexual potency.16

Sen-shen Kwie-pi Wan (Ginseng Cinnamon Pills)

Mix powdered ginseng, Jou-Kuei (fleshy cinnamon), Mai-men-tung, Wu-wei-tzu,
and other excipients to make pills. It is said that this preparation has been used
traditionally in the Orient as an aphrodisiac.5

OTHER MIRACULOUS ROOTS AS GINSENG SUBSTITUTES

There are at least eight medicinal plants that are cousins of P. ginseng. Because the
roots of these plants bear close resemblance in action to ginseng, they also carry
30 The Healing Power of Ginseng

the general name of shen, and they have been widely used in the Orient for ginseng
substitute. Each of them occupies a particular place in Chinese medicine.1,5 They are
Sha-shen, Hsuan-shen, Tan-shen, Kú-shen, Tzu-shen, Tai-tzu-shen, Tang-shen, and
Jen-shen-san-ch’i. Though these roots are less well known than ginseng, they are
equally useful medically, and their prices are much lower.
It was recorded as early as in Min-I-Pieh-Lu that five miraculous remedies, more
correctly called Wu-shen, were known in Chinese medicine. The Wu-shen are Ren-
shen, (ginseng), Sha-shen, Hsuan-shen, Tan-shen, and Kú-shen. None of these five
remedies belongs to the same family botanically. However, the five slightly different
plants were grouped together by Li Shih-chen. Thus, the Wu-shen are Ren-shen,
(ginseng), Sha-shen, Hsuan-shen, Tan-shen, and Tzu-shen.
It is very interesting to note that the dried roots of each of these species carry a
particular color, and thus it was assumed that each of the plants may act specifically
on each of the principal five viscera. Certainly this complies with ancient Chinese
medical thinking. Ren-shen has been claimed to act chiefly on the spleen, the center
of life. Being yellow in color, Ren-shen has been called Huang (yellow)-shen; Sha-
shen, grown in sand-soil, is much whiter than Ren-shen (ginseng), and is also called
Pai (white)-shen. It acts principally on the lungs; Hsuan-shen is also called Hei
(black)-shen. Because its root, stem, and seeds are dark or nearly black, it is supposed
to act on the kidney; Tan-shen, being red in color, is also called Ch’ih (red)-shen. It
acts on the heart and the blood. Tan-shen has been highly recommended in all blood
difficulties such as hemorrhages, menstrual disorders, and miscarriages. Tzu-shen,
also called Mou-meng, is purple in color and acts chiefly on the liver. It has been
prescribed for kidney and blood disorders.17 The truth of these medicinal claims
needs scientific confirmation, and little data are available at present.

Sha-Shen
Sha-shen has also been called Yang-ru (goat milk) in addition to Pai (white)-shen.
Its roots give milky white juices, and it is much whiter than the Ren-shen root.
Botanically, Sha-shen is Adenophora verticillate of the family Campanulaceae. The
best Sha-shen was from the Hwa-shan area in China. Natural and cultivated Sha-
shen are now grown in the southeast and the north of Sze-chwan provinces of China.
The root of Sha-shen tastes slightly bitter and cool. It has been used for pulmonary
disorders, especially those attended by fever and cough, and it is used as a general
tonic and restorative agent. Ren-shen and Sha-shen have been prescribed selectively
for different symptoms. For lung disorders with burning, Sha-shen was used; for lung
disorders with cooling, Ren-shen was used. It was said that Sha-shen is a tonic for the
yin, while Ren-shen is a tonic for the yang of the five viscera.17

Hsuan-Shen
Hsuan-shen has also been called Yeh-chih-ma in addition to Hei (black)-shen.
Botanically it is called Scrophularia Oldhami, Oliv. It blossoms in March, grows
about 4–5 feet high, and has a slender stem that resembles that of ginseng. It has
Ginseng in China 31

opposite leaves, long and serrated, resembling those of wild sesame. It bears black
seeds and also greenish-blue or white flowers in August. The root and stem of Hsuan-
shen have a fishy odor.
The root tastes slightly bitter and cooling. It has been used as a tonic, restorative,
and diuretic. It also has been used in stomach and intestinal fevers, malaria, extreme
thirst, abscess, scrofulous glands, and galactorrhoea.1,18

Tan-Shen
Tan-shen has also been called Chu-ma or Beng-ma ts’ao in addition to Ch’ih (red)-
shen. Botanically, it is Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge of the family Labiatae. It is now
grown in the Ho-pei, Shan-tung, An-hwei, Szu-chẃan, and Kiang-su provinces of
China.1,19
It sprouts in February and grows to about 1 foot high with opposite leaves that
resemble those of peppermint leaves. It has purple blossoms starting in April and
bears red fruit.
It has been prescribed for many blood disorders, particularly menstrual ailments,
miscarriages, and hemorrhages. It stimulates blood circulation and the formation
of blood cells. It has also been used for beriberi, joint pains and arthritic ailments,
nervous insomnia, enlargement of the spleen, and hypertension.20
In animal health, Tan-shen has been used for horses, stimulating racing horses for
prolonged activities and better performance.1

K’u-Shen
K’u-shen has also been called K’u-shih or K’u-kuo (bitter bone), k’u meaning “bitter”
in Chinese. Botanically, it is Sophora angustifolia of the family Leguminoseae. It is a
very common plant in central China and Manchuria. It bears yellowish-white flowers,
has a siliquaceous pod, and has a long yellowish and exceedingly bitter root. The best
species is from the Ho-nan province of China.21

Tzu-Shen
Another name of Tzu-shen is Mou-meng. Botanically it is Polygonum bistorta of the
family Polygonaceae. It has purple-white blossoms in May, and bears black seeds. It
has a purple-black root with a bitter and cool taste.1
It has been used as a tonic, an antifebrile, a diuretic, and a laxative. It has also
been  prescribed for internal and external hemorrhages, amenorrhea, agus, and
dysentery.22

Tai-Tzu-Shen
Botanically it is called Pseudostellaria rhaphanorrhiza Pax. of the Caryophyllaceae
family. It has also been called Tzu(baby)-shen. It is produced mainly in the Kiang-su
province of China. It has been used as a ginseng substitute for tonic action.23
32 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Tang-shen
There are many varieties of Tang-shen in China, but the most important one is
botanically Condonopsis tangshen Oliv. of the family Campanulaceae. It is produced
mainly in the Shan-si, Shen-si, Ho-pei, and Kan-su provinces of China. It was used
as a ginseng substitute.23

REFERENCES
1. Li, S.-C., Pen-ts’ao Kang-mu, Vol. 12 (original), Shang-wu Press, Shanghai, China,
1970.
2. Wallnöfner, H. and A. von Rottauscher, Chinese Folk Medicine, New American Library,
New York, 1972, p. 44.
3. Brekhman, I. I. “Panax Ginseng,” Medgiz (Leningrad), 182: 1957.
4. Brekhman, I. I. and I. V. Dardynov, Ann Rev. Pharmacol., 9: 419, 1969.
5. Chung-Kuo Yao-hsueh Ta-tzu-tien (The Encyclopedia of Chinese Herb Medicine), Vol. I.
Hong Kong I-Yao Weisheng Press, Hong Kong, 1972.
6. Grushvitzky, I. V., J. Bot., USSR, 44: 1694, 1959.
7. Wang, K. H., Yao Hsueh T’ung Pao, 1: 264, 1953.
8. Fournier, P., La Nature (Paris), 244, 1940.
9. Baranov, A., Econ. Bot., 20: 403, 1966.
10. Hsu, K.-C. and S.-H. Chao, Pharmacognosy, Hong Kong Wei-sheng Press, Hong Kong,
1971, pp. 143–149.
11. Smith, F. P. and G. A. Stuart, Chinese Medicinal Herbs, Georgetown Press, San
Francisco, 1973, pp. 15–17.
12. Tan, P.-Y., “Collection of Chinese Medicine Papers on Ginseng,” in Huang-han-I-hsueh
ts’ung-shu, Vol. 14, Chingyo Press, Taipei, 1970.
13. Williams, L. O., Econ. Bot., 11: 344, 1957.
14. Smith, F. P. and G. A. Stuart, Chinese Medicinal Herbs, Georgetown Press, San
Francisco, 1973, p. 304.
15. Imamura, T., Ninjin Shinso, Korean Ginseng Monopoly Bureau Press, Kae-Jo, 1923.
16. Imamura, T., “Medical and Pharmaceutical Aspects,” in Ninjin-shi, (History of
Ginseng), Vol. 5, Shibunkaku, Kyoto, 1971, pp. 232–242.
17. Smith, F. P. and G. A. Stuart, Chinese Medicinal Herbs, Georgetown Press, San
Francisco, 1973, pp. 301–304.
18. Smith, F. P. and G. A. Stuart, Chinese Medicinal Herbs, Georgetown Press, San
Francisco, 1973, p. 400.
19. Hsu, K.-C. and S.-H. Chao, Pharmacognosy, Hong Kong Wei-sheng Press, Hong Kong,
1971, pp. 463–465.
20. Smith, F. P. and G. A. Stuart, Chinese Medicinal Herbs, Georgetown Press, San
Francisco, 1973, p. 392.
21. Smith, F. P. and G. A. Stuart, Chinese Medicinal Herbs, Georgetown Press, San
Francisco, 1973, p. 414.
22. Smith, F. P. and G. A. Stuart, Chinese Medicinal Herbs, Georgetown Press, San
Francisco, 1973, p. 341.
23. Hsu, K.-C. and S.-H. Chao, Pharmacognosy, Hong Kong Wei-sheng Press, Hong Kong,
1971, pp. 460–461.
 3 Ginseng in North
America
The ginseng plant found in North America is commonly called American ginseng
and is only slightly different from the one native to China. American ginseng is
also called sang, red berry, and five fingers. Botanically, it is known as Panax
quinquefolius Linn. of the Araliaceae family named by Linnaeus in 1753. It is a
fleshy, rooted, perennial herbaceous plant.
Historically, it grew naturally on the slopes of ravines and in other shady but well-
drained areas in hardwood forests from Quebec to Manitoba, and from Maine and
Minnesota southward to the mountains of Georgia, Arkansas, and Louisiana. The
properly dried roots were used as remedies. Wild mountain ginseng roots from the
northern part of the United States, particularly in Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and New
York, are the most desirable, commercially favored products for exporting. These
areas furnish roots of good size, weight, and shape, and they are generally considered
the best breeding stock.1 A related plant, the “dwarf ginseng,” officially known as
Panax trifolium Linn., is found from Nova Scotia to Wisconsin and Georgia. But this
species is not desirable commercially.2,3

DISCOVERY STORY OF AMERICAN GINSENG

A French Jesuit priest, Father P. Jartoux (1669–1720), with the help of P. Regis, serving
as special topographic advisers to the Chinese Emperor Kanghsi, arrived in Beijing in
1702. They were immediately sent to survey the remote lands in Manchuria, and on
their journey they were able to visit the homeland of Chinese ginseng and experience
firsthand the healing power of ginseng. Father Jartoux was the first who furnished a
detailed description of the Chinese ginseng (P. ginseng) plant in a letter that arrived
in Paris on April 12, 1711.2 The missionary described the plant as “a Tartarian plant,
called ginseng, with an account of its virtues in medicine.” In 1714 the missionary
published the ginseng story in the Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society of
London. The news soon stimulated serious interest in Europe in finding a miraculous
panacea.
As a matter of fact, Chinese ginseng was not totally unknown to the Europeans,
since back in the thirteenth century, Marco Polo, who found ginseng in general use
throughout China, recorded it in his travel narrative in 1274 and made it known to
other Europeans. He described the use of ginseng: “It was powdered, cooked, and
used as a tea, syrup, or food condiment or even burned as incense in the sickroom.”4
Later, Dutch merchants brought ginseng roots from the Orient to Europe in 1616,
but except from some curiosity by the seamen, no practical interest or attention
was given it.

33
34 The Healing Power of Ginseng

It was said that even the King of France chose Chinese ginseng instead of several
other very valuable gifts from Asia offered by a Siamese ambassador in Paris in 1686,
since it was believed at that time that ginseng was the most precious panacea in the
world. In 1697, the French Academy of Sciences conducted a discussion of ginseng,
and ginseng in France was used for asthma, stomach disorders, and to promote
fertility in women.5
Ginseng then became a desirable plant, and people in France turned to it with great
enthusiasm. Michael Sarrasin, the king’s physician for Canada, appointed by Louis
XIV, collected some plants in Canada that were suspected of being ginseng plants.
The Indians in Canada knew about the ginseng plant, and they called it
Oteeragweh. Some of the plants collected near Quebec by the Indians were sent to
Paris for examination.6,7
Father Jartoux’s communication created a tremendous interest in the Western world,
and suggested that the valuable root might be found in some countries, particularly
French Canada where the forests and geographical environment are very close to those
in Manchuria. Also fascinated about the ginseng business was a Jesuit missionary
among the Iroquois Indians, Father Joseph Francis Lafitau, who also supposed that
similar plants might be found in North America. After 3 months of laborious searching,
Father Lafitau by accident did find plants that were similar to what Father Jartoux had
described. The color of the fruit of the plant attracted the attention of Father Lafitau,
and this was responsible for the discovery of American ginseng near Montreal in 1716.7
In 1718, Sarrasin published in the Memoirs of the French Academy an account
of American ginseng. Father Lafitau also reported his discovery of ginseng plants
in the same year. Soon the big news reached Peking. Father Jartoux was very much
interested in this big discovery and came to Canada to see the differences between
American ginseng and its Chinese counterpart. Some ginseng roots were gathered
and sent as samples to China for examination. Acknowledgment was slow in coming,
but finally, the word arrived: “our specimen lot is, indeed, ginseng; the quality is
satisfactory.” With this promise, soon the French began collecting ginseng, through
Indians, for exporting. Soon the demand for ginseng thus created was so great that it
became an important article of business in Montreal commerce.8
Before long, the short supply of wild ginseng in Canada became a serious problem.
The ginseng trappers and traders spread the news of the ginseng business to the
American colonies. The American wildlife hunters thus became enthusiastic about
not only furs but also ginseng roots. About 30 years after the discovery of ginseng in
Canada, American ginseng plants were found in many parts of the northern American
colonies. Ginseng was found in southern New England in 1750 and in central New
York and Massachusetts in 1751. It was similarly found plentiful in Vermont at the
time of the settlement of the state.
Forest ginseng plants were eventually discovered in almost all states east of the
Mississippi except in Florida, and in a few states west of the Mississippi River. It
was growing wild in some parts of Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Indiana,
Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kentucky, Tennessee, North and
South Carolina, Georgia, Arkansas, and Alabama. Most of the wild ginseng was
found in those states touched by the Allegheny Mountains.
Ginseng in North America 35

The American ginseng plant is a small, unassuming perennial herb, 10–20 inches
high. It is of very slow growth, even under the most favorable conditions. The plant
is propagated from seeds, with stems bearing a single whorl of three palmately
compound leaves, a solitary stalked umbel of greenish-white flowers, and bright red
fruit. When the ginseng plant is old enough to produce fruit, it is rather noticeable and
is easily recognized, but until 3 years old, it is not usually very prominent.
The seedlings at first somewhat resemble newly sprouted beans, in that they
develop two cotyledons, and from between them a stem with two minute leaves.
These enlarge until the plant has attained its first season’s growth (about 2 inches).
The growth of the plant during the first year is to develop the bud at the crown of the
root, which is to produce the next season’s stem and leaves. In autumn the stem dies
and breaks off, leaving a scar, at the side of which is the solitary bud. In the spring
of the second year, the bud produces a straight, erect stem, at the top of which one
to three branch-like stalks of the compound leaves appear. Three to eight leaflets are
developed, which usually rise not more than 4 inches from the ground. The third year,
8–15 leaflets may be put forth, and the plant may attain a height of 8 inches. In the
succeeding years, the plant may produce three and five leafstalks 3–4 inches long,
each bearing five thin leaflets (Figure 3.1).
Leaves are palmately arranged; two of them are smaller (1–2 inches long), the
remainder are larger (3–4 inches), egg-shaped in outline, with the broad end away
from the stem, abruptly pointed and raw-toothed. The leaves are bright green in
summer, turning to yellow in the fall. The 5- to 6-year-old plant grows from 10 to
15 inches in height from the ground.1
At the point where the leafstalks meet, the main axis is continued into an erect but
slender flower stalk, 2–5 inches long, bearing in early July or in late June a number
of inconspicuous greenish-white flowers. These are soon followed by the fruit, which
develops rapidly, remaining green until the middle of or late August, when it begins
to turn sharp red, becoming scarlet and ripe in late September. The berries, which
have the taste of the root, are the size and shape of small wax beans, and contain two
or occasionally three seeds each.
No seed is produced in the first year, and only occasionally are berries found
in the second year, and then only on extra strong plants in the garden. It is only in
the third year that the plant produces seed in any quantity. Plants in cultivated beds
produce more freely than those in the forest. The largest stalk of wild ginseng seldom
produces more than 20 or 30 seed berries, and only a few of these can be expected
to survive and germinate, since many birds, mice, and chipmunks are very fond of
ginseng seeds. The seeds must never be allowed to become completely dry or they
may fail to germinate. In the forest, however, the seeds ripen in the autumn, fall to the
ground, and are covered for 18 months by the decayed leaves of the forest before the
young seedlings appear. The seedlings must be properly protected and transplanted
at least once before being set into the permanent beds. At all times, the beds must be
kept free from weeds.
American ginseng usually has a thick, spindle-shaped root, 2–3 inches long
or more, and about one-half to one inch in thickness, often branched, the outside
prominently marked with circles or winkles. The root is simple at first, but after
the second year it usually becomes forked or branched, and it is the branched root,
36 The Healing Power of Ginseng

FIGURE 3.1  American ginseng. (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and Truth About
Ginseng, Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)

especially, that vaguely resembles the arms and legs of a human body that used to
be of particular favor in the eyes of the Chinese buyers. But this irrational belief no
longer holds true. Ginseng has a thick, pale-yellowish white or brownish-yellow bark,
prominently marked with transverse wrinkles, the whole root fleshy and somewhat
flexible. If properly dried, it is solid and firm. It has a slight aromatic odor, and the
taste is slightly bitter followed by sweet and mucilageous. The dry root is about
Ginseng in North America 37

one-third the size of a fresh one. The best good-sized roots you find in the forest
are from a few years to a few decades old. Though the roots acquire value from age,
they do not increase much in size, 5 ounces (about 150 grams) being a giant root,
but usually they are 1–2 ounces after dried. The dried root tastes slightly bitter and
somewhat sweet afterward.9
The grading of ginseng roots is a highly subjective practice. The criteria are
sources (wild or cultivated), shape, size, color (outside and inside), taste, texture,
and markings. The trend has been toward continuously increasing in price since the
beginning of the ginseng trade. A history of trade of American ginseng is given in
the next chapter.

AMERICAN GINSENG ADVENTURE

In the state of nature, ginseng only propagates by seeds. If the plant is dug up prior to
the ripening of the seed in September, it is deprived of its only means of perpetuating
itself. Yet this was the very thing that happened to American ginseng. The sang
diggers, a class of people who eked out a livelihood by hunting sang by shooting
and trapping, exercised no judgement as to the season of digging. The plant was dug
as soon as it was found in the forest, whether in April, May, or October. The other
cause of the decreased supply of the wild root was the clearing of forest lands and
the bruising and trampling of stock pastured in the woods. Both in Canada and in the
United States, wild ginseng became extremely rare by the middle of the nineteenth
century owing to extensive collecting without replacing. Nowadays the wild root is
reported to have completely disappeared in many states where it used to be abundant.
The ginseng plant seems to be extinguished entirely in Canada.
The visible decrease in the supply of the wild root and the constant increase in
the demand as well as the increase in prices have led to many attempts to cultivate
American ginseng by the sang diggers as early as in the early nineteenth century.
But at that time failure was so frequent that its culture had once been declared
impossible. However, such was not the case, since with proper attention and culture
in an environment suited to its peculiarities, it may be grown successfully.
Until 1870, American ginseng was first successfully cultivated by Abraham
Whisman at a place then called Boones Path in Virginia. Later George Stanton of
Summit Station, New York, after long years of struggle, succeeded to grow the plant
in the 1880s. In the beginning he transplanted a few small white seedlings and roots
into his garden, and later he grew plants from the seeds of his own production. Not
too long afterward, he became the first industrialized ginseng grower in the United
States. He earned the title of “The Father of the American Ginseng Industry.” In his
80-square-foot “George Stanton’s Chinese Ginseng Farm” in 5 years, he produced
320 pounds of ginseng root, which when dried, would have been about 106 pounds,
harvested. The production was sold for $575, which was a sizable amount of income
out of such a tiny garden. He was so devoted to his ginseng cultivation that he treated
his plants as “babies,” as he called them.
It is more fascinating that A.R. Harding of Columbus, Ohio, began his cultivation of
American ginseng in 1899. He gave up his regular medical practice and concentrated
on ginseng experimentation. He had a wide understanding of cultivation, propagation,
38 The Healing Power of Ginseng

and marketing of this valuable root in addition to its uses in the treatment of his
patients. He transplanted and cultivated ginseng plants from each state and tested the
extract in many types of patients. He believed ginseng was useful for many illnesses
wherein regular treatment had failed.
Between 1870 and 1895, there were about 20 ginseng gardens started. Ginseng
farms mushroomed all over the Eastern and Midwestern states during the “ginseng
boom period” between 1880 and 1903. However, a serious ginseng disease, Alternaria
blight, broke out in 1904, causing great damage to the crops, and hundreds of young
ginseng farms were terminated. In the United States, only about 600 acres of ginseng
are planted. Ginseng farms in Georgia and Pennsylvania, but mainly in Wisconsin,
are the principal cultivators. The average per-acre yield is about 1,000 pounds, and
the total yearly harvest is from 100,000 to 150,000 pounds in the United States. The
largest ginseng farm, that of the Fromm brothers of Hamburg, in western Wausau,
Wisconsin, produces the most cultivated ginseng in the United States for domestic
uses and exporting.

REFERENCES
1. Hart, B. L., in Cyclopedia of Farm Crops, L. H. Bailey, Ed. Macmillan, New York, 1922.
2. Fournier, P., La Nature, (Paris), 1940, p. 244.
3. Harding, A. R., Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants, Emporium, Boston, 1972.
4. Baugart, R. A., Milwaukee Journal, December 13, 1974.
5. Schroger, A. W., “Ginseng: A Pioneer Resource,” Wisconsin Aca. Sci., Arts and Lett.,
57: 65, 1963.
6. Garriques, S. S. Ann Chem. Pharm., 90: 231, 1854.
7. Vogel, V. J., American Indian Medicine, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1970,
pp. 307–310.
8. Stockberger, W. W., “Ginseng Culture,” in Farmers Bulletin No. 1184, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Publishing Office, 1921, revised
1949.
9. Williams, L., “Growing Ginseng,” in Farmers Bulletin No. 2201, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964, revised 1973.
 4 Ginseng in Korea

HIGHLIGHTS OF KOREAN GINSENG

Korean ginseng is botanically identical to the ginseng plant growing in Manchuria
and in the maritime province of Siberia. Historically, Korean ginseng plants grew
abundantly in the forested mountains over the peninsula. Wild mountain ginseng is
called san-sam. Korean ginseng has been a very valuable remedy in medicine since
the sixth century. In modern times, Korea has become the major ginseng-producing
country in the world. This may be ascribed to the fact that Korea has the longest
history in producing ginseng. Moreover, the climate and geographical conditions may
be optimal for ginseng cultivation. Korea deserves the title of the “ginseng country.”
According to legend, Korean history began some 4,000 years ago. The majority of
the Korean people were immigrants from North China and Manchuria. About ad 100
the kingdom of Koguryo, the first truly Korean state, emerged in the middle Yalu
region. During the fourth century, the tribes of the southern half of the peninsula
had coalesced into three federations, known as the Three Han. Paekche in the
southwestern or Ma Han area, Silla in the southeastern or Pyon Han region, and the
Chin Han region, which lays across the center of the peninsula, fell to the hands of
Koguryo in the early fifth century. In the ensuing struggle among the Three Kingdoms
of Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla, it was Silla that won control of the peninsula under
the help of the Chinese army during T’ang dynasty. Then came the Silla Unification
Period. During the Yi dynasty (1392–1910), King T’aejo adopted the name of “Chosen
for Korea,” and moved the capitol from Kaesong to Seoul. The dynasty he established
lasted 500 years until the annexation of Korea by Japan.1
As a result of the historically close association between Korea and China, Chinese
medicine was prevalent in Korea, and Korean ginseng was known to the Chinese as
early as in the third century (during the Wei dynasty). Even in the very beginning,
the Koguryo kingdom envoys made 92 diplomatic trips to China, and each time
Koguryo ginseng was brought to the Chinese emperor as the most valuable gift. In
the sixth (Sui dynasty) and seventh to ninth centuries (T’ang dynasty), ginseng roots
from Paekche and Silla were similarly offered to the Chinese emperors on numerous
occasions. Ginseng root was used by emperors and high officials in ancient China as
the most valuable medicine.
According to Chinese medical literature, the three different types of ginseng
(root) from the Three Kingdoms are not all equal in appearance, color, taste, and
activity. The great Chinese physician Tao Hung-ching recorded the descriptions of
the ginsengs in his book as follows: “The ginseng (root) from Paekche is slender,
round in shape, firm and with lighter taste than that of tang-shen (the genuine ancient
Chinese ginseng); ginseng from Koguryo is large, soft, and inferior to tang-shen and
that from Paekche. The ginseng from Silla is yellowish with light taste, and more
closely resembles the human figure.”2

39
40 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Cultivation of Korean Ginseng

Growing ginseng plants was first started in the Ching-shan and Chuan-lo provinces
in South Korea in the sixteenth century. Later ginseng was cultivated on large scales
in Kei-jo (Kae-song) and Kum-san. New ginseng cultivation centers are Kang-
gye, Kum-kand, Kyan-ji, Chung-chu, and Che-ju. In the beginning of the twentieth
century, the production of Korean ginseng reached 700,000 pounds per year, valued
at more than 2 million yen. Most of this was exported to China, Japan, and other
southeastern Asian countries (Figure 4.1). Even at that time, the top-grade Korean

FIGURE 4.1  Ginseng. (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and Truth About Ginseng,
Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)
Ginseng in Korea 41

red ginseng root was sold at about $30–$35 per catty, which was about seven times
higher than the price of imported American ginseng, or about twice that for Korean
white ginseng.3
Unfortunately, a disastrous effect of the ginseng disease that broke out in 1902 in
Korea crippled the business for about 11 years and threatened to extinguish the entire
trade, and there were no exports until 1910.4
The climate and soil of the Korean Peninsula are peculiarly suited for ginseng
cultivation. More and more farmers attempted to grow ginseng plants for higher profit.
At present there are 33 ginseng-growing districts in South Korea including Kang-wha,
Kim-po, Kum-san, and Pu-yo, whose annual production of crude ginseng amounts to
5,700,000 kg. This figure was expected to increase to 15 million kilograms in 1981
according to the Korean Office of Monopoly. The total cultivation area of red ginseng
products is about 16 million square meters. With such industrialized cultivation, a
supply shortage in ginseng is not expected in the next 10 years in Korea’s ability to
support the world market.5

Ginseng Law
Korea has a long history in governing and controlling ginseng production, particularly
the red ginseng root. The control of the production and sale of red ginseng was
initiated in the seventeenth century (the Yi dynasty, ad 1606). Probably the first
government regulation of ginseng was promulgated in 1686 and the second in 1707.
From 1897 to 1910, red ginseng production and trade were controlled directly by
the emperor’s office. In 1868, taxation on ginseng cultivation in the Gae Seung area
began.
A “modern monopoly law” and its bylaws for red ginseng were established in
1907. There were revisions in these laws in 1920, and they were effective until
1945. The major regulations of the ginseng monopoly law included registration of
seeds, and intensifying the penalty for illegal production of red ginseng. During the
Japanese annex period (1910–1945), the Office of Monopoly, located in Kaesong, was
controlled by the Japanese (Figure 4.2).
On August 15, 1947, Korea was divided into South and North Korea. The famous
ginseng city Kaesong was divided into two parts. As a result of social instability,
ginseng production was suspended for quite a number of years. Fortunately, Korean
ginseng production has been revitalized since 1960. In order to promote the quality
of ginseng and its products uniformly, the monopoly law of red ginseng of December
1959 was radically revised in December 1972. A new regulation on white ginseng
and its products was simultaneously promulgated. The production and sale of white
ginseng products then became privately owned operations that were also subject to
control by the 1972 ginseng law.3

REMEDIAL USE OF GINSENG IN KOREA

Although ginseng has been recognized by the Koreans as a useful remedy dating
back to the Three Kingdoms period, it became a recognized medicine only in
the Yi dynasty. Ginseng was used in Korea, as in China, for its alternative, tonic,
42 The Healing Power of Ginseng

FIGURE 4.2  Ginseng plant with fruits. (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and Truth About
Ginseng, Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)

stimulation, carminative, and demulcent properties. It has reputed virtues for all
forms of debility and dyspepsia, spermatorrhea, persistent vomiting of pregnancy, old
cough, and polyuria, which are treated with ginseng preparations for relief and cure.4
In the early tenth century, ginseng was also used in making food and cosmetic
products. Ginseng drinks, tea, candy, and cosmetics preparations, such as toothpaste,
bath oil, and creams, were the most commonly processed ginseng preparations.
Ginseng’s tonic effect has also been tested in the veterinary field. It was said that
in the sport of horse racing, ginseng was given in the horses’ feed for several weeks
Ginseng in Korea 43

before racing. The horses under ginseng treatment showed better performance than
those without.6

MODERN KOREAN GINSENG PRODUCTS

Ginseng root as it is dug up is called “watery ginseng” (su-sam) from which white
ginseng root (pae-sam), yellow ginseng root (hwang-sam), and red ginseng root
(hong-sam) are processed. White ginseng root is made by initially peeling the watery
root with a bamboo knife after it has been cleaned, and drying it in the sun, or when
the weather is unfavorable, drying over a charcoal fire or in an oven (Figure 4.3).
Yellow ginseng is made by steaming the peeled watery root and then drying it. This
type of product is less desirable. The making of red ginseng root includes steaming
the watery root for about 3–4 hours, dehydrating it in a dry room, and parching it in
the sun. Red ginseng is monopolized by the Korean government, and cultivators are
prohibited from making and selling it. White ginseng looks slightly yellowish-white,
while red ginseng is somewhat translucent and reddish-brown in color. Both red and
white ginseng are packaged in sealed cartons marked with name, grade, total weight,
number of roots, and source of production printed on the box.7
Modern ginseng products are being developed to meet the government standards
for exportation. The newer products are honey ginseng, ginseng extract, ginseng
powder, ginseng pills, ginseng capsules, ginseng tablets, ginseng tea, ginseng syrup,
ginseng cakes and candies, ginseng tincture, ginseng elixir, ginseng fluid extract,

FIGURE 4.3  Sun-dried raw ginseng. (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and Truth About
Ginseng, Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)
44 The Healing Power of Ginseng

and ginseng alcoholic beverages.8 The most popular ginseng tonic preparations, such
as ginseng in wine (In-sam-Ju), ginseng chicken essence, ginseng concentrate, and
ginseng-vitamin-mineral combination preparations, are presently the most desirable
marketed products.

White Ginseng Root

This is one of the most popular ginseng products of South Korea to date. It is packaged
into 600-, 300-, 150-, and 75-g boxes. The largest roots weigh about 47 g per piece,
the medium-sized roots weigh about 10 g per piece, and the smallest roots weigh
only 3 g per piece. As a result of the sizes, the price of the white ginseng varies
significantly.

Honey Ginseng
Honey ginseng is white ginseng root preserved in syrup. It gives a palatable taste.

Ginseng Tea
Instantly soluble ginseng tea granules are packaged in foil bags or in bottles. The
granules contain about 8% of dry ginseng extract and soluble inert materials such as
lactose and soluble starch. It gives a stimulant effect with typical ginseng flavor and
fragrance.

Ginseng Extract
Ginseng extract is the most potent ginseng product for tonic effect. It contains about
40% water and 60% solid materials including extracted principles from the root.

Ginseng Capsules
Ginseng capsules contain dried ginseng extract and inert fillers.

Cosmetics and Animal Health Products

In the cosmetic area, creams and beauty lotions have been marketed for rejuvenation
and a youthful-looking effect. In the field of animal health, ginseng can also be used
in many cases for an antifatigue effect, and homeostasis, and may produce longevity
as well.

REFERENCES
1. Wagner, E. W. in The Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 16, Americano Corp., New York,
p. 528 f.
2. Li, S.-C., Pen-ts’ao Kang-mu, Shang-wu Press, Shanghai, Vol. 12 (original), 1970.
Ginseng in Korea 45

3. Yoon, J. H. in “Korean Ginseng Science Symposium,” Korean Society of Pharmacognosy,

Seoul, 1974, pp. 227–239.
4. Read, B. E., Pharm. J., 117: 671, 1926.
5. “Koreanishe Ginseng,” a Foreign Press article of Korean ginseng, Office of Monopoly,
Seoul, 1974.
6. Imamura, T., Nin-jin Shin-so, Office of Monopoly, Kae-jo, Korea, 1923.
7. “Korean Ginseng,” in Abstract of Papers of First Ginseng Symposium, Seoul, Korea,
September 1974.
8. Kim, S. K. in “Korean Ginseng Science Symposium,” Korean Society of Pharmacognosy,
Seoul, 1974, pp. 207–226.
 5 Ginseng in Japan, Siberia,
and Panax Notoginseng

GINSENG IN JAPAN AND CHIKUSETSU NIN-JIN

The beginning of the Yamato era in the third century marked the unification of ancient
Japan. At the time, Japan was a young, struggling country, while its neighbor, China,
had been enjoying a highly developed culture and social life. The Yamato government
sent the first envoy to China in 607 and thus established a diplomatic relationship with
the emperor of the Sue dynasty. Later in the T’ang dynasty, the Japanese government
dispatched students, monks, and professionals as well as envoys to China to observe
and learn Chinese culture and technology. After the Taike reform in 645, Japan
adopted the Chinese written language, arts, crafts, social and government systems,
and medicine. In 710, the first permanent capitol, Heijo (later called Nara), was built
after T’ang’s capitol of Ch’ang-an. In the Japanese society, it became stylish to copy
the gorgeous silk robes worn by the Chinese nobility, and to imitate their customs
and social manners.1 Chinese medicine was adopted and practiced in Japan, known as
Kanpo-I in Japanese. Chinese medicine occupies a special place in Japan even today.
Nin-jin means ginseng, while Panax ginseng is called Otane-ninjin in Japanese.
Though ginseng has been imported to Japan from Korea (the Kingdom of Paekche)
and China since the seventh century, ginseng started to be used as a medicine in the
eighth century. At that time, ginseng was the most valuable drug, and it was controlled
by a special office of the emperor. The price of ginseng was extremely high, and it
was available only to the palace, the nobles, and the rich. Ginseng became more
popular after the ninth century due to more Korean ginseng being available. Chinese
medicine in Japan became the flourishing medical practice after the ninth century,
and lasted for about 1,000 years until the Meiji restoration in 1868.
In early Japanese medical practice, ginseng was used for tonic, stomachic, many
forms of debility, cardiac stimulant, thirst, diabetes, vomiting, coolness of limbs,
etc. It was used alone or with other drugs as in the popular prescriptions in Chinese
medicine. Ginseng was used in many special preparations, such as cosmetics, drinks,2
tea, and candy, and in preparations for aphrodisiac properties with deer’s antlers,
cinnamon, seal’s kidney, and musk as described in the Japanese books Nin-Jin -Shih
(History of Ginseng).
There is no evidence that Japan had wild mountain ginseng in ancient times.
Japan imported ginseng seeds from Korea in 1607, and later a large amount of seeds,
seedlings, and even live roots were imported from Korea and China and planted
in quite a number of counties in Japan where the weather, soil, and terrain were
suitable. Hokkaido, Yamagata, Nagano, Shimane, and Fukushima were the early
ginseng cultivation centers. Ginseng was called “Imperial ginseng,” and after a few
failures, ginseng farming finally succeeded. In 1907, ginseng cultivation became a

47
48 The Healing Power of Ginseng

good business, and thousands of farmers grew ginseng, which was distributed in
43 counties. However, this boom did not last too long as a ginseng epidemic occurred,
and most of the farms then died away.3
In modern times, ginseng in Japan is cultivated in Fukushima, Nagano, and
Shimane counties. In the beginning, the annual production of ginseng in Japan was
about 70,000–200,000 kg. The latest Fuji marketing report shows that growing
ginseng is still a fairly profitable business. Ginseng farmers are not growing ginseng
exclusively but are regular rice growers. From 1969 to 1975, ginseng farming areas
were increased from 383 hectares in 1969 to 413 hectares in 1972 to 425 hectares in
1975, although the number of farms actually decreased from 4,590 in 1969 to 4,040
in 1972. Most of the ginseng farms are small, individual gardens, and about 80%of
the total 4,000–5,000 farms are located in Nagano county. Collective cultivation of
ginseng was only recently conducted in Shimane county.4
The actual ginseng cultivation areas in the three counties in 1973 were 82 hectares
(19%) in Fukushima, 250 hectares (58.5%) in Nagano, and 96 hectares (22.5%) in
Shimane county. (One hectare is 2.47 acres.) The total ginseng farming area in Japan
is about 1,057 acres.
Total annual production is about 319,000 kg or 703,267 lbs divided into 54,000 kg
from Fukushima; 185,000 kg from Nagano; and 80,000 kg from Shimane county.
Accordingly, the production of ginseng in Nagano alone is about 58% of the total
ginseng produced in Japan.
The fresh ginseng roots are processed to make commercially useful products. The
majority of the roots are made into red ginseng according to the classical Chinese
methods and are then exported to China and Hong Kong. The rest of them are made into
white ginseng and other processed products for domestic consumption and exporting.
In the early twentieth century, Japan had no problem getting Chinese and Korean
ginseng, for Japan annexed Korea to its protectorate in 1907, and later occupied
Manchuria in 1923 until the end of World War II in 1945. During the Japanese
military occupation of the ginseng country and ginseng-rich Manchuria, the entire
ginseng business was monopolized by the Japanese government. Also during the
occupation years, Japanese scientists seriously studied ginseng.
Chikusetsu nin-jin, or Japanese ginseng, has been native to the mountain areas of
Japan since ancient times. The word chikusetsu means that the ginseng root resembles
bamboo knots. Botanically, it is Panax japonicum C.A. Meyer, of the Araliaceae
family. It has also been called To-jin, meaning native ginseng, and tochiba ninjin,
in Japanese.
The part of the Japanese ginseng plant that is above ground is similar to Panax
ginseng, but the root is not. Japanese ginseng root tastes more bitter than ginseng,
and it is much cheaper. For thousands of years, Japanese ginseng has been used as a
ginseng substitute for an expectorant, stomachic, and antipyretic agent in the Orient.

GINSENG IN SIBERIA
Panax ginseng also is found naturally in the maritime areas of Siberia. In ancient
times, ginseng grew over vast territories. At present, it grows in considerable
amounts only in the territories of the Soviet Union, where state laws prevent it from
Ginseng in Japan, Siberia, and Panax Notoginseng 49

extermination. A special state farm called Zhenshen was founded to grow this most
valuable medicinal plant. Scientific establishments and individual ginseng growers
in the Caucasus, and the Ukraine, in the Baltic republic, and in Siberia have also
amassed a vast experience in growing ginseng.5
Eleuthero, botanically known as Eleutherococcus senticosus Maxim of the
Araliaceae family, is called Siberian ginseng under the popular name.
E. senticosus has a history of use in traditional Chinese medicine where it is
known as cì wŭ jiā. In regard to the species’ scientific name, Eleutherococcus (from
Greek) means “free-berried,” and senticosus, from the Latin word sentis (thornbush,
briar) is an adjective meaning “thorny” or “full of briars or thorns.” Because its
branches are spiked with thorns, it has nicknames of touch-me-not and devil’s bush.
Siberian ginseng is not known in Oriental medicine, although it is abundant in eastern
Siberia, in Korea, and even in the provinces of Shan-si and Ho-pei of northern China.
But the naturally growing area of Eleuthero in Siberia exceeds 10 million hectares.6
It is a shrub about 2 m in height with numerous thin thorns. The leaves are long
stalked, palmately parted, and similar to those of ginseng. The flowers are small
(female is yellow, male is violet in color), gathered, globular, and umbrella shaped. It
blooms in July and bears oval fruit; the fruit turns black when ripened in September.
Scientific studies on Eleuthero in the Soviet Union found that Siberian ginseng
is of negligible toxicity and has anabolic, gonadotropic, stimulating, protective, and
adaptogenic actions. One of the numerous useful effects of the Siberian ginseng
preparations is the antistress action.7 In this regard, Siberian ginseng is similar to
Panax ginseng (Figure 5.1).
As Siberian ginseng takes only a year to grow, it is available in larger quantity
than the Panax ginseng in the market. Siberian ginsengs are available year-round.
Moreover, Siberian ginseng is cheaper than Panax ginseng.
The two are also different in their active ingredients. Panax ginseng contains the
active ingredient ginsenosides, while Siberian ginseng does not contain ginsenosides.
Instead of ginsenosides, Siberian ginseng contains the active ingredient eleutherosides.
While Panax ginseng has warm, bitter, pungent characteristics, Siberian ginseng has
a warm and mild character.
Siberian ginsengs are classified to the group of adaptogens, which raise resistance
to various negative factors: physical, chemical, biological, and psychological. The
preparations of adaptogens stimulate physical and mental ability and raise an
organism’s resistance to various kinds of sicknesses, poisoning, and irradiation.
Although a relatively new addition to Western natural medicine, Siberian ginseng has
quickly gained a reputation similar to that of the better known and more expensive
Chinese ginseng. Unlike many herbs with a medicinal use, it is more useful for
maintaining good health rather than treating ill health. Siberian ginseng produces
a comprehensive strengthening and toning impact; it has been recommended in
treating various neural diseases, impotence, lung ailments, medium forms of diabetes
mellitus, and malignant tumors. They stimulate the central nervous system, stimulate
sex gland activities, decrease sugar and cholesterol levels in blood, improve appetite,
and sharpen sight and hearing.
Research has shown that it stimulates resistance to stress, and so it is now widely
used as a tonic in times of stress and pressure. Regular use is said to restore vigor,
50 The Healing Power of Ginseng

FIGURE 5.1  Siberian ginseng. (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and Truth About Ginseng,
Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)

improve memory, and increase longevity. It has been used during convalescence
and in the treatment of menopausal problems, geriatric debility, physical and mental
stress, and a wealth of other ailments.
Siberian ginseng or eleuthero has been used in China for 2,000 years as a folk
remedy for bronchitis, heart ailments, and rheumatism, and as a tonic to restore vigor,
improve general health, restore memory, promote healthy appetite, and increase
stamina. Referred to as ci su ju in Chinese medicine, it was used to prevent respiratory
Ginseng in Japan, Siberia, and Panax Notoginseng 51

tract infections as well as colds and flu. It was also believed to provide energy and
vitality. In Russia, eleuthero was originally used by people in the Taiga region of
Siberia to increase performance and quality of life and to decrease infections.
The ability of Siberian ginseng to increase stamina and endurance led Soviet
Olympic athletes to use it to enhance their training. Explorers, divers, sailors, and
miners used eleuthero to prevent stress-related illness. After the Chernobyl accident,
many Siberian citizens were given eleuthero to counteract the effects of radiation.

PANAX NOTOGINSENG
Panax notoginseng is a species of the genus Panax, and it is most commonly referred
to in English as notoginseng. In Chinese it is called tiánqī, tienchi ginseng, sānqī
or sanchi, three-seven root, and mountain paint. Notoginseng belongs to the same
scientific genus as Asian ginseng. In Latin, the word panax means “cure-all,” and the
family of ginseng plants is one of the best-known herbs.
Notoginseng grows naturally in China and Japan. The herb is a perennial with
dark-green leaves branching from a stem with a red cluster of berries in the middle.
It is both cultivated and gathered from wild forests, with wild plants being the most
valuable. The Chinese refer to it as “three-seven root” because the plant has three
petioles with seven leaflets each. It is also said that the root should be harvested
between 3 and 7 years after planting it.
It is classified in Chinese medicine as warm in nature, sweet and slightly bitter in
taste, and nontoxic. The dose in decoction for clinical use is 5–10 g. It can be ground
to powder for swallowing directly or taken mixed with water: the dose in that case is
usually 1–3 g.8 In the Bencao Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica, ad 1596), it
is stated: “On account of the fact that sanqi is a herb belonging to the blood phase of the
yang ming and jue yin meridians, it can treat all diseases of the blood.” Notoginseng is
an herb that has been used in China quite extensively since the end of the nineteenth
century.9 It has acquired a very favorable reputation for treatment of blood disorders,
including blood stasis, bleeding, and blood deficiency. It is the largest ingredient in
(Yunnan Bai Yao), a famous hemostatic proprietary herbal remedy that was notably
carried by the Viet Cong to deal with wounds during the Vietnam War.
The plant is named for the irregular growth of its leaves. It was said that there were
three leaflets on the right and four leaflets on the left of the stem, and they grew directly
out of the apex of the stem. But this is not the description of Ren-sen-san-ch’i today.10
This plant grows naturally and is cultivated in the southwestern part of China.
The primary area of natural production is in the forest mountains of the southeastern
Yun-nan province and its adjacent areas of Kwang-si province, on the slopes of
1,000–2,000 m, particularly in Wen-shan, Kwang-nan, His-chow, and Yen-shan in
Yun-nan province and Tien-gang and Chig-hsi in Kwang-si province (Figures 5.2
and 5.3). About 90% of the commercial product of San-ch’I ginseng today is from
Yun-nan province. For this reason, the crude drug has been called Yun-nan San-
ch’i. However, the San-chi has also been cultivated on slopes at altitudes of 1,000 m
and above in Kwan-si and Yun-nan provinces. Loose, acidic soil, rich in humus is
preferred. The natural plant of (notoginseng) ginseng can also be found in Sze-chwan,
King-si provinces of China, North Vietnam, the Himalayas, and northern India.
52 The Healing Power of Ginseng

FIGURE 5.2  Tienchi ginseng (Panax notoginseng). (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and
Truth About Ginseng, Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)

The growth habit of Ren-shen-San-ch’I is similar to that of ginseng. The crude

drug is the properly dried root of a 4- to 6-year-old plant. The root of San-ch’I ginseng
is fleshy, firm, round, or conical in shape, with a smooth skin, brownish-gray in color,
and the root is about 2–4 cm long and 1–2 cm in diameter. It tastes bitter first and
then slightly sweet.10
The root of P. notoginseng contains 12% of saponins. It has the same number
of ginsenosides, such as ginsenosides Rb1–Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rg1, Rg2, Rh1, F2, and
glucoginsenoside Rf as in ginseng, the root of P. ginseng.
In addition, some new saponins named notoginsenosides11 were isolated from
the root. They are notoginsenosides R1, R2, R3, R4, R6, and gypenoside XVII.12,13
Ginseng in Japan, Siberia, and Panax Notoginseng 53

FIGURE 5.3  Radix notoginseng. (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and Truth About
Ginseng, Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)

Notoginsenoside R1 is the major notoginsenoside of the herb and is used to

differentiate from the ginseng root in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. From the rootlet
of P. notoginseng, sanchinosides B1 and B2 were isolated.14 The leaf, flower, and seed
of the plant also contain ginsenosides and notoginsenosides.15,16
The root of P. notoginseng contains essential oil, and the major components of the
oil have been identified as α-guaiene, β-quaiene, and octadecane.17
Pharmacologically, Ren-shen-san-ch’i is a very effective agent in arresting
hemorrhage and bleeding in wounds, including snake and tiger bites. Internally, it
has been prescribed in hematemesis, menorrhagia, etc. The leaves also have similar
properties and are often combined with the root for medicinal preparations.

REFERENCES
1. Hall, J. W. in The Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 15, Americano Corp., New York, pp.
814–824.
2. Imamura, T., “Medical and Pharmaceutical Aspect,” in Nin-jin shih, (History of
Ginseng), Vol. 5, Shibunkaku, Kyoto, 1971.
3. Imamura, T., Ninijin Shin-so, Office of Monopoly Press, Kae-jo, Korea, 1923.
4. Fujisan Marketing Report, July, 1975.
5. Brekhman, I. I., Ind. J. Publ. Health, 9: 148, 1965.
6. Sandberg, F., Plant. Med., 24: 392, 1974.
7. Brekhman, I. I. in Pharmacology of Oriental Plant, K. K. Chen and B. Murkerji, Eds.,
Pergamon Press, New York, 1965.
8. Bensky, D., S. Clavey, E. Stoger, and A. Gable, comps. and trans., Chinese Herbal
Medicine: Materia Medica, 3rd ed., Eastland Press, Seattle, WA, September 2004.
54 The Healing Power of Ginseng

9. Dharmananda, S., “Rare Reactions to a Safe Herb: Sanqi (Panax notoginseng).” ITM
Online (http://www.itmonline.org/arts/sanqi.htm).
10. Hsu, K. J., Dhou-hdun, Pharmacognosy, Hong Kong Wei-sheng Press, Hong Kong,
1971, pp. 458–459.
11. Tang, W. and G. Eisenbrand, “Chinese Drugs of Plant Origin,” in Chemistry,
Pharmacology, and Use in Traditional and Modern Medicine, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 1992, pp. 745–751.
12. Matsuura, H., R. Kasai, O. Tanaka, Y. Saruwatari, T. Fuwa, and J. Zhou, “Further
studies on dammarane saponins of Sanchi-Ginseng,” Chem. Pharm. Bull., 31: 2281–
2287, 1983.
13. Zhou, J., M. Z. Wu, S. Taniyama, H. Besso, O. Tanaka, Y. Saruwatari et  al.,
“Dammarane-saponins of Sanchi-Ginseng, roots of Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.
H. Chen (Araliaceae): Structures of new saponins, notoginsenoides-R1 and R 2 and
identification of ginsenosides-Rg2 and Rh1,” Chem. Pharm. Bull., 29: 2844–2850, 1981.
14. Wei, J. X., L. A. Wang, H. Du, and R. Li, “Isolation and identification of sanchinoside
B1 and B2 from rootlets of Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen,” Acta Pharm. Sin.,
20: 288–293, 1985.
15. Taniyasu, S., O. Tanaka, T. Yang, and J. Zhou, “Dammarane saponins of flower buds of
Panax notoginseng (sanchi Ginseng),” Plant. Med., 44: 124–125, 1982.
16. Wei, J. X., L. Y. Chang, J. F. Wang, E. Friedrichs, M. Hores, and H. Puff, “Two new
dammarane saponins from leaves of Panax ginseng,” Plant. Med., 45: 167–171, 1982.
17. Lu, Q. and X. G. Li, “Studies on the chemical constituents of the essential oil in the
Renshn Sanqi (Panax notoginseng),” Chinese Tradit. Herb. Drugs, 19: 5–7, 1988.
Section II
The Flourishing Ginseng Business
 6 The Flourishing American
Ginseng Business in
Chinese Market

AMERICAN GINSENG IN CHINESE MARKETS

Soon after the Chinese agreed to purchase American ginseng, a kind of ginseng
stampede was ignited. Thousands of French Canadians and Indians took to the
woods in the quest for easy-to-dig “amber nuggets.” A ginseng trading company
was formed almost overnight. The rush for “green gold” was on. In Quebec the root
was purchased at 2 francs a pound by the fur traders who collected and exported it
to China. In China, the same root was sold for as much as 25 francs. Ginseng trade
with China was at that time controlled by the company of the Indies. In the beginning,
the ginseng business was handled by the officers of the company. In 1751, seeing that
the commerce in the root was so great, the company prohibited private venture on
the part of its officers and assumed control itself. In only a short time, the price of
ginseng was advanced from 12 francs to 33 francs a pound.
Demand became so great that the sang (American ginseng) hunt became a highly
profitable venture, particularly for the French Canadians. Exportation of the roots
quickly increased: often the shrewd tradesmen unscrupulously received an average
of 10–12 times as much for sang as they paid uncomplaining diggers for it. The years
rolled by, and the tons upon tons of sang were ripped from Canadian soil. When
finally demands could scarcely be met, many sang shipments started to yield inferior
roots—roots were harvested out of season and improperly dried, leaving them visibly
scorched.
In 1752 Chinese buyers inspected several shipments of American ginseng from
Canada and found that the roots had been improperly treated and that a good portion
of the roots was not even ginseng. This unprincipled practice all but ruined the
Canadian sang market. Chinese traders were furious over the attempt to deceive
them, and ginseng exports, in a year, dropped from over $100,000 to only $6,500.
The ginseng trade in Canada thus dwindled rapidly and quietly faded away.1
The spark of demand for American ginseng was to remain dim for nearly 30
years, but gradually a limited and exceedingly wary market started once again to
open its doors, and the favorable focus was on the American colony’s ginseng roots.
Ginseng grew naturally throughout the forest of most northern states, particularly the
Appalachian Mountain areas, and the Chinese traders had confidence in the colonial
roots; a stimulating business followed. Early American settlers often collected sang
as a sideline and for a quick cash return. Local merchants accepted it in exchange for
supplies, although fur buyers were the principal dealers.

57
58 The Healing Power of Ginseng

The gathering and marketing of the root began in a small way but picked up
momentum when it was found that the range of the plant extended throughout the
Eastern United States. Usually the dry ginseng roots were purchased by the fur
dealers in New York as well as other large cities. These buyers either disposed of
their holdings to Chinese agents or exported directly to Hong Kong, the principal port
of American goods entering China. There the roots were purchased in large quantities
by the traders to supply the retailers or drugstores.
For many years, New York, Boston, and Philadelphia served as the main
collection points for exportation of sang. The initial export from the United States
to China started in the mid-eighteenth century, and the earliest trades were through
the East India Company in England. A shipload of 55 tons of ginseng sailed from
Boston to China in 1773. In 1782 the first direct shipment of American ginseng to
China was made by John Jacob Astor. The root from that shipment was reported to
have brought $3 a pound. In February 22, 1784, another American ship, Empress of
China—a 360-ton ex-privateer—made another direct sail to China. Ginseng was the
principal cargo. Daniel Boone, the great American pioneer and frontiersman, also
collected and dealt in ginseng. In 1787 he started up the Ohio River with a 15-ton
boatload of ginseng from Philadelphia on its way to China. Unexpectedly, he ran
into trouble—the boat overturned.2 Later the Chinese herbalists on the West Coast
became the main ginseng dealers and exporters. During the end of the eighteenth
century and beginning of the nineteenth century, American ginseng for export was
mostly collected from the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, and New York.
A Kentucky buyer of ginseng noted that he had bought 1,700 pounds and he wanted
to buy 300 pounds more to make up a ton.3 Such a large amount of dry root would
bewilder a modern ginseng hunter and no doubt represented a collection acquired
over an extended period, even then. In the 1790s, the wild root was selling for as
high as $1 a pound and about 200,000 pounds were exported each year to China.
The cultivation of transplanted ginseng seemed to have started sometime in the
1840s. Due to the presence of the unnatural fore-stall ginseng in the shipment, the
price was dropped from 68¢ in 1841 to 44¢ in 1842 and to 34¢ per pound in 1843. The
Chinese buyers do not appreciate the cultivated species even though they are heavier
and larger than the wild species. In 1858, about 366,053 pounds of ginseng, valued at
$193,736, were exported to China. The price was 52¢ per pound. The export of sang
continued through the years, and the price continued to rise.
When the population moved westward, ginseng was discovered in abundance in
the territory immediately west of Mississippi. About 1845, Green County, Wisconsin,
had acquired the reputation of being sang county.4 Discovery of the American ginseng
plant in many other counties followed, and by 1860 large amounts of Wisconsin wild
ginseng were being collected and exported to China.5 Later, ginseng collected in
Minnesota was also exported to China.6 The market price of ginseng in 1862 was
then 80¢ and more a pound. By 1868 the market value of ginseng had doubled, and
in that year, over 370,000 pounds of American ginseng reached Chinese buyers. The
price was even higher in 1878, and by 1888 it once again had doubled to $2 and more
a pound. But by now the inevitable was beginning to happen, and wild ginseng was
becoming much more difficult to find. Even with the stimulation of higher prices, the
year 1888 noted at least 112,000 pounds less than 1878; and in 1889 and 1890, with
The Flourishing American Ginseng Business in Chinese Market 59

prices still higher, exported quantities took another sharp drop. In the year 1896, the
price of wild ginseng climbed to $3.86 a pound, with only 199,000 pounds harvested.
In 1897 only 179,573 pounds were exported, though the price jumped to the all-time
high of $4.71, and the total value of ginseng exported to China reached $850,000. By
the year 1898, the supply of wild ginseng became more scarce, and many ginseng
farmers began to harvest their cultivated product. Such extensive digging in quantity
without even considering the age and without replacement contributed to the near
extinction of the wild roots in the late nineteenth century.1
As a result of the scarcity of the wild root, the price rose again to $5.20 a pound
in 1900, and then $6.35 to $7.25 in 1907. The inflation was about 5%–10% per year.
From that time on, more and more cultivated roots helped to fill the increasing
demand for wild ginseng, which steadily became less and less available. Cultivated
ginseng, tagged as such, was marketed, and the price dropped once again from $4.70
to only $3.66 a pound.7 However, due to the infinite demand for ginseng, soon the
price jumped up to $7.00 again in the early twentieth century. The amount exported
kept pace with the price, and the total export of sang exceeded $1 million after 1905.
As a result of the attractive price, more and more people were involved. A ginseng
boom took place in the United States in the years 1895 to 1904. Hundreds of new
gardens were started, and stock companies were formed to grow and trade ginseng
plants. Ginseng seeds were selling for about 8¢ each or $6 per ounce or $90 per
pound.6 Unfortunately, a leaf disease of ginseng became prevalent in 1904, plaguing
many plantations and discouraging the inexperienced growers.
Even during the First World War, the price of ginseng did not drop. By 1922, the
market value of wild sang reached $11.51 a pound, and top-grade large roots were
bringing an even better price, while the cultivated roots were usually half the price
of the wild species. The total exports valued more than $2 million after 1922. The
price of American ginseng remained high during the 1920s.
From Figures 6.1 and 6.2, one can see that the demand for American ginseng
has constantly increased since the trade started in the early eighteenth century, not
only the export and total valuation but also the average price of American ginseng
exported inflated from 1821 to 1975.8
During the Sino-Japanese War and the World War II years, there was little
American ginseng exported to China, although the amount did reach 185,976 pounds
in 1946; a downward trend appeared in 1947 and later years. But the demand for
American ginseng began to increase after 1950, and also most of the ginseng was
exported to Hong Kong instead of to China. In 1951, the market value of American
ginseng in Hong Kong was about $17.57 a pound, and some unusual roots were valued
at more than $130 per pound.9
Since 1964, the demand for American ginseng once again has increased constantly.
As shown in Figure 6.2, more than $2 million worth of ginseng was exported from
the United States after 1964, with increases reaching $4 million in 1966, $5 million
in 1969, and $8 million in 1972. As a result of Richard Nixon’s visit to China in
1972, American ginseng sales suddenly boomed in Hong Kong. China takes all of
the ginseng that American growers and ginseng hunters can supply. In 1973, of the
total export of American ginseng valued at about $9 million, the Chinese buyers in
Hong Kong took about 94% of the total supply. Similarly in 1974, the total American
60 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Domestic wholesale (average) price, exports, and total

value of american ginseng from 1821 to 1920, inclusive
Total
exported Average
Year (Ibs) Total value price
1821 352,992 $ 171,786 $ 0.48
1822 753,717 313,943 0.41
1823 385,877 150,976 0.39
1824 600,046 229,080 0.38
1825 475,974 144,599 0.30
1841 640,967 437,245 0.68
1842 144,426 63,702 0.44
1843 556,533 193,870 0.34
1845 468,530 177,146 0.37
1858 366,053 193,736 0.52
1862 630,712 408,590 0.84
1868 370,066 380,454 1.02
1878 421,395 497,247 1.13
1888 308,365 657,358 2.13
1889 271,228 634,091 2.33
1890 223,113 605,233 2.71
1892 228,916 803,529 3.51
1895 233,236 826,713 3.54
1897 179,573 846,686 4.71
1898 174,063 836,466 3.66
1900 160,101 833,710 5.20
1904 131,882 851,820 6.45

FIGURE 6.1  Domestic wholesale.

ginseng exported was about $11.1 million, and about $12 million in 1975.10 The
current wholesale prices are about $50–$60 per pound for wild ginseng, and about
$30–$40 per pound for cultivated American ginseng at New York City’s fur traders.
The price fluctuates tremendously due to the sources, the age, and the quality of
the root. Even as it is today, wild ginseng roots are much more highly priced than
cultivated roots, because they grow naturally. All of the American ginseng exporting
records were kept at the Bureau of Census of the U.S. Department of Commerce.
The United States will experience stiff competition for the ginseng market in the
Orient from now on. Both Japan and South Korea, and perhaps later, China, are big
ginseng growers and suppliers in Hong Kong at lower prices for better ginseng roots.
In 1973 the U.S. price hit nearly $50 per pound, compared to Japan’s $25 and South
Korea’s $35 per pound.11

STORY OF AMERICAN GINSENG HUNTING

Ginseng hunters and trappers frequently carried digging tools, food, etc., and went
into the woods to hunt for the “green gold,” and sometimes even women and boys
hunted the roots. The plant was well known to all mountain children, and few were
the mountain cabins that had no ginseng in them waiting for market.
The Flourishing American Ginseng Business in Chinese Market 61

Total
exported Average
Year (Ibs) Total value price
1905 146,576 1,059,849 7.30
1906 160,949 1,175,844 7.30
1908 154,180 1,111,994 7.21
1910 192,406 1,439,434 7.48
1912 155,308 1,119,301 7.20
1913 221,901 1,665,731 7.50
1914 224,605 1,832,685 8.15
1915 103,184 919,931 8.91
1916 256,082 1,597,503 6.23
1917 198,480 1,385,203 6.98
1918 259,892 1,717,548 6.60
1919 282,043 2,057,260 7.29
1920 160,050 1,875,384 11.71
1921 181,758 1,507,077 8.29
1922 202,722 2,334,918 11.51
1923 148,385 2,245,258 15.13
1924 167,318 2,399,926 14.35
1925 138,131 1,668,221 12.07
1926 180,262 2,640,488 14.65
1927 169,000 2,556,000 15.12
1928 184,000 2,288,000 12.43
1929 234,000 2,766,000 11.82
1930 203,000 1,877,000 9.24
1931 265,000 1,922,000 7.25
1932 171,000 835,000 4.88
1933 233,400 844,000 8.62
1934 232,000 1,203,000 5.23
1935 167,000 618,000 3.70
1936 295,000 1,236,000 4.19
1937 136,000 706,000 5.18
1938 167,000 1,028,000 6.15
1964 139,206 2,731,602 19.62
1965 116,791 2,887,310 24.72
1966 173,405 4,358,542 25.13
1967 146,135 4,507,152 30.84
1968 133,701 4,359,524 32.61
1969 145,392 5,533,406 33.06
1970 162,689 5,016,951 30.83
1971 168,835 5,827,289 34.51
1972 227,549 8,922,426 39.21
1973 183,136 8,846,112 48.30
1974 216,832 11,116,787 51.27
1975* 220,000 12,000,000 54.00
* Estimated

FIGURE 6.2  American ginseng exported.

62 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Albert Burnworth, the veteran ginseng digger, who lived near Ohiopyle, Fayette
County, Pennsylvania, recalls the days of his memorable “sang’n” (ginseng hunting).
The following passages are quoted from his own words published in the Pennsylvania
Angler (https://www.fishandboat.com/Transact/AnglerBoater/LegacyIssues/1960s/
Documents/11november1969.pdf):

Most people who know the stuff and who have dug it call it “sang”—and that includes me.

In front of his shaded porch, he said:

Almost everywhere hereabouts “sang” was beginning to show the effects of over-
digging when I was a boy. But there were some nice patches to be found from time to
time. I had no idea what the Chinese people did with “sang.” I just knew that it could
buy the things that people needed. In many families both girls and boys learned early
to distinguished “sang” from other woods plants. Taken to a local country storekeeper
the roots could be exchanged for school clothes and household needs. Shipped to the big
buyers it brought money that made dreams come true. Many a boy got his first fishing
tackle and his first gun and pocket watch with “sang” money.
Asked if he could think of just one old-timer who had done a great deal of “sang”
digging, Mr. Burnworth replied: “Not one. They are all gone, almost like the ‘sang’ is
gone. But there were some good ‘sang’ diggers in this locality. This rich Youghiogheny
watershed produced some big old ‘sang’ roots; but personally I can’t tell of digging any
extremely large roots, the biggest being just a fraction under half a pound, and it was
shaped like a parsnip. I reckon maybe the tales of some ‘sang’ roots are like a few of the
stories about big fish—stretched a bit. And that reminds me, that it wasn’t uncommon
for ‘sang’ diggers of my day to get in some fishing while on a root-hunting jaunt. In
fact I had line and hooks with me a good part of the time when I was ‘sanging.’ I have
dug hundreds of pounds of ‘sang’ and always found the north slopes best suited to its
growth. ‘Sang’ likes cold weather and high elevations and it almost never freezes out. I
usually aimed to do most of my ‘sanging’ in the fall when the ‘sang’ berries were ripe;
and all that I found I’d plant in hard-to-get-to places along the slopes of steep hollows
and the like.”

He continued:

I think that “sang” was struck the biggest blow during the Depression Years. A lot of
country people scoured the hills for it and in a way you couldn’t blame them. A pound
of dry “sang” would buy a nice lot of groceries for a hungry family, or pay a doctor
or buy lots of clothes; and two pounds would buy a good cow. But it’s sad to think of
wild “sang” being just about a thing of the past. Scarcity always does wild things to
prices, and I guess that’s why “sang” is now fetching about forty-two dollars a pound.
I know of a couple of nice stalks of wild “sang” in a hard-to-find nook. Some of my
memories make them almost sacred, so for now, I guess their whereabouts will have
to be my secret. …

REFERENCES
1. Savag, W. N., Penn. Angler, November 1969, pp. 18–22.
2. Time Special Bicentennial Issue, September 26, 1976, p. 44.
The Flourishing American Ginseng Business in Chinese Market 63

3. Camplin, P., “Ginseng Hunting: A Lost Art,” in Our Heritage, Kentucky, October 1965.
4. Schorger, A. W., “Ginseng: A Pioneer Resource,” Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts and Lett., 57: 65,
1969.
5. Nash, G. V., “American Ginseng: Its Commercial History, Protection and Cultivation,”
in U.S. Department of Agriculture, Div. Botany, Bulletin No. 16, Revised edition, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1898.
6. Lass, W. E., “Ginseng Rush in Minnesota,” Minn. Hist., 41: 249, 1969.
7. Harding, A. R., Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants, Emporium Publications, Boston,
1972, pp. 121–132.
8. Stockberger, W. W., “Ginseng Culture,” U.S. Department of Agriculture, in Bulletin No.
1184, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1921, revised, 1949.
9. Williams, L. O., “Ginseng,” Econ. Bot., 11: 344, 1957.
10. U.S. Department of Commerce, extract from U.S. Exports, Schedule B., Commodity
by Country, EQ 629, 2928010, “Ginseng,” January to December, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
11. Agriculture Situation, S.R.S. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., May
1975, p. 12.
 7 The Flourishing Ginseng
Business in Korea,
Japan, and Canada

THE FLOURISHING KOREAN GINSENG BUSINESS

Korea earned its fame and prestige as the ginseng country. The favorable soil and
climate, particularly in the mountain areas, have provided ideal conditions for
producing the highest-quality Korean ginseng roots. In the past 2,000 years, ginseng
has been one of the biggest sources of income to the Korean government and its
people. From 1896 to 1901, Korea exported about 7,000 catties of white ginseng, and
about 30,000–90,000 catties of red ginseng to China each year. The price for white
ginseng was 76 yen while for red ginseng, 2,183 yen per catty.1 Before World War II,
Korea exported about 26,000 catties of red ginseng to China each year, which earned
more than $1.2 million.2 After World War II, the Korean government continued to
keep the monopoly system to manage the ginseng business. The Office of Monopoly
was established in Seoul to cultivate, manufacture, and export Korean red ginseng
products (Figure 7.1).
Many privately owned ginseng farms were then born to cultivate ginseng plants,
making white ginseng products. As a result of systematic and industrialized cultivation
in recent years, ginseng harvesting and exportation had significant growth.
In 1974 South Korea became the number one ginseng grower and exporter in the
world.3
Korean ginseng roots used for exportation have a wide variety of specifications—
that is, size, color, and age—and can be quite puzzling to buyers. Two kinds of
ginseng roots are most common for export: the red ginseng and white ginseng
roots.  There are at least six grades or classes of Korean red ginseng roots. 3
According to the Korean government’s export standard, the red ginseng classes
are as follows:

Heaven Brand First Class

Earth Brand Second Class
Good Brand Third Class
Large Tails Fourth Class
Small Tails Fifth Class
Cut Brand Sixth Class

The current price for first-class Korean red ginseng is about $200 per 600 g retail
at Chinatown, New York’s drugstores.

65
66 The Healing Power of Ginseng

FIGURE 7.1  Korean red ginseng roots and products. (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and
Truth About Ginseng, Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)

The Korean white ginseng roots are usually doubly cheaper than the red ones.
Similarly, the classification is based on the age, size, and weight of the root.3 Evidently,
there are six grades of white ginseng roots, which are as follows:
Each 600 g box contains:

Class A No more than 10 roots

Class B Not less than 11, but no more than 20 roots
Class C Not less than 21, but not more than 30 roots
Class D Not less than 31, but not more than 40 roots
Class E Not less than 41, but not more than 50 roots
Class F More than 50 roots

The Class A white root is currently sold at about $50–$60, and the Class E grade
white root is sold at about $36 dollars per 600 g, F.O.B. Korean port.
Korean red ginseng is famed throughout the world for being the highest quality,
and the only competitors for international markets come from China and North
Korea. The United States, Canada, and Japan are keen competitors in the sale of
The Flourishing Ginseng Business in Korea, Japan, and Canada 67

white ginseng root. However, since the Office of Monopoly guaranteed the quality
of ginseng roots and their processed products, the exportation of red ginseng alone
reached to $9.6 million in 1973, from $5.3 million in 1972, with a growth of about
82% in 1 year. Exportation of white ginseng and its products is similarly subject to
government inspection (Figure 7.2).
In 1970, Japan imported more than $2 million worth of Korean white ginseng. The
biggest customers of white ginseng next to Japan are West Germany and Switzerland.
They usually import the top-grade white ginseng, while Japan, on the other hand,
prefers the lower grade or the cheapest roots.
Currently, Korean ginseng products are shipped abroad by about 30 major ginseng
industrial firms. Red ginseng is primarily exported to Hong Kong, followed by the
United States, Singapore, the Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, Thailand, France,

FIGURE 7.2  Korean white ginseng roots. (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and Truth
About Ginseng, Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)
68 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Italy, Holland, Canada, South America, and African countries. Korean white ginseng
products are mostly shipped to Japan, Hong Kong, Switzerland, West Germany,
Malaya, and the Middle East countries, according to the Office of Monopoly.
In addition to red ginseng and white ginseng roots, exported items also include
ginseng in syrup or “honey ginseng,” instant ginseng tea, ginseng cake and candy,
ginseng extract, ginseng powder, ginseng drink, ginseng tablets, ginseng capsules,
ginseng pills, ginseng fluid extract, ginseng tincture, ginseng elixir, ginseng wine,
and ginseng electuary. Most of these products have been found only relatively recently
in health-food stores and Oriental drugstores in the United States.
The Korean ginseng business has had records of fantastic growth. According
to the Office of Monopoly, in 1970 the total amount of ginseng products exported
was $8.3 million in comparison with $3.7 million in 1968, and only $492,000
in 1963. Growth was even larger as shown by earnings: about $14.2 million in
1972, $23 million in 1973, and $31 million in 1974, with a $45 million target
in 1975 of total exportation of Korean ginseng products. Each year had about
30%–50% net growth, which indicates that ginseng is indeed selling very well. If
the ginseng-loving population could be doubled in the next 2–3 years, one would
expect Korean ginseng exportation to double, and a $100 million target would
not be difficult to reach.
In recent years, red ginseng health supplements have been consumed in the
forms of ginseng root, powder, tablet, capsule, concentrated extracts, soft capsule,
pill, granule, beverage, candy, etc. The production amount by classification of each
ginseng type in South Korea as of 2009 is estimated as follows.
In South Korea, ginseng is widely consumed by children as well as the elderly.
Ginseng-consuming classes are gradually expanding to children and youth; ginseng
products have become the most popular health foods for all Koreans. In South Korea,
ginseng consumption stays steady throughout the year, and sales reach the highest
marks around New Year’s Day, Parents’ Day, Chuseok holiday seasons, etc.
Red ginseng, the most attractive product of the South Korean ginseng markets,
takes approximately 59% of the entire South Korean market, and the consumption
continuously rises every year, growing steadily each year in every ginseng type as
well as health foods.

GINSENG BUSINESS IN JAPAN

Market value of the crude cultivated Panax ginseng in Japan varies considerably
with the sources of production and age. The Fukushima ginseng root is the
cheapest, the Nagano ginseng root is medium priced, and the Shimane ginseng
root is the most expensive. For example, in 1973, the 6-year-old Fukushima root
was sold at 3,500 yen, Nagano root was sold at 4,500 yen, and Shimane root was
sold at 6,000 yen per kilogram. From 1970 to 1973, prices went up at a rate of about
10%–20% each year as shown in Table 7.1. Accordingly, the Japanese ginseng root
was sold in Japan at about $6.17 in 1970, $6.21 in 1971, $6.80 in 1972, and $7.05
per pound in 1973. The price of a 5-year-old root is cheaper than a 6-year-old root
by about 10%–15%, while a 4-year-old root is cheaper than a 5-year-old root by
another 10%.
The Flourishing Ginseng Business in Korea, Japan, and Canada 69

TABLE 7.1
Annual Exportation of Red Ginseng, White Ginseng and Other Ginseng
Products from Japan
Year Red Ginseng White Ginseng Others Totala
1970 Kg 80,984 4,633 2,051
1000¥ 1,251,260 54,038 14,152 1,319,450
($4,398,166)
1971 Kg 110,416 4,219 47,815
1000¥ 1,875,346 49,551 12,462 1,937,359
($6,457,863)
1972 Kg 88,185 4,094 4,537
1000¥ 1,352,126 41,235 25,987 1,419,342
($4,731,140)
1973 Kg 83,764 3,529 11,390
1000¥ 1,360,572 39,436 133,596 1,534,104
($5,113,680)
1974 Kg 109,376 4,142 13,980
1000¥ 2,695,058 49,936 163,414 2,908,408
($9,694,693)

a According to the current rate of U.S.$1 = 300¥.

The annual production of cultivated ginseng in Japan is about 319,000 kg (or

703,200 lbs) including 4-, 5-, and 6-year-old roots. Based on the market value of the
different roots, the total value of Japanese ginseng is about $4.3 million.
The best ginseng roots are usually made into red ginseng for exportation. The
inferior roots are made into white ginseng and other processed ginseng products
consumed domestically or exported. The processed ginseng products are ginseng
extract, ginseng tincture, tea, etc., sold at health-food stores.
Japanese ginseng exportation is similarly a flourishing business. In 1970, Japan
exported ginseng products valued at about $4.4 million, $6.4 million in 1971, $4.7
million in 1972, $5.1 million in 1973, $9.7 million in 1974, and $10 million in 1975.
Nearly 95% of the products are exported to Hong Kong, and the rest of the products
are exported to Singapore, Thailand, West Germany, France, and the United States.4

CURRENT REGULATION OF GINSENG PRODUCTS

In the last few years, the import of foreign ginseng and ginseng products has become a
boom. Almost all health-food stores, Oriental-goods stores, and even some American
drugstores are now stocked with and selling imported ginseng products from Korea,
the Soviet Union, and China. Ginseng tea, extracts, tablets, and capsules have been
best sellers. These products are sold as food, not as drugs.
Because modern scientific information on the medicinal value of ginseng has
not reached the hands of government agencies, ginseng is still banned from being
70 The Healing Power of Ginseng

marketed domestically as a drug. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
has been effectively prohibiting the importation and marketing in the United States
of all forms of pharmaceutical ginseng products bearing medical claims. The FDA
similarly issued a guidance several years ago that: “We are not aware of any evidence
tending to establish that ginseng should be generally recognized safe for use in
alcoholic beverages or as flavoring agent in carbonated beverages or soft drinks.”
However, the FDA permits the import and marketing of ginseng roots and other
ginseng products provided that no nutritional or therapeutic claims are made on the
labels of the products.5

GINSENG BUSINESS IN CANADA

Ginseng has a special place in the history of Ontario and Quebec. Roots were used
in traditional Native medicines. In 1715, a Jesuit priest recognized the plant from
descriptions out of China and initiated export to Hong Kong. At one time, the ginseng
trade rivaled the fur trade. All of the roots were harvested from the forests, and now
truly wild ginseng is rare in Ontario and Quebec. In June 2008, the Endangered
Species Act, 2007, came into effect in Ontario, making it illegal to plant, harvest,
possess, buy, sell, lease, or trade ginseng collected from the wild in Ontario without
authorization through a permit or agreement under the act.
Under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), a
permit is required for export of ginseng. This permit is necessary for field-cultivated
roots but not for live plants, seeds, or processed roots. The exportation of wild ginseng
root from Canada is prohibited. Ginseng was first cultivated in Ontario in the field
under artificial shade in the late 1800s, near Waterford, Ontario. It was not until after
World War II that the ginseng industry began to expand, and until the 1980s, there
was a limited number of growers in Ontario. Since then, acreage has increased, and
in 2010, there were more than 140 producers of this root and over 2,200 ha (5,300
acres) under cultivation.

REFERENCES
1. Aston, Pharm. J., 15: 732, 1885.
2. Jones, B., “Ginseng: Seoul’s Oldest Export,” New York Times, March 14, 1971.
3. Statistical Year Book of Foreign Trade, Department of Customs Administration,
Republic of Korea, 1974.
4. Fujisan Marketing Report, July, 1975.
5. Import Alert, U.S. Food and Drug Administration Headquarters, Field Compliance
Branch January 28, 1975.
 8 Current American
Ginseng Dollar Value
Both American Ginseng and Asian ginseng are valued as folk remedies to treat
everything from cancer to erectile dysfunction, but while some studies have found that
ginseng may boost the immune system and lower blood sugar, there’s no conclusive
evidence that it can treat other medical conditions. Still, ginseng roots are highly
valued, especially wild American ginseng, which Asian buyers believe to be more
potent than cultivated plants.
“Wild American ginseng is considered to be the best in the world and is considerably
more valuable than commercially farmed ginseng or Asian varieties,” said Sara Jackson
of Bat Cave Botanicals. Jackson has been growing and ethically harvesting a population
of wild ginseng in western North Carolina for more than 10 years.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife reports show that exports of wild ginseng increased by about
40 percent between 2012 and 2013, with the majority of the roots going to China, where
ginseng has been picked to near extinction.
Ginseng buyers in Asia pay a premium for certain types of roots. Those known as
“man roots”—ones with a human shape and what appear to be body parts—can go for
thousands of dollars.
One of Jackson’s manroots was listed for sale on Etsy for $7,000 (Figure 8.1).
“The price of ginseng varies from year to year, but the one constant is the demand
for wild ginseng roots with potency and character,” she said. “This particular ginseng
root is a remarkable example of a ‘man root,’ [which] is quite rare and sought after in
the ginseng world.” …
Jackson points out that because this particular root has a feminine character and
resembles a woman cradling a child, it’s particularly precious, especially since ginseng
is often used as a fertility aid.
However, Jackson’s ginseng may also be considered valuable because of where it
comes from.

Wild Mountain American Ginseng is very expensive, and 1 lb could be worth

$1,600–$2,500.

Some of the most sought-after ginseng is harvested from the hills of the eastern U.S.,
primarily from North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky and West Virginia,
where ginseng hunters can find older, more valuable roots. Ginseng from these areas
can sell for a few hundred dollars in summer, but by fall when the growing season
comes to an end, those prices tend to rise above $1,000.
According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the annual wholesale value of the
American ginseng trade is $26.9 million.1

71
72 The Healing Power of Ginseng

FIGURE 8.1  Wild American ginseng is widely believed to be more potent than other
varieties. (Photo: Stephanie Frey/Shutterstock.)

Sales of cultivated American ginseng from Wisconsin ginseng farms, for example,
sales of 5-year-old roots, depend on the sizes of the roots (Figure 8.2):

• Small-sized pieces, 8 oz about 70–80 pieces

• Medium-sized pieces, 8 oz about 45–50 pieces
• 1/4 lb, $61.00
• 1/2 lb, $121.00

GINSENG DEALERS
In the last few years, a new booming ginseng business has become prevalent. Herb
shops, almost all health-food stores, Oriental-goods stores, and even drugstores now
sell foreign as well as American ginseng products. You have no problem getting all
kinds of modern ginseng products in almost all large cities in the United States and
many countries in Europe. While it is impractical to provide a complete list of ginseng
dealers in the United States, the firms listed in Table 8.1 are a few dealers that sell

FIGURE 8.2  Cultivated American ginseng from Wisconsin ginseng farms.

Current American Ginseng Dollar Value 73

TABLE 8.1
Ginseng Roots and Ginseng Products Sellers
Eastern States
A A Ginseng Whol Inc Grocers Harding’s Wild Mountain Herbs
18417 Colima Road 118 Walnut Street
Rowland Heights, CA 91748 Friendsville, MD 21531
(626) 810-1652 (301) 746-5380
Abraham American Ginseng Company Heise’s Wausau Farm
44725 Fir Road 2805 Valley View Road
Gold Bar, WA 98251 Wausau, WI 54403
(206) 794-2873 (715) 675-3862
Betsy Kurtzweil Hong Long Ginseng LLC
C2337 Fairview Road 28 Billings Road
Edgar, WI 54426 Quincy, MA 02171
(715) 687-2426 (617) 773-0828
Bezzie Bee Hsu S Ginseng Enterprise Inc.
780 Redfield Road 53 Ludlow St Front 1
Mosinee, WI 54455 New York, NY 10002
(715) 693-3755 (212) 274-8653
Bill Downey Hus’s Ginseng Enterprise
C4217 Wiesman Road T555 Arrow Drive
Stratford, WI 54484 Wausu, WI 54401
(715) 687-4437 (715) 675-2325
Chuen Hing Co. Jacks Ginseng
215 East 26th Street 307 North 7th Avenue
New York, NY Wausau, WI 54401
(212) MU 6-5013 (715) 845-2889
Clearview Ginseng Jeff Kamenick
1101 South 3rd Avenue 13554 County Road O
Edgar, WI 54426 Merrill, WI 54452
(715) 352-2997 (715) 536-9071
Dale Braunel Jerome Seubert
2439 4th Street R439 Lovers Lane
Marathon City, WI 54448 Athens, WI 54411
(715) 443-2485 (715) 257-7296
Dave Lemke J & K Ginseng Inc.
W6869 Cedar Street 36911 153rd Avenue
Chelsea, WI 54451 Stanley, WI 54768
(715) 748-5997 (715) 644-2733
David Williamson John Rasti Ginseng Farms
D2740 Day Avenue 3617 Golf View Drive
Marshfield, WI 54449 Wausau, WI 54403
(715) 384-2091 (715) 848-7216
(Continued)
74 The Healing Power of Ginseng

TABLE 8.1  (Continued)

Ginseng Roots and Ginseng Products Sellers
Eastern States
Duane Boehm Karl Behnke
2714 West State Highway 153 1778 County Road South
Mosinee, WI 54455 Edgar, WI 54426
(715) 693-2135 (715) 443-3211
Forlin Inc. K & K Roots
E11101 East Bloomingdale Road 41 North Madison Avenue
Westby, WI 54667 North Vernon, IN 47265
(608) 625-2243 (812) 346-7364
Gae Poong Korean Ginseng Korea Red Ginseng
40-15 150th Street 1580 Makaloa St. # 101
Flushing, NY Honolulu, HI 96814
(212) 539-6366 (808) 952-9966
Gary Betts Lucid Dreams LLC
10305 SW Bryon Court 802 East Main Street
Wilsonville, OR 97070 Murfreesboro, TN 37130
(615) 200-8076
Gerald Witberler Inc. Merle Weege
16306 Highland Drive 4762 Sunset Drive
Marathon City, WI 54448 Mosinee, WI 54455
(715) 443-2824 (715) 693-6474
Ginseng & Herb CO-OP Metcalf’s Ginseng
3899 County Road B 412 Scott Farm Road
Marathon City, WI 54448 Afton, TN 37616
(715) 443-3355
Ginseng Select Products Inc Tom Hack
611 Druid Road East 711 2448 County Road
Clearwater, FL 33756 Mosinee, WI 54455
(715) 593-3417
Grand Wisconsin Ginseng, LLC Tong Fl Enterprises, Inc.
2402 Gowen Street 99-17 Queens Blvd.
Wausau, WI 54403 Flushing, NY
(715) 432-5196 (212) 459-1666
Guofen Tran Tung Yen Tong Co.
6590 West 120th Avenue 19 Pell Street
Broomfield, CO 80020 New York, NY 10013
(720) 524-6148 (212) 233-9586

modern ginseng products, with the understanding that no discrimination is intended

and no guarantee of reliability is implied. Most states have lists of licensed ginseng
dealers, and this information can be found on each state’s website. The market prices
of these ginseng products, as you may have already figured out, vary significantly as
Current American Ginseng Dollar Value 75

a result of source, brand, packaging, strength, etc. It is a good idea to write to or visit
several different firms or stores to find out which store you think is most reasonable.
Also, to shop wisely, you may check the Internet or call for lists of products and
prices. Since ginseng products are sold over the counter or on the web, no prescription
is needed.

REFERENCE
1. Moss, L. “Ginseng Demand Boosts Prices and Poaching.” Mother Nature Network,
MNN.com, October 2, 2015 (https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/wilderness-resources/
stories/ginseng-demand-bosts-prices-crime).
Section III
Growing Your Own
Ginseng Plant
 9 Growing Ginseng
Plant in China and
the United States

GROWING YOUR OWN GINSENG PLANT

It has been fully demonstrated that ginseng plants can be raised successfully in a field
where the necessary conditions are furnished. That is to say, ginseng plants must be
provided with a forest-like environment.1–4 Those who own forest lands can grow
ginseng plants easily. Also, it was formerly thought that ginseng could grow only
under conditions exclusive to the Far East. However, experimental work has shown
that ginseng can be raised successfully in many parts of the northern temperate
zone, in some regions of European Russia and of southeastern Europe, in eastern
Siberia, and in North America.5 Ginseng can be grown from seeds, seedlings, or
roots. Plants free from blight or mildew and growing spontaneously in the woodland
can be transplanted to prepared gardens. Ginseng is a very slow-growing and exacting
crop. It will be disappointing if not properly managed.
The cultivation of ginseng, since the beginning, has been a promising and
profitable industry. As a crop, however, ginseng is no gold mine, but it certainly
gives a reasonable return to growers who are willing to care for the crop for at least
the 5 or 6 years that are required to reach maturity. The total acreage of ginseng
farms in the whole world today is not sufficient to meet the demand of the market.
Should there be a temporary decline in price, or should a glut occur, as has sometimes
been the case, a grower need lose nothing, since he or she may leave the roots in the
ground for 1 year or more, knowing that they are improving in size and quality. Other
advantages of the ginseng industry are that it may be started and continued without
excessive outlay, and may be confined to land that otherwise could not be used for
cultivated crops. When properly cultivated, a small area may be made to yield a very
large proportionate return.
Ginseng has become an increasingly important medicinal plant in the Western
world since World War II. To meet the demand, improvements in methods of ginseng
cultivation and control of typical ginseng diseases have been attained through
extensive agricultural research in the Orient, the United States, and the Soviet Union.
At present, increasing cultivation and output are the main concerns of ginseng-
producing countries.6
It is most probable that the demand for ginseng will increase in the foreseeable
future. The price will, naturally, continue to increase. This has been the case for the
last 200 years. The large-scale industrialized cultivation of Panax ginseng in China,
Korea, Japan, and perhaps Siberia would certainly affect the market for American

79
80 The Healing Power of Ginseng

ginseng. Nevertheless, the world market for ginseng has been so great that it far
exceeds the supply. With more and more people turning to ginseng, the demand could
double in the next decade. If you are a potential ginseng grower, you need not worry
about the market.

CULTIVATION OF GINSENG IN THE ORIENT

Growing ginseng is a rather difficult job because it does not grow in conditions
different from its natural environment. Ginseng grows most happily in the northern
temperate zone between 36° and 38° north, where the degree of humidity is exactly
suited to its prima donna temperament. At all stages in its development, the young
ginseng plant must be protected from snow, rain, frost, hurricane, and, most important
of all, direct sunlight. The plant is covered with thatched shades like terraced rows
of little bus shelters. The ginseng plant, by nature, is a dark lover, growing without
the need for too much sunshine or radiant energy. Accordingly, receiving the right
amount of light is important during its growth.
The root is not harvested until it has reached the sixth year, and by that time it
has sucked nearly all of the natural nutrients from the earth so that the field cannot
be reused for another ginseng crop for about 10–15 years. Top-quality soil produces
superior ginseng. For the seedbed, a soil of sand or gravelly sand formed through
weathering of granite, gneiss, and calcite is recommended. For the field, soils
composed of a texture of sandy clay loam, sandy loam, and loamy sand are suitable.
All types of chemical fertilizers are found unsatisfactory or even harmful for growing
ginseng plants. Special composites, called yakto, are used to increase the high quality
of the root. The yakto is a complex product made from fermenting the raw foliage of
broad-leaved trees and a small amount of green grass, cottonseed cake, soybean cake,
and defatted rice bran. Fermented human waste mixed with animal waste, tree ashes,
and chimney soot has also been used. In both the seedbed and the field, yakto or
natural fertilizer is usually employed as the prime source of nutrients. The top-grade
bed soil is made with sufficient yakto and chimney soot. The nutrients absorbed by
the plant thus stimulate its growth. The quality of the ginseng root, no doubt, depends
on the soil and nutrients used during cultivation.
Seeds are taken from 4-year-old plants and raised to seedling stage in carefully
drained seedbeds. The season for sowing seeds of ginseng is preferably in late
October or early November. The seeds grow in a nursery for one and a half years,
and in March or April they are transplanted into the field or permanent beds. Usually,
the seedlings are planted out in beds raised a foot above the level of the surrounding
soil, bordered with upright slates, and covered from heavy sun and rain by shades of
reeds 3- or 4-feet high, well closed in, except toward the north side, where they are
left more or less open, according to the weather.
Sheds are placed in rows with just enough room to walk between them. Ginseng is
transplanted frequently during this period. Ginseng rarely blooms in less than 2 years,
older plants start flowering around the middle of May and bear red fruit in middle or
late July.15 The stem is about 6 inches high with four horizontal leaves standing out
from the stem at right angles, and in the fifth year, a strong, healthy plant has reached
maturity, though it is usual not to take it up until it has reached the sixth year. The
Growing Ginseng Plant in China and the United States 81

roots, after harvesting in autumn, are very carefully washed and scraped, and are then
treated in one of two ways traditionally used by the Chinese (see Chapter 2), yielding
white or red ginseng roots, respectively.
The ginseng seed has a hard coat on its surface, and since the embryo is incomplete,
some manipulation is necessary to accelerate its germination. Methods to accelerate
germination, control of typical ginseng plant diseases, and the interrelation between
the raising process and the environment have been under intensive research in the
Orient. The results of these types of studies are covered in the following sections.

GROWING GINSENG IN THE UNITED STATES

Ginseng grows naturally on slopes of ravines and in well-drained sites where soil is
formed from the acid leaf mold of hardwood forests. The soil should be naturally dry
and fairly light, and in a condition to grow good vegetables without the addition of
strong manure. By proper treatment almost any fairly good soil can be conditioned
for ginseng growing. The addition of woodland soil tends to produce hard, flinty roots
of inferior quality.
In the book called Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants, written by A.R. Harding
in 1908, detailed information on the habits and cultivation of American ginseng is
given.4 The Farmers’ Bulletin, Nos. 1184 and 2201, published by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture, also give detailed information on growing American ginseng. The
following information on growing and harvesting American ginseng given in this
chapter is based on the Farmers’ Bulletin, Nos. 1184 and 2201, respectively.
First, American ginseng must be provided with favorable conditions for growth.
Selection of the proper location, preparation of the soil, and good drainage are
important in planting ginseng. The best site for beds is a hardwood forest, with tall
trees to provide favorable dense shade, and with little undergrowth. Similar drainage
and shade conditions should be maintained when growing ginseng in lath sheds.
Make beds 4 feet wide with walkways between them. For root planting work the beds
up to 12 inches deep. For seeds and seedlings, work the beds only 8 inches or so deep
to prevent settling. Mound the center of permanent planting beds to provide space for
more plants and, if located on flat ground, to facilitate good runoff of water. Slope the
walkways so that they will drain water from the beds during heavy rains. The most
favorable conditions for the soil are a rich, sandy, loamy soil. Clay land can be used,
but one has to mix it with leaf mold, rotten wood and leaves, and some light soil, and
it must be thoroughly pulverized.
Ginseng needs three-fourths shade during the summer and free circulation of
air. The proper amount of shade can be provided in lath sheds or by trees in a forest
planting. Laths should run north to south to provide alternating sun and shade to the
plant. Do not use burlap or muslin; they interfere with air circulation.
For seedbeds, break up soil to a depth of 6–8 inches, and remove all weeds,
grasses, and roots. Mix one-to-one with fiber-free woodland soil. If the soil is inclined
to be heavy, add enough sand so that the mixture will not harden after heavy rain.
Use of seeds instead of seedlings may prevent the introduction of disease to new
plantations. Also, this is the least expensive way to start a plantation, but it requires
a longer period until harvest.
82 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Seeds ripen in the fall but generally do not germinate until the following fall. Do
not allow ripe seeds to dry out. Store them in a cool, moist place. Use woodland soil,
sand, loam, or sawdust as a storage medium.
Plant seeds in the spring, as soon as the soil can be tilled. Only scarified or partially
germinated seeds should be used for planting. They are planted 8 inches apart each
way in permanent beds, or 2 × 6 inches apart in seedbeds. Cover seeds with 1 inch
of forest soil, or well-rotted or basswood sawdust; do not use pine or oak sawdust.
Some growers plant the seeds when they ripen in September and cover the beds
with leaf mold or mulch. They keep the beds covered until spring, when the seeds
begin to sprout.
Ginseng seedlings are more expensive than seeds, but a crop grown from seedlings
can be harvested 2 or 3 years sooner than a crop propagated from seeds. Several firms
sell 1-, 2-, or 3-year-old seedlings. Three-year-old seedlings produce seed during the
first fall after planting, which may be used for planting future crops. Set seedlings in
permanent beds, 8 inches apart each way. Closer spacing tends to increase disease
in the plantation.
Roots may be set any time from October to April, after the soil has been tilled.
Fall planting, however, is usually preferred. Plant roots 2 inches below the bed surface
and 8 inches apart each way. When roots are not available from woodlands, beginners
should purchase them from reputable growers. Roots grow more rapidly when not
permitted to seed.
Ginseng may be grown directly in woodlots, or in lath sheds with partial shade—
an environment similar to the plant’s natural habitat. Plants thrive best in loamy soil,
such as found in oak and sugar maple forests in the North. Shade is essential.
Ginseng requires relatively little cultivation. The beds should be kept free of grass
and weeds, and the soil should be scratched with a light implement whenever it shows
signs of caking. One active man can easily take care of about 2 acres of ginseng.
A winter mulch over the crown is essential to prevent heaving by frost. A 4- or
5-inch layer is ample in the most severe climate; less is needed in the South. Spread
mulch when frost is imminent, and remove it in the spring before the first shoots
appear. Light mulching to retain moisture during dry weather is also advisable.
Forest leaves or light brush, held in place with poultry netting, makes the best
mulch. Cornstalks stripped of husks, bean vines, cowpea hay, and buckwheat straw
are also suitable if they do not contain weeds, seeds, or other material attractive
to rodents.
Many growers are opposed to excessive use of fertilizers. Heavy use of barnyard
and chemical fertilizers lessens the resemblance of cultivated ginseng to the wild
root. Overmanuring also forces growth and lowers the resistance of ginseng to the
attack of disease.
Some growers fertilize with leaves or old sawdust from hardwood trees, or with
ground-up, rotten hardwood. Others prefer woodland soil or rotted leaves 4–6 inches
deep, spaded to a depth of about 8 inches, with fine, raw bonemeal well worked in,
and applied at the rate of 1 pound per square yard.
Fence beds keep out animals and discourage theft. Protect the beds from moles
with boards or close-mesh wire netting set 12–18 inches in the ground. Rodents may
be controlled with traps.
Growing Ginseng Plant in China and the United States 83

A ginseng crop matures in 5–7 years. Generally the roots are dug in mid-October
of the sixth year. Good roots are about 4 inches long, 1 inch thick below the crown,
and average one ounce in the fresh state. Older roots possess the most substance and
when properly cured bring the highest prices.
The proper time for digging ginseng roots is in autumn, mostly in October, and
they should be carefully washed, sorted, and slowly dried. If the ginseng roots are
collected at other seasons of the year, they will shrink more and not have the fine,
plump appearance of the fall-dug root. Dig the roots with their forks intact. Carefully
free them of adhering soil so as to preserve their natural color and characteristic
circular markings. Do not scrape or scrub them. The market value of the product
is based, in part, on wholeness and appearance. Some growers replant young and
undersized roots, or heel them in until spring planting.
The clean, fresh roots are usually dried in a well-ventilated heated room, at about
60°F–80°F, and after a few days, the temperature of the room can be raised up to
90°F. until the roots dry. Spread the roots thinly on lattice or wire-netting shelves.
Turn them frequently but handle with care to avoid marring the surface or breaking
the small branches. Roots more than 2 inches in diameter will need to be dried for
about 6 weeks. During damp and very wet weather, care should be taken to see that
the roots do not mold or sour. They should never be overheated, since this will tend
to discolor the surface and spoil the texture of the roots. Too fast drying at too high a
temperature damages the roots both physically and chemically. When all cured, the
roots should be stored in a dry, airy, and rodent-proof place or in containers.
It is of great importance that the roots should be properly treated for marketing.
They should never be split in washing or drying. The little neck or bud-stem should
be unbroken, for if it is missing, the roots lose two-thirds of their value in the market.
In the ginseng business, as in other trades, there are tricks. The tricky ginseng diggers
have been known to try to adulterate the ginseng shipments with pokeweed and other
roots. The inexperienced buyer may at times be fooled, but not the dealer who really
knows his business. Ginseng roots have also been doctored with thin slivers of lead
and other weights to make them heavier. Sometimes, depending on how skillfully
the insert is made and camouflaged, the deceptive scheme is difficult to detect. Of
course artificial weight has to be added when the ginseng is green, and sometimes
the drying process cracks the roots and exposes the petty fraud. No matter how well
it grades out, Chinese buyers never rate American ginseng better than third class.
The cultivation of American ginseng and the control of ginseng diseases have
been researched by both governmental agencies and many Agriculture Experiment
Stations at state colleges and universities during the ginseng boom years. In 1895,
the U.S. Department of Agriculture published Farmers’ Bulletin (no. 16) entitled
“American Ginseng, Its Commercial History, Protection, and Cultivation.” The
request for this bulletin was great enough to require the revision and printing of a
new edition in 1898. In 1902, the bulletin was again reprinted with the addition of
a “Note of Warning” signed by Frederick V. Coville calling attention to a “BOOM”
in the sale of ginseng seeds and roots. Because of the extravagant prices, fraudulent
and adulterated species were unavoidable. In 1904 and after, bulletins on ginseng
culture and diseases were also published by state agricultural experiment stations
in Pennsylvania, New York, Kentucky, Missouri, and possibly elsewhere. In 1913,
84 The Healing Power of Ginseng

a new ginseng bulletin (no. 551) written by V.F. Valter, entitled “The Cultivation of
American Ginseng,” was published. In 1921, the U.S. Department of Agriculture
issued another bulletin, Farmers’ Bulletin no. 1184, edited by W. W. Stockberger,
entitled “Ginseng Culture” and reprinted in 1941 and 1953. The most recent issue of
a ginseng bulletin, the Farmers’ Bulletin no. 2201, written by L. Williams, entitled
“Growing Ginseng” was issued in 1963. The requests were so enormous that the same
bulletin had to be reprinted in 1964 and 1973.
We do not know how many Americans are still interested in growing ginseng
plants today, but there are many. A recent article in the New York Times5 described
how Denver Davis grows his ginseng plants in the hills of northern Georgia. Davis
started growing ginseng as a hobby 19 years ago. He said: “When I first started, the
first year I got a matchbox full of seeds, and I thought I had done some good. Now
I am digging 12 bushels a year, getting two gallons of seeds.” On his 2-acre ginseng
farm, the ginseng plants are from 1 to 15 years old, and most of them are mature and
ready to harvest. Once the plants are mature, the tops are discarded, the roots are
harvested, and the roots are dried in a heated building like a tobacco barn. They lose
two-thirds of their weight in moisture before the pale-yellow roots are ready for sale.
Another ginseng grower, Mr. Gooch, also of Georgia, owns a 4-acre ginseng farm. He
harvests 300–600 pounds of ginseng root per acre, worth $20–$30 a pound to dealers,
while the dealers, usually fur and hide traders, sell at as high as $60 a pound to the
Asian buyers. Talking about growing your own ginseng plant, Davis said: “You have
to week it five to six times a year, the moles and rats are after it all the time. A lazy
man ain’t going to grow it.”

SPEEDING UP GERMINATION AND GROWTH

Since in the newly ripened seeds the embryo is not yet formed, the sprouting of
ginseng seeds usually takes about 18–22 months. The development of the embryo,
under natural conditions, takes several additional months after ripening of the seeds.
This fact was revealed only a few years ago, but the Chinese and Korean ginseng
growers empirically knew about this and worked out special pre-sowing treatments of
the seeds. However, their traditional methods proved not to be satisfactory according
to the standards of modern agriculture.6
Seeds stratified immediately upon ripening sprouted after 8 months; those
stratified after 4 months of storage under dry conditions sprouted in 19 months. In
the last few years, Japanese and Soviet botanists have developed a new and effective
method of hastening germination with a chemical agent called gibberellic acid.6
Gibberellic acid has been widely used in promoting growth of plants, especially the
growth of seedlings.7 Gibberellic acid belongs to the family Giberellins, and so far at
least 14 gibberellins have been isolated. This plant growth promoter is obtained from
the fungus Gibberella fujikoroi (Sawada) Wollenweber.
Soviet botanists Grushivitskii and Limari found that in the ginseng seeds treated
with gibberellic acid, the length of the first stage of after-ripening is reduced from
4 to 2 months; consequently, the whole period of preparation of the seeds for sowing
is reduced from 8 to 6 months.8 According to Japanese agriculturalists Ohsumi and
Miyazawa, when ginseng seeds were soaked in various concentrations of gibberellic
Growing Ginseng Plant in China and the United States 85

acid solution and incubated in a sand bed, gibberellin promoted the growth of the
embryo and, as a result, raised the rate of germination.9 The germinating power, or
the number of seeds germinated, was increased approximately from 50%–70% to
90%–100%. The best results were obtained if the seeds were previously treated with
0.05%–0.1% of gibberellic acid solution over a period of 25 hours.10
Other germination-promoting agents, such as kinetin, naphthal-epeacetic acid,
indole-3-acetic acid, 2,4-D in addition to gibberellic acid were also tested. The best
growth-promoting agent so far detected, was gibberellic acid. Recent studies in Japan
used a 100 p.p.m. aqueous solution of gibberellic acid in which seeds were immersed
for 24 hours, and germination of seeds was accelerated by lowering the temperature
to 2°C–15°C for about 10 days. The optimum temperature for germination was found
to be 10°C.11
The effects of light intensity and pH of the culture medium on ginseng plant growth
have been reported by Kuribayashi and associates.12,13 Two-year-old plants were grown
in Wagner sand pots and supplied with Hoogland and Arnon nutrient solution. The light
intensity was adjusted to 100%, 50%, 30%, 10%, and 5% of natural normal sunlight,
and the pH of the soil was adjusted to 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, respectively. After 4 months
of cultivation, it was found that no plant survived at the 100% and 50% light intensities,
whereas the majority of the plants survived at 5%–10% sunlight (about 3,000–6,000
lux) intensity. High alkalinity destroys ginseng plants. Many ginseng plants died at the
environment soil of pH 7 and 8, whereas they grow normally in pH 4, 5, and 6 medium.
Accordingly, 5%–10% sunlight intensity, and the slightly acidic environment medium
with pH of 5–6 are the most optimum conditions for ginseng growing.14
Research also indicates that light has a significant effect on the absorption of
the nutrient by the plant. The concentrations of the plant nitrogen, phosphor, and
potassium are different under different light intensity conditions. The maximum rate
of intake of these nutritive substances by the plant is under shade or dark conditions.
The common forest soil on which ginseng normally thrives is usually brownish-gray
in color, containing a relatively greater amount of aluminum, calcium, magnesium,
nitrogen, organic matters, and sulfur. Plant research shows that soil with a relatively
higher content of sulfur, magnesium, calcium, in addition to the other three essential
nutrients, is very important for promoting the normal growth of ginseng culture.

REFERENCES
1. Hong, S. K., in Korean Ginseng Science Symposium, Korean Society of Pharmacognosy,
Seoul, 1974, pp. 37–54.
2. Stockberger, W. W. “Ginseng Culture,” in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1184, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, 1921, Revised 1941.
3. Williams, L. “Growing Ginseng,” in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 2201, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, 1964, Revised 1973, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
4. Harding, A. R. Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants, Emporium Publications, Boston,
1972.
5. King, W., “Georgean Farm,” The New York Times, October 11, 1975.
6. Baranov, A. Econ. Bot., 20: 403, 1966.
7. (a) Bukovac and Wittwer, Q. Bull. Michigan Agric. Exp. Stn., 39: 307, 1956. (b) Merritt,
J. Ag. Food Chem., 6: 184, 1958.
86 The Healing Power of Ginseng

8. Grushvitskii, I. V. and R. S. Limar, J. Bot., USSR, 50: 215, 1965.

9. Osumi, T. and Y. Miwazawa, Nogyo Oyobi Engei, 35: 723, 1960, via Chem. Abstr., 56:
2731g, 1962.
10. Nikolaeva, M. G., I. V. Grushvitskii, and V. M. Bogdanova, Bot. Zh. (Leningrad), 57:
1082, 1972, via Chem. Abstr. 78: 25215x, 1973.
11. Kuribayashi, T., M. Okamura, and H. Ohashi, Shoyakugaku Zasshi, 25: 87–94, 1971.
12. Kuribayashi, T. and H. Ohashi, Shoyakugaku Zasshi, 25: 95, 1971.
13. Kuribayashi, T., M. Okamura, and H. Ohashi, Shoyakugaku Zasshi, 25: 102, 1971.
14. Kuribayashi, T. and H. Ohashi, Shoyakugaku Zasshi, 25: 110, 1971.
15. Maisch, J. M., Ed., American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 57: June, 1885.
 10 American Ginseng Farm
in the State of Wisconsin
Wild American ginseng is generally found in northern and northeastern areas of
the United States. Cultivation is done in many states, such as Kentucky, North
Carolina, Tennessee, Wisconsin, and many others. Today, Wisconsin ginseng farms
account for 95% of the total cultivated ginseng production of the United States,
with approximately 85% of it exported overseas. American ginseng roots grown in
Wisconsin contain very high levels of ginsenosides, the active ingredient in ginseng,
compared to American ginseng grown elsewhere. It is therefore highly sought after.
Wisconsin American ginseng can be recognized by a trademarked seal that ensures
the product is of the highest Wisconsin quality.

BRIEF HISTORY OF CULTIVATED GINSENG IN

MARATHON COUNTY, WISCONSIN
The excitement behind the cultivation of American ginseng began more than 110
years ago with the Fromm brothers in the small community of Hamburg, Wisconsin.
These industrious brothers introduced Marathon County’s unique crop to the world in
the early 1900s. Marathon County, Wisconsin, grows the most prized and demanded
American ginseng in the world.1
Hsu Ginseng Farms utilize state-of-the-art cultivation techniques and equipment
with unprecedented investment in facilities, research, and testing. The whole process
of growing American ginseng begins with preparation of virgin ginseng land and
moves through a process of the stratification of seed, planting, care, and harvest. The
care of a ginseng plant is very labor intensive and requires a huge investment.
American ginseng can only be grown on the land once. Contrary to popular belief,
the plant does not remove anything from the soil. In the wild a ginseng plant can live
for decades, so Mother Nature has given the plant the capability to protect itself from
being smothered out due to the fact it can drop 15–20 seeds every year. Due to the
density of seed at which we plant, the soil cannot handle the growth of another ginseng
plant. From planting to harvest can take as many as 5 years in a cultivated setting of
artificial shade. Our crews can hook as many as 600,000 hooks a year to hold the shade
covers in place, only to remove many of them prior to winter or harvest.
Hsu Ginseng Farms employs highly qualified staff and seasonal workers, more
than 100 during harvest season. Their state-of-the-art farm facilities consistently
store, process, and dry this valuable crop. At the point of harvest, the plant becomes
a commodity that Hsu’s Ginseng Enterprises sells to the international marketplace.
It is estimated that Wisconsin grew 3,000–5,000 acres of ginseng in 1990, and
sales of the root earned almost $70 million for farmers in Marathon County. Most
of Wisconsin’s ginseng growers cultivate no more than 1 acre of the crop annually.

87
88 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Most of the nation’s ginseng crop is exported to Hong Kong, where it enters duty-free.
Much is then redistributed to other locations in the Far East.
Ginseng can be a profitable crop, but it requires an enormous commitment of time,
money, and labor for successful commercial production. Ginseng beds in Wisconsin
are usually cultivated for 3 years before harvest, unless disease problems mandate
earlier harvest.
The following sections explain the growing of ginseng in Wisconsin.

GROWTH HABITS
American ginseng plants are generally started from seeds. Seedlings or roots for
transplanting are available commercially but are used infrequently. Seeds are planted
in the fall and germinate in the spring. Although researchers have examined ways to
break this juvenility requirement and hasten germination, it is still not understood.
First-year seedlings produce one compound leaf with three leaflets. This leaf,
1–2 inches in height and spread, is the only above-ground growth in the first year.
Underground, the plant develops a thickened root about 1 inch long and up to 1/4 inch
wide. At the top of the root, a small rhizome or “neck” develops with a regeneration
bud at the apex of the rhizome. In autumn, the leaf drops, and a stem supporting new
leaves emerges from the regeneration bud the following spring.
The plant develops more leaves, with more leaflets, each year until the fourth
or fifth year. A mature plant is 12–14 inches tall and has three or more leaves,
each consisting of five ovate leaflets. Leaflets are approximately 5 inches long and
oval shaped with serrated edges. In midsummer, the plant produces inconspicuous
greenish-yellow clustered flowers. The mature fruit is a pea-sized crimson berry,
generally containing two wrinkled seeds.
After 3 years of growth, the roots begin to attain a marketable size (3–8 inches
long by ¼–1 inch thick) and weight (1 oz). In older plants, the root is usually forked.
Wild or high-quality cultivated ginseng root has prominent circular ridges. The
highest quality mature root breaks with a somewhat soft and waxy fracture. Young
and undersized roots dry hard and glassy and are less marketable.

ENVIRONMENT REQUIREMENTS
Climate
Ginseng grows best under conditions that simulate its natural habitat. It requires
70%–90% natural or artificial shade. Ginseng thrives in a climate with 40–50 inches
of annual precipitation and an average temperature of 50°F. It requires several weeks
of cold temperatures for adequate dormancy.

Soil
Ginseng generally prefers a loamy, deep (12 inches), well-drained soil with a high
organic content and a pH near 5.5. Extremely sandy soil tends to produce long, slender
roots of inferior quality.
American Ginseng Farm in the State of Wisconsin 89

Seed Preparation and Germination

Most ginseng crops are started from seed, rather than roots or seedlings. This is
the least expensive way to start a plantation and may help prevent the introduction
of soil-borne disease to new plantations. Ginseng requires 3–5 years to produce a
marketable crop from seed.
As there is an 18-month seed dormancy, freshly harvested seed cannot be used
for starting a crop. It must be stratified for 18–22 months before planting. Seed
stratification involves soaking the seed in a formaldehyde solution and in a fungicide,
then burying the seed outdoors in moist sand. Most seed is already stratified when
it is purchased and needs only to be treated with a fungicide and sown. Seed should
not be allowed to dry out before or after seeding. (For detailed instructions on seed
stratification, see Reference [2]).

CULTURAL PRACTICES
Seedbed Preparation
For planting seeds or seedlings, till the soil to a depth of 8–10 inches, and remove
rocks. For root planting, work the beds 12 inches deep. For best results, mix soil in
1-to-1 with fiber-free woodland soil. Make beds 4 ft wide with alleys between them
for walkways and for farm equipment. If the bed is on flat ground, mound the center
to facilitate good runoff. Slope the walkways so they will drain water from the beds
during heavy rains.
Shade can be provided by wooden lath sheds or polypropylene fabric. Artificial
shade should be placed about 7 ft above the ground to ensure good air circulation. Do
not use burlap or muslin, which can interfere with air circulation. (For more detailed
instructions on how to provide artificial shade, see “American Ginseng Culture in the
Arid Climates of British Columbia” by Oliver, Van Lierop, and Buonassisi).

Seeding Date
Ginseng seed is generally planted in the fall and covered with mulch until spring. It
can also be spring-planted, but if seeding is not completed by May 1, the seed may
begin to sprout prematurely.
Roots can be transplanted any time after the tops of the plants have begun to die
back but before the ground has frozen.

Method and Rate of Seeding

Plant seedlings 1/8 to 1/2 inch deep and 4 inches apart in the row. Space the rows
6 inches apart across the bed. The recommended seeding rate for a 4 ft wide bed with
2 ft side paths between beds is 80–100 lb/acre. To keep the seed from drying out, the
beds should be covered immediately with 2 to 3 inches of straw.
Plant roots at a 30°–45° angle from the vertical, with the crown of the root ¾–1 inch
deep. Cover the bed immediately with 1–2 inches of straw. A 4–5 inch layer of mulch
90 The Healing Power of Ginseng

is necessary on fall transplants to prevent heaving in frost. Some of the mulch can be
removed in the spring before the first shoots appear.
Set seedings 8 inches apart in each direction. Closer spacing tends to increase
disease in the plantation.
Light mulching (1–2 inches thick) to retain moisture during dry weather is
advisable.

Fertility and Lime Requirements

Heavy use of manure or commercial fertilizers lessens the resemblance of cultivated
ginseng to the wild root and hence may reduce marketability. Overmanuring may also
force growth and lower disease resistance. Although little research in ginseng fertility
has been conducted, common practice has been to fertilize as for other root crops.
Recommended rates are about 15 lb P2O5/acre and 60 lb K2O/acre for soils testing in
the optimum range for vegetables (30–45 ppm Bray P1 and 140–200 ppm soil test K).
Nitrogen needs a range from 20 to 60 lb/acre, depending on soil organic matter
level. (However, some growers have been known to use considerably more.) Growers
have tended to use lower-salt fertilizers, such as ammonium sulfate, potassium sulfate,
and potassium-magnesium sulfate. Although secondary and/or micronutrients are
often involved in fertilization programs, little research has been conducted to confirm
responsiveness.
Some growers fertilize with leaves or old hardwood sawdust or with ground-up
rotted hardwood. Others prefer woodland soil or rotted leaves 4–6 inches deep,
spaded to a depth of about 8 inches with fine raw bonemeal (1 lb/sq. yd.) worked in.
Fertilizers should be applied during the dormant season at least a couple of weeks
before plants emerge (Figure 10.1).

Variety Selection
Although no improved varieties have been developed, American ginseng shows
variations in certain characteristics, particularly in the roots. Plants from the northern
part of the country, particularly Wisconsin and New York, are considered good
breeding stock, because they furnish roots of good size, weight, and shape.

Weed Control
Weeds can be controlled mechanically with mulching and hand weeding and
chemically with Fusilade 2000. See Table 10.1 for instructions on herbicide use.

Diseases and Their Control

Ginseng is susceptible to a number of fungal diseases, including Alternaria leaf and
stem blight, Phytophthora root rot and foliar blight, seedling damping-off caused by
Pythium and Rhizoctonia, rusty root, and root knot nematode. Ginseng gardens that
are cultivated in the woods may suffer less from diseases than do plantings under
artificial shade.
American Ginseng Farm in the State of Wisconsin 91

FIGURE 10.1  Hsu Ginseng Farms. (Adapted from Hou, J. P. The Myth and Truth About
Ginseng, Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes and Co., Inc., 1978.)

To minimize disease problems, select a growing site with good drainage. Good air
circulation is also crucial and can be attained by providing cleared areas (walkways)
around the beds, relatively uncrowded spacing, and control of weeds. Thin spacing
also reduces the likelihood of disease spread through foliar or root contact. Wisconsin
growers generally do not reuse a ginseng field for succeeding ginseng crops.
Table 10.1 shows pesticides labeled for nationwide use on ginseng. The University
of Wisconsin has obtained approval from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
(under Sections 18 and 24 of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act) for the special use of several additional fungicides. Approval is granted for
use in Wisconsin only, and use must be reported to the Wisconsin Department of
Agriculture. Consult your local county extension agency each year to find out which
pesticides may be applied to ginseng in your area.

Insects and Other Predators and Their Control

Ginseng is sometimes attacked by white grubs and wireworms. Voles and field mice
may feed on the roots. See Table 10.1 for recommended pesticides.

Harvesting
In Wisconsin, most growers harvest ginseng the third year after planting from
seed. The roots are dug in the fall and vigorously washed to remove surface soil.
92 The Healing Power of Ginseng

TABLE 10.1
Pesticides labeled for nationwide use on cultivated ginseng as
of November 1, 1991
Pest Materials Treatment(s) Restrictions/Comments
Alternaria Tankmix 2 lbs/acre Best if applied 8 hours before
Left and stem Rovral 50 W rain; do not apply Rovral within
blight or Rovral 4 F 36 days of harvest
(Rhone-Poulenc)
Champion 2.6 lbs/acre in min. 100 Also available as flowable champ.
wettable ga/acre Tankmix 3.5 pts/acre 2 lbs
powder Rovral 50 W.
Hydroxide (Agtrol EPA reg no: 55146-1
Chemical)
Phytophthora No materials labeled
Root rot and/ for use on ginseng
or foliar nationwide
phytophthora

Insects
(Soil) Diazinon 14 G 14–28 lbs/acre preplant One preplant and one broadcast
(Ciba-Geigy) and incorporate to treatment/year in first and second
4–8″ depth 21 lbs/ seasons only; recommended
acre broadcast over broadcast just before rain; do not
beds (spring, summer, apply within 1 year of harvest.
or fall) EPA reg no: 100–46 g
(Above Pyrezone Up to 12 oz/acre A broad-spectrum contact spray.
ground) crop spray EPA reg no: 4816-490
(Fairfield American)
Diazinon AG 500 0.75–1 pt/acre No more than 1 application/year;
(Ciba-Geigy) do not apply during flowering on
3- and 4-year-old plants. EPA
Reg No: 100-461
Slugs Deadline bullets 20–40 lb/acre; apply at Follow all label instructions for
(Pace National) 3- to 4-week intervals storage, application, and disposal
as needed of this product. EPA Reg No:
8501-34
Weed control Fusilade 2000 1 qt Fusilade 2000/acre Apply when grasses are 2–8″ tall,
(ICI Americas) plus 1% crop oil (e.g., before tilling or heading; direct
1 gal/100 gal), or spray away from ginseng foliage;
0.25% surfactant do not apply within 1 year of
(e.g., 1 qt/100 gal) harvest. EPA Reg No: 10182-104

Source: Compiled by Jennifer Parke and Brian Hudelson, University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Note: Use only approved materials. Follow label directions. All recommendations are in terms of product
per acre (not a.i. [active ingredient]).
American Ginseng Farm in the State of Wisconsin 93

It is important to handle the roots carefully to keep the branching forks intact and
maintain the natural color and circular markings.

Drying and Storage

Ginseng roots are dried on wire-netting shelves in a heated, well-ventilated room.
Since overheating destroys color and texture, begin drying the roots at a temperature
between 60°F and 80°F for the first few days, then gradually increase it to about 90°F
for 3–6 weeks. Turn the drying roots frequently. Store the roots in a dry, airy, rodent-
proof container just above freezing.

YIELD POTENTIAL AND PERFORMANCE RESULTS

Yields of dried roots from a well-managed planting average about 1 ton/acre, although
greater yields are often reported.
A typical seed yield is 150–250 lb/acre.

ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETS

Ginseng growers typically invest $20,000/acre and 600 hours of labor annually and
get no return on their investments until the third or fourth year. Seed and shading
materials alone can cost more than $29,000/acre. It may take 10 years to break even.
An average crop might net $30,000/acre, depending on the price, which tends to
fluctuate widely from year to year. Prices for dried roots range from $20 to $45/lb.
Seed sells for $50 to $100/lb.
In Wisconsin, growers are assessed $0.15/lb of dried root for promotion and
research, and the funds are administered by the Ginseng Board of Wisconsin, located
in Wausau, Wisconsin. There are several seed and root suppliers and ginseng buyers
in Wisconsin. For information, contact the Ginseng Board of Wisconsin, or the
Wisconsin Ginseng Growers Association (both at 500 3rd St., Suite 208-2, Wausau,
Wisconsin 54401; phone 715-845-7300).

REFERENCES
1. Departments of Horticulture, Plant Pathology, and Soil Science, College of Agricultural
and Life Sciences and Cooperative Extension Services, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, WI.
2. Oliver, Van Lierop, and Buonassisi. American Ginseng Culture in the Arid Climates of
British Columbia.
Section IV
Data and Research
 11 Ginseng Information
and Scientific Research

AGE-OLD UNPOPULAR PANACEA

The age-old panacea tonic is not popular in Western countries, particularly in the
United States. At the present time, little modern scientific information about ginseng
is available, and the majority of people, even health-care professionals, know little
about ginseng.
Recently, I inquired of 33 information librarians at 24 good-sized public and drug-
companies’ libraries in the New York metropolitan area about ginseng. “Ginseng?
I never heard of it.” After searching their filing cards and reference books they
said, “Sorry, we don’t have any of the latest scientific information about ginseng.”
Twenty-six librarians gave me the same answer. Seven librarians, however, told
me: “Ginseng, it is an Oriental tonic. It gives you power and vitality.” Two among
them not only knew about ginseng, but they told me that they are currently using it.
Regardless, no single library could provide me with any scientific references. Instead
they showed me some obsolete legends and tales about ginseng found in several
booklets or encyclopedias about medical plants and herbs.
From 1971 to 1976, only three out of ten larger newspaper publishers printed
articles on ginseng. The New York Times published three articles: “Ginseng—
Seoul’s Oldest Export” appeared on March 14, 19711; “Bars Sale of Sex Stimulant”
appeared on April 25, 19722; and “Ginseng Root Is a Minor Cash Crop for
Georgians” appeared on October 11, 1975.3 The Wall Street Journal reported an
article: “Lowly Ginseng Plant Is One Root to Profit for Some Americans,” appearing
on September 9, 1975.4 The Milwaukee Journal reported two articles: “Interest in
Growing Ginseng Root Renewed,” and “Ginseng Still has a Lot of People Rooting
For It,” appearing on April 8, 1973 and December 13, 1974, respectively.5,6 The other
seven newspapers I surveyed (e.g., Examiner of San Francisco, Chicago Tribune, the
Philadelphia Inquirer, Star of Montreal, Star Telegram of Fort Worth, Los Angeles
Herald Examiner, and Register of New Haven) had no record of printing any article
related to ginseng.
Modern German, French, and Anglo-American standard textbooks of medicinal
chemistry, pharmacology, and therapeutics, and other medical reference books do not
contain ginseng in their index. Textbooks of pharmacognosy are the only professional
books that provide information on ginseng. One pharmacognosy book says: “Ginseng
is a stimulant and a stomachic. It is a favorite remedy in Chinese medicine.”7 Another
pharmacognosy book states: “Ginseng contains glycoside called Panaquilon, panax
sapoginol, volatile oil, a physosterin, mucilage, a sugar, starch, etc. Ginseng is used by
the laity as a stimulant and aromatic bitter. The Chinese employ it as an aphrodisiac
and heart tonic but without scientific identification.”8 A third pharmacognosy book,

97
98 The Healing Power of Ginseng

which is the newest one, refers to ginseng: “Ginseng is a favorite remedy in Chinese
medicine and is considered to have tonic, stimulant, diuretic, and carminative
properties. It reportedly reduces the blood sugar concentration and acts favorably on
metabolism, the central nervous system, and on endocrine secretion. It is employed
in the Orient in the treatment of anemia, diabetes, insomnia, neurasthenia, gastritis,
and especially, sexual impotence.”9
American ginseng remains on the official United States Pharmacopeia (USP)10
list of acceptable herb drugs from 1842 to 1882 but only as a supplemental drug for
stomachic and stimulant uses. During the first half of the twentieth century, ginseng
was officially listed as a demulcent in the United States Dispensatory (USD)11 and
National Formulary (NF),12 as well as USP. However, ginseng was dismissed as a
therapeutically useless drug and was deleted from the official compendia in 1950;
that was the end of American ginseng, and since then, nobody wants to talk about
it. For about 25 years, ginseng has been unknown to the majority of the American
public.

GAP OF SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION

There has been a serious problem finding scientific information on ginseng in the
Western countries, since nearly all ginseng research work has been conducted in the
Orient and in the Soviet Union and published in their native languages of Chinese,
Korean, Japanese, and Russian, in difficult-to-obtain or obscure journals. No library
in the Western countries, including the Library of Congress and the National Library
of Medicine, has a complete collection of foreign journals.
The Index Medicus13 does not list as many ginseng articles as did the Chemical
Abstract.14 I made a complete survey and found about 300 pieces of ginseng
information listed in the entire Chemical Abstract starting with the first volume of
1907 up to volume 84 of the current year. By no means is it a complete collection, for
it is impossible for the Chemical Abstract Service to collect and translate all of the
foreign papers of every discipline. The Chemical Abstract is not easily accessible to
the American public.
American professional journals have not published any ginseng articles in the last
25 years (before 1970), since few studies on ginseng were conducted in the United
States. Questions often are raised nowadays by many customers to their pharmacists,
by patients, many retired people, and some business-minded ginseng enthusiasts
who want to grow ginseng or formulate ginseng for products, yet not one single
booklet that is currently available tells the modern scientific findings about ginseng.
A letter from the Agricultural Research Center of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
written to me said, “Although the Department does not conduct research studies on
ginseng every year we receive thousands of request for information on its culture,
marketing and uses.”15 Another correspondent, also from the Agricultural Research
Service Center at Beltsville, Maryland, wrote to me: “With the increased interest
in acupuncture, I note an increased interest in Oriental medicinal plants. I get more
inquiries about ginseng than about any other medicinal plant.”16 The American public
is desperately searching for new evidence about ginseng.
Ginseng Information and Scientific Research 99

MODERN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND

PUBLICATIONS ON GINSENG
The earliest chemical and pharmacological studies on ginseng started in the mid-
nineteenth century. As a matter of fact, research was started right here in the United
States with the American ginseng root collected in Canada. The first chemical
report was published in 1854.17 At that time it was extremely difficult to obtain any
large quantity of authentic specimens of American wild ginseng, and also due to the
extravagant prices, studies were limited, and little fruitful results were made before
1900.
After the turn of the twentieth century, most of the preliminary studies were
conducted by the Japanese. From 1900 to 1935, ginseng studies became one of the
most active projects at many pharmaceutical colleges and medical centers. As a
result of the annex of Korea by the Japanese military and later their occupation of
Manchuria, the Japanese then possessed all the valuable roots, as they had desperately
desired for centuries. Within 35 years’ time, about 50 studies were conducted in
the areas of chemical, biochemical, pharmacological, and even clinical trials on
ginseng extracts—not only ginseng from Manchuria and Korea, but also specimens
of American ginseng. Although their results did not reach a clear conclusion that
ginseng is useful for the treatment of certain ailments, their results stimulated the
interest of scientists in Western countries including the Russian Federation.
From 1936 to 1945, ginseng research was interrupted as a result of the Sino-
Japanese War (1937–1945) and World War II (1939–1945). Few ginseng scientific
papers are seen in the literature published between 1936 and 1950.
Being the next-door neighbor to China, the Russians, following the track of the
Japanese, showed tremendous interest in Chinese ginseng. As early as in 1859, a
scientific expedition was organized in St. Petersburg (now Leningrad) to explore the
Manchu territory and the frontier of Korea and examine especially the ginseng and
other Chinese plantations with a view of establishing plantations on Russian soil for
the purpose of trade with China.18
Prior to the Second World War, limited studies on ginseng were conducted at
the Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Russian Federation. During 1945 and
1948, the Red Army invaded Korea and Manchuria; thus, the ginseng-rich lands
were then transferred from the Japanese to the Russians. Supposedly the Red Army
then grabbed the entire supply of ginseng valued at about $120 million, and shipped
it home for studies and consumption. A special institution called the Institute of
Biologically Active Substances, Siberian Department of the Academy of Sciences
of the USSR, was established in Vladivostok in 1949. The function of the newly
established organization was to conduct research on medicinally useful herbs found
in China and Siberia, particularly ginseng. The Vladivostok center coordinates all
related pharmacologic, clinical, and chemical investigations from Vladivostok,
Novosibirsk, Khabarovsk, Leningrad, Tomak, Moscow, and many other cities of the
Russian Federation. In 1965, this institute moved into an excellently equipped new
laboratory building erected on the picturesque shore of the Armur Ray. A special
ginseng committee uniting the efforts of all scientists and clinicians engaged in this
100 The Healing Power of Ginseng

field has been working since 1949. Up to 1965, the committee held 23 sessions in
which not only Soviet but foreign scientists participated as well. The committee
has issued seven volumes of works and a two-volume collection of the minutes
of the committee sessions.19 Through extensive research, the Soviet scientists, in
collaboration with the Japanese, have established the nature, structure, and medicinal
properties of the active principles of ginseng.
In South Korea, as well as in China, ginseng research work, mostly confined to
the pharmacologic and physiologic aspects, was started after 1956. New methods
of growing and of controlling typical ginseng diseases were also explored. Little
chemical work, however, was published, as is true today.
In 1960, a new era of ginseng research was started. As a result of the availability
of modern instrumentation and techniques, in addition to an ardent interest in ginseng
research in Asia and some parts of Europe, significant accomplishments have been
made.
In the last 15 years, at least 160 chemical papers have been published. Elyakov
and his associates at Vladivostok and Shibata and his coworkers at the Faculty
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, have successfully isolated
and identified the ginseng saponins from Panax ginseng root as well as from
other species. Scientists who have similarly contributed significantly toward the
understanding of ginseng chemistry are Horhammer of the University of Munich;
Kondo of the School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, who established
the structures of chemical constituents of Japanese ginseng; and Staba of the College
of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, whom with his coworkers has been studying
extensively the American ginseng plant and the mechanism of biosynthesis of ginseng
saponins.
In the biological studies of ginseng from 1930 to 1960 by Japanese workers;
the Soviet scientists at Vladivostok; and by Bulgarian, Chinese, and South Korean
scholars, they all used crude ginseng extracts, either aqueous or alcoholic, as the
testing materials. Researchers began to evaluate the activities of ginseng by using
the purified saponins as testing material, or the different fractions of extraction
since 1970. This is, no doubt, the beginning of a new milestone in ginseng research.
Thus, the biological data on ginseng’s activities, using chemically purified material
and identified specimens, are much more scientifically meaningful and valid. Much
remains to be done, however, in the study of the biomedical and biochemical actions
of ginseng, and its clinical trials must still be conducted.

Ginseng Symposium
The first international ginseng symposium, sponsored by the Central Research
Institute of the Korean Office of Monopoly, convened in Seoul in September 1974.20
Some 500 well-known scientists, pressmen, businessmen, and government officials
from Belgium, Britain, Japan, Singapore, Sweden, South Korea, Switzerland, Taiwan,
Thailand, the Netherlands, Turkey, the United States, and West Germany attended
the meeting. The ginseng scientists and ginseng enthusiasts sat together to discuss
the different aspects of ginseng, its pharmacology, composition, clinical aspects, and
modern methods of cultivation.
Ginseng Information and Scientific Research 101

The meeting opened with a keynote speech by the president of the symposium,
Choi Yoon-kuk, director of the Central Research Institute of the Office of Monopoly.
“The symposium is designed to provide an opportunity for international exchange of
academic and scientific information concerning ginseng,” Choi said. Lee Chang-suk,
the vice minister of the Ministry of Science and Technology, echoed the same theme
with a reminder that “Research on the properties of ginseng is proceeding both in
the Occident and the Orient.”
Regarding the pharmacological properties of ginseng, research papers were given
by, respectively, K. Takagi of the University of Tokyo; Hong Sa-ak of the College of
Medicine, Seoul National University; D. Ivan Popvov of the Renaissance Revitalization
Center at Nassau, Bahamas; Finn Sandberg of the University of Uppsala, Sweden; Karl
Reuckert, managing director of Pharmaton, Ltd. in Switzerland; and Lee Kwang-soo
of the State University of New York. In addition, a review of information on ginseng
pharmacological work was presented by Karlfried Karzel of the University of Bonn.
In the areas of chemical composition and biochemical effects of ginseng, papers
were presented by L. Horhammer of Munchen University, S. Shibata of Tokyo
University, S. Hiai of Toyama University, M. Yamamoto of Osaka University, and
John Staba of the University of Minnesota.
On the cultivation of ginseng, Lee Choon-young of Suwon Agriculture College
reported his study of the chemical quality of the nursery and soil of ginseng
cultivation. Yeng Young-tu of the Taiwan Agricultural Institute reported the effect
of various mulching cultivations on ginseng root and quality. Changyawl Harn of
the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute reported his study of the systematic
cultivation of ginseng.
The second international ginseng symposium, sponsored by Pharmaton Ltd. and
the World Health Organization, convened April 9 to 12, 1975, in Lugano Switzerland.21
Similarly, the objective of the meeting was to discuss scientific research and exchange
ideas on ginseng.
In a 122-year history of ginseng’s research, about 750 scientific articles have been
published altogether by a few hundred scientists in 12 countries. Among these papers,
70% are biological studies, 20% are chemical, and the rest are botanical and reviews.
Interests include the broad clinical trials and the chemical synthesis of the ginseng
saponin structure out of economical sources. Finding ginseng substitutes is another
project scientists are seriously undertaking with keen interest.

REFERENCES
1. Jones, B., The New York Times, March 14, 1971.
2. The New York Times, April 25, 1972.
3. King, W., The New York Times, October 11, 1975.
4. Geczl, M. L., The Wall Street Journal, September 9, 1975.
5. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, April 8, 1973.
6. Baumgart, R. A., Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, December 13, 1974.
7. Gathercoal, E. N. and E. H. Wirth, Pharmacognosy, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia,
1936.
8. Youngken, H. W., Textbook of Pharmacognosy, The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia,
1950, pp. 607–609.
102 The Healing Power of Ginseng

9. Claus, E. P., U. E. Tyler, and L. R. Brady, Pharmacognosy, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia,
1970, pp. 113–114.
10. United States Pharmacopeia, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pennsylvania.
11. United States Dispensatory, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pennsylvania.
12. National Formulary, J. P. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia.
13. Index Medicus, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
14. Chemical Abstract, Chemical Abstract Service, Columbus, OH.
15. Webb, R. G. to J. P. Hou, Correspondence, April 18, 1975.
16. Duke, J. A. to J. P. Hou, Correspondence, June 2, 1975.
17. Garriques, S., Ann. Chem. Pham., 90: 231, 1854.
18. Jackson, J. R., Pharm. J., 86, 1875.
19. Brekhman, I. I., Ind. J. Pub. Health, 9: 148, 1965.
20. “Proceedings of International Ginseng Symposium,” Central Research Institute, Office
of Monopoly, Seoul, Korea, 1974.
21. Scientific Documentation of Panax Ginseng C. A. M., Pharmaton Ltd., Lugano-Bioggio,
Switzerland, 1975.
 12 Less Known Benefits
of American Ginseng
American ginseng, scientific name Panax quinquefolius, is a close relative of Chinese
ginseng (Panax ginseng), and belongs to the Araliaceae family, which is the same as
Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus). It is a perennial herb, distinguished
by its dark-green leaves and clusters of red berries, that grows wild in eastern North
America. The root of the plant is used medically, particularly in China where
traditional Chinese medicine places a high value on it.
Of the traditional ginsengs, American ginseng is probably the least used and
researched variety. Americans have never been large consumers of American ginseng.
In the past, American ginseng was an uncommon folk remedy used as mild stimulant,
tonic, and digestive aid. Most of this herb was exported to China, where most ginseng
is consumed. American ginseng is considered a less potent member of the ginseng
family, but it is a highly prized tonic and herbal remedy.
American ginseng was used medicinally by many Native American tribes
as a health stimulant and sexual tonic and for various health problems including
headaches, female infertility, digestive problems, fever, and earache. American
ginseng was introduced by Native Americans to European settlers in North America
in the early 1700s. A French Jesuit priest named Jartoux had traveled through China
and was convinced of the medicinal powers of Korean ginseng. In 1714, he published
a paper in Britain about Korean ginseng and its healing powers, and he theorized
that the plant may grow wild in the favorable climate of North America. Another
Jesuit missionary in Canada, Joseph Lafitau (1681–1746), read the article and began
searching the woods near his dwelling. Lafitau found American ginseng plants, which
bear a close resemblance to their Asian cousins, and sent samples of them to China.
A thriving trade of American ginseng began around 1718: it was sent to the Orient
after being gathered by Native Americans, French fur traders, and early frontiersmen
including Daniel Boone.
The majority of American ginseng on the market is now cultivated, although it is
a sensitive plant and difficult to farm. In the United States, Wisconsin grows 80% of
the American ginseng crop. Canada grows more American ginseng than any country
and is second only to China in total ginseng production.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
The majority of research performed on ginseng has been done on the Chinese and
Siberian varieties. Clinical and chemical research on American ginseng is yet to be
done. One reason for this is the American medical establishment’s skepticism of
herbal remedies.

103
104 The Healing Power of Ginseng

American ginseng is classified as an adaptogen, which is a substance that helps

the body adapt to stress and improves immune response. Adaptogens must also
be nontoxic and cause no major physiological changes or side effects. American
ginseng root has an array of complex chemicals, and scientists have determined that
the active ingredients are saponin triterpenoid glycosides, or chemicals commonly
called ginsenocides. American ginseng contains nearly 30 ginsenocides. However,
American ginseng has been found to contain higher levels of ginsenocide Rb1, which
has a sedative effect on the central nervous system, than other species of ginseng.
Thus, scientific research has been consistent with Chinese herbalists’ claims that
American ginseng is less stimulating than Chinese ginseng. The research implies that
American ginseng can provide the strengthening and immune-enhancing effects of
other ginseng without overstimulation to those people with high levels of stress and
mental stimulation. American ginseng may be the best ginseng for Americans, whose
fast-paced and energetic lifestyles may call for more calming and balancing herbs.

GENERAL USE
American ginseng can be used by those people who seek the adaptogenic effects
(toning, strengthening, and immune-enhancing effects) of Panax ginseng without
the highly stimulating aspects. Chinese herbalists consider American ginseng to be
a cooling herb, so it can be used as a tonic and immune strengthener for people
who are overstressed or suffer from hot conditions like high blood pressure, excess
nervous energy, or ulcers. American ginseng, according to Chinese herbalists, is
more suitable and balancing for women and children than Panax ginseng, and is more
applicable for the elderly who wish to avoid stimulants. American ginseng is also used
in Chinese medicine for chronic fevers; to aid in the recovery of infectious diseases;
for strengthening the lungs in cases of tuberculosis, bronchitis and asthma; and for
the loss of voice associated with respiratory disorders.1–3
Of the traditional ginsengs, American ginseng is probably the least used and
researched variety. Americans have never been large consumers of American
ginseng. In the past, American ginseng was an uncommon folk remedy used as a mild
stimulant, tonic, and digestive aid. Most of this herb was exported to China, where
most ginseng is consumed. American ginseng is considered a less potent member of
the ginseng family, but it is a highly prized tonic and herbal remedy.

REFERENCES
1. https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/divisions-diagnostics-and-procedures/
medicine, March 14, 2018.
2. https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/divisions-diagnostics-and-procedures/
medicine, February 28, 2018.
3. American ginseng facts, information, pictures|Encyclopedia.com, articles about
American ginseng.
Section V
Composition of Ginseng
 13 Chemical Constituents
of Ginseng Plants
The chemical constituents of the following are discussed in this chapter:

1. Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng)

2. American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius)
3. Japanese ginseng (Panax japonicus)
4. Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus)
5. Panax notoginseng

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF ASIAN GINSENG

The Bible says that for every disease there is an herb in the plant kingdom. The
plant kingdom provides a tremendous reservoir of natural crude drugs. In the
past thousands of years, people all over the world, particularly the Chinese, have
consumed considerable quantities of botanical drugs, more frequently called herbal
drugs. Herbals remain a primary source of many clinically useful remedies.
The virtue of the herbal remedies is that most of these natural products have
proven to be medicinally effective, mild, and relatively safe. Ma Huang, described as
a remedy for coughs and as a cardiac stimulant, is one of the oldest Chinese herbals.
Liquorice root has been used in medicine for treating stomach complaints and as
a general sweetener in China as well as in other countries for many centuries. The
snakeroot (Rauwalfia cerpentina) has been used by the Indians as a tranquilizer for
more than 400 decades.
How do ancient herbals become modern medicine? It is true that a great number
of modern remedies used in the United States are from a natural source. You must
have used or at least heard of ephedra, ergot, digitalis, penicillin, codeine, morphine,
cocaine, quinine, atropine, and hundreds of others derived from nature. To obtain
therapeutically useful principles from the crude herbs, as a rule, the medicinally
useful or biologically active principles are isolated by suitable extractions, separations,
and purifications. The important principles contained in the crude drugs are called
constituents. Some of the constituents may be biologically active, while others
may be inert and thus medicinally valueless. The most commonly encountered
principles such as cellulose, lignin, suberin, cutin, starch, and coloring matter are
inert materials, whereas glycosides, alkaloids, vitamins, enzymes, volatile oils, fixed
oils, and acids are important biologically active constituents. In the old days, crude
water extractions or decoctions of drugs were frequently used in the treatment of
diseases. In modern times, however, crude extracts are usually further processed to
obtain purified principles. In order to find out how good the herbal drug, its extract,
or its purified materials are, pharmacological and toxicological studies are carried

107
108 The Healing Power of Ginseng

out with laboratory animals. With promising animal evidence, preliminary clinical
trials in humans may be conducted. Efficacy and long-term toxicity studies are the
last steps in developing a new drug. To develop a new chemical drug, drug companies
usually spend an average of 5–10 years and more than $12,000,000 from its synthesis
to marketing. With the development of drugs out of natural sources, the cost may be
even higher.
We recall that soon after isolation of reserpine from the snakeroot, it became
the most important tranquilizer in the treatment of hypertension. Another example
is aspirin. After the discovery of salicin in the bark of willow trees, it has been
developed as the most versatile and most widely prescribed drug in history. Even in
modern times, since the discovery of penicillin in 1929, thousands of new penicillins
have been prepared, and a great many have been used clinically.
Among the five botanically identified Panax species (Panax ginseng, P. quinquefolium,
P. trifolium, P. japonicum, P. pseudoginseng), all except P. trifolium have been used
as crude drugs in the Orient. Although Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus)
does not belong to the genus Panax, it possesses similar medicinal activities. All of
these plants are botanically related—that is, they all belong to the family Araliaceae.
These plants do not, however, contain the same active constituents, and they do not
possess the same medicinal values. The kinds of chemical principles contained in the
various Panax or ginseng plants are discussed in this chapter.

CHEMICAL RESEARCH ON PANAX GINSENG

In the course of chemical studies on ginseng, chemists have attempted to isolate and
identify ginseng’s active principles, and thus verify the usefulness of ginseng.
Rafinesque seemed to be the first who reported his findings of a camphor-like
substance, Panacene, from an extract of American ginseng root in 1854.1 Almost
simultaneously, Garriques reported his findings that from a crude extract of American
ginseng root, he obtained a yellowish glycoside called Panaquilon.1,2 Panaquilon is
soluble in water and alcohol but insoluble in ether. Its sweet taste resembles that of
licorice root. After acid hydrolysis, panaquilon gives a water-insoluble substance
called Panacon. Later in 1889, a Soviet worker, Davydow, reported that he similarly
obtained a ginseng glycoside from extracts of Manchurian ginseng roots, and its
properties were similar to those of panaguilon.3
Pioneer studies were also conducted by quite a number of Japanese chemists
during the 1900s. Inoue isolated a substance from an extract of Japanese ginseng
(chikusetsu ninjin).4 This substance was shown to be a saponin glycoside. It has some
hemolytic (breaking down of red blood cells) properties. In 1905, Fujitani isolated a
relatively pure saponin from the extracts of Korean and Japanese ginseng roots.5 It
was a white crystalline powder and was similarly called panaquilon. In the following
year, Asahina and Taguchi reported that from an alcoholic extract of ginseng root, a
noncrystalline substance was obtained.6
More detailed chemical studies on ginseng were conducted by Kondo and his
associates. The powdered ginseng roots were extracted with water, methanol,
and ether, respectively. A mucilaginous substance and some inorganic substances
were found in the aqueous extract; a mixture containing cane sugar, nitrogenous
Chemical Constituents of Ginseng Plants 109

substances, and a saponin glycoside was obtained from the methanol extract; and an
oily substance, brown in color with typical ginseng fragrance, was obtained from the
ether extract. The ginseng oil was further fractionated with steam distillation into
two portions—that is, a light yellowish volatile oil, and a brown, nonvolatile portion.
The volatile oil contained panacene, while the nonvolatile fraction was shown to
contain phytosterol and fatty acids. Upon hydrolysis of the saponin glycoside with
7% alcoholic-hydrochloric acid, two new substances, panax-sapogenol and panax-
sapogenol-amorphous (noncrystalline), were obtained. Further studies showed that
the ginseng saponin glycoside consisted of 1 mole of panax-sapogenol, 2 moles of
glucose, and 1 mole of pentose, and the molecular weight of the saponin glycoside
was 876. From quite a number of authentic samples, it was found that the cultivated
Korean and Japanese ginseng gave similar chemical components.7–9 Abe and Saito10
and Yonekawa11 together isolated a relatively pure ginseng saponin glycoside,
ginsenin, from Korean ginseng root. Pharmacologic studies were conducted with
ginsenin. In 1930, Kotake similarly isolated a ginseng saponin that was called
panaxin, but this substance did not show hemolytic properties. After hydrolysis
of panaxin with 50%sulfuric acid in methanol, a new substance, α-panaxin, was
obtained. It was the sapogenin (aglycone) of ginseng extract.12 Then α-panaxin was
further degraded with fuming hydrochloric acid, giving glucose and a halogenated
compound called aglucone. Sakai had more interest in the fragrant ginseng oil.
From an ether extract of ginseng roots, a considerable amount of sweet-smelling
and biologically active ginseng oil was obtained. The most active component of the
oils that represents the activities of the whole ginseng was the volatile oil portion
called panacene. The ether extract also contained a number of other ingredients. High
molecular weight unsaturated fatty acids, called panax acids, and esters of fatty acids
have been isolated.13–16
In the last 16 years, great advancement has been made in isolation, characterization,
and identification of the principles of ginseng, and ginseng saponin chemistry, first in
history, has become known to the scientific world.
By using different solvent systems, it was found that some of the ginseng constituents
are only extractable with water or alcohols, while others are primarily organic solvent
or oily soluble. The crude extracts have been successfully separated with the aid of
thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and column chromatography techniques. TLC has
been a very useful tool that separates ginseng saponins of similar structures. Infrared
(IR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and mass spectroscopy have provided a
powerful means for elucidating the structures of the useful principles contained in
the mysterious root.
Based on the chemical studies of ginseng, we have learned that Panax ginseng
root contains a number of biologically active and medicinally useful components.17–19
According to their chemical nature, these numerous components, so far identified,
can be classified into nine groups:

• Ginseng saponins (saponin glycosides)

• Ginseng oil and phytosterol
• Sugars and carbohydrates
• Organic acids
110 The Healing Power of Ginseng

• Nonprotein nitrogenous substances

• Amino acids and peptides
• Vitamins
• Minerals and trace elements
• Unknown enzymes

It has been confirmed pharmacologically that the chief biologically active

components in ginseng and other Panax species appear to be ginseng saponins.
Ginseng roots contain a substantial amount of ginseng saponins; accordingly, the
saponins contribute most, if not all, of the important pharmacologic activities of
ginseng extract. The chemical properties of these important ginseng principles are
discussed further in the following sections.

GINSENG SAPONINS
Saponins, a sweet-bitter material, usually exist in plants in the form of glycosides
known as saponin glycosides. Ginseng, sarsaparilla, glycyrrhiza, etc., contain a
considerable amount of saponin glycosides. Saponin glycosides are giant molecules
that are extractable from the plant materials by hot water or alcohols. Saponins have
particular chemical properties, and the most notable characteristics are as follows:
they form colloidal solutions in water that foam upon shaking (frothing); they have
a bitter taste; they have sternutatory and irritative properties on mucous membranes;
and they have hemolytic action against red blood cells (Table 13.1).20,21
A number of ginseng saponin glycosides have been isolated from the methanol
extracts of ginseng roots and identified by the Soviet workers at Vladivostok and
Moscow. These saponins are called panaxosides.22,23 In 1962 Elyakov et al. reported
that they were successful in isolating saponin glycosides, panaxosides A and B.24
Two years later, four additional saponins, panaxosides C, D, E, and F, were isolated.25
Based on composition, these six ginseng saponin glycosides belong to two groups.
Panaxosides A, B, and C belong to one group, and they yield a common nonsugar
substance (aglycone) called panaxatriol, while panaxosides D, E, and F belong to

TABLE 13.1
Composition and Physical Properties of Ginseng Saponin Glycosides
Panaxosides Isolated from P. ginseng C. A. Meyer
Composition
Melting Molecular
Panaxoside Point (°C) Weight Genin (sapogenin) + sugar (mol)
A 176–178 — Panaxatriol Glucose (3)
B 182–185 — Panaxatriol Glucose (2) + Rhamnose (1)
C 185–187 1031–1064 Panaxatriol Glucose (3) + Rhamnose (1)
D 157–160 1178 Panaxadiol Glucose (4)
E 185–187 1222–1230 Panaxadiol Glucose (4) + Arabinose (1)
F 185–187 1388–1424 Panaxadiol Glucose (6)
Chemical Constituents of Ginseng Plants 111

another group and yield panaxadiol after acid hydrolysis. None of the six panaxosides
carries identical sugars. Panaxoside A consists of three glucoses; panaxoside B,
two glocoses and one rhamnose; panaxoside C, three glucoses and one rhamnose;
panaxoside D, four glocoses; panaxoside E, four glocoses and one arabinose;
panaxoside F, six glucoses.25,26 The composition and some of the physical properties
of panaxosides are listed in J. Pharm. Soc., Japan 13.1. In 1974, Andreev et al. were
able to isolate 14 spots on the TLC plates, each spot representing one different ginseng
glycoside or panaxoside.27 In cooperation with the Japanese workers, the structures
and the properties of these panaxosides have been identified.
In 1962, Funjita, Itokawa, and Shibata of the University of Tokyo were able to
isolate two types of compounds, saponin glycosides and sapogenin (aglycones), from
the methanol extracts of three different species of ginseng roots (ginseng, Japanese
ginseng, and American ginseng).28 The ginseng saponin glycosides isolated by the
Japanese workers were called ginsenosides, which is quite different from the Soviet
nomenclature (panaxosides). Sapogenins (the nonsugar portion of saponin glycoside)
are normally obtained when the saponin glycosides are treated with hot hydrochloric
acid (HCI) in methanol. Soon it was learned that the sapogenins thus obtained were
not true sapogenins but actually the acid hydrolyzed products of ginseng saponins.
Soon the structure of the acid hydrolyzed saponin was identified as panaxadiol.29–31
Immediately Shibata’s group was successful in confirming that the structure of
panaxadiol is a tetracyclic, triterpene of dammarane structure.31,32
The genuine sapogenin of ginseng was eventually obtained when the ginseng
extracts or the saponins were hydrolyzed under mild conditions (0.7% sulfuric acid)
in methanol solution. The true sapogenin, thus obtained, was called prosapogenin,33
and the chemical structure of it was identified as protopanaxadiol.34
After a series of comparative studies, it is confirmed that panaquilon (originally
isolated by Garriques), panaxin (isolated by Kotake), and ginsenin (isolated by
Yonekawa) are the same saponin. Panacon (isolated by Garriques), α-panaxin
(isolated by Kotake in 1930), and a compound that melted at temperatures greater
than 270°C obtained by Asahina et al. are identical to prosapogenin, the “genuine
aglycone of ginseng,” which melts at 330°C.28
In 1965, more than 10 neutral ginseng saponins were isolated by the TLC technique,
and they were designated as ginsenoside Rx (where x = a, b, c, d, e, f, g1, g2, g3,
and h). Hydrolysis of ginsenosides Rb and Rc, panaxadiol, was obtained. Similarly,
hydrolysis of ginsenoside Rg1, however, a new sapogenin, panaxatriol, was isolated.
All physicochemical data indicate that panaxatriol is a homolog of panaxadiol and
carries one more OH group than panaxadiol.35
Shibata et al. in 1974 successfully isolated 13 ginsenosides from ginseng root
extract. They are Ro, Ra, Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2, Rg3, Rh1, and Rh2. The
ginsenosides from Ro to Rh correlate the increased Rf value of the TLC. Ginsenoside
Ro is the least polar, having the lowest Rf value. From the TLC plates, ginsenosides
Rb1 and Rb2 (Rb group) and Rg1, Rg2, and Rg3 (Rg group) are noted to be the main
components of the saponins.36
The detailed compositions or structures of these saponins were not known until
1968, when Iida, Tanaka, and Shibata reported that ginsenoside Rg1 is composed of
protopanaxatriol and two glucose molecules. At present, 9 of the total 13 ginsenosides
112 The Healing Power of Ginseng

TABLE 13.2
Physical Properties of Ginsenosides
Melting
Ginsenosides Physical Properties Point (°C) Formula IR (K Br) cm1
Ro Colorless needles 239–241 C48H76O19 3400 (OH)
(MeOH) 1740 (COOR)
1728 (COOH)
Rb1 White powder 197–198 C54H92O23 3400 (OH)
EtOH-BuOH 1620 (C = C)
Rb2 White powder 200–203 C55H90O22 3400 (OH)
EtOH-BuOH 1620 (C = C)
Rc White powder 199–201 C53H90O22 3400 (OH)
(EtOH-BuOH) 1620 (C = C)
Rd White powder 206–209 C48H82O18 3400 (OH)
(EtOH-AcOEt) 1620 (C = C)
Re Colorless 201–203 C48H82O18 3380 (OH)
needles (50% EtOH) 1620 (C = C)
Rf White powder (aceton) 197–198 C42H72O14 34,380 (OH)
1620 (C = C)
Rg1 Colorless powder 194–196 C42H72O14 No OH
Rg2 Colorless powder 187–189 C42H72O13 3400 (OH)
1620 (C = C)

have been characterized, and their structures have been established.36–38 The physical
form, melting point, chemical formula, and characteristic IR of the nine ginsenosides
are listed in Table 13.2.
According to the nonsugar portion of the molecule, these ginsenosides can be
divided into three groups. Ginsenoside Ro gives oleanolic acid (aglycone), while
ginsenosides Rb, Rc, and Rd give panaxadiol, and ginsenosides Re, Rf, and Rg give
panaxatriol after acid hydrolysis. Ginsenoside Ro is quite a different compound in
comparison with other ginseng saponins, but it is identical to chikusetsu saponin V,
a saponin isolated from Japanese ginseng.
Each of these ginsenosides carries a somewhat different sugar molecule, though
they all carry monosaccharides. Table 13.3 shows the composition of nine ginsenosides
of panax ginseng.
The chemical structure of panaxadiol (structure I) was elucidated by Shibata
et al. in 1963. In early reports the compounds sapoginol isolated by Kondo et al. in
1915–1920, panaxol isolated by Wagner-Jauegg and Roth in 1963,39 and ginsengenin
isolated by Lin40 are shown to be identical to panaxadiol.37
The structure of protopanaxadiol (structure II) has been confirmed to be an open-
chain compound, having a free alcohol group, and an end vinyl group. Drastic acid
hydrolysis of protopanaxadiol forms panaxadiol.
The structure of panaxatriol (structure III), similarly, is an acid-hydrolyzed product
during isolation. The genuine alycone would be protopanaxatriol (structure IV).
Chemical Constituents of Ginseng Plants 113

TABLE 13.3
Composition of Ginsenosides
Prosapogenin + Sugar component
Ginsenosides (aglycone) (mole)
Rbo Oleanolic acid Glucose (2), glucuronic acid
Rb1 Protopanaxadiol Glucose (4)
Rb2 Protopanaxadiol Glucose (3), arabinose (1)
Rc Protopanaxadiol Glucose (3), arabinose (1)
Rd Protopanaxadiol Glucose (3)
Re Protopanaxatriol Glucose (2), rhamnose (1)
Rf Protopanaxatriol Glucose (2)
Rg1 Protopanaxatriol Glucose (2)
Rg2 Protopanaxatriol Glucose (1), rhamnose (1)

Oleanolic acid (structure V) is a pentacyclic, oleanane-type triterpene compound

that was initially isolated and identified by Horhammer et al.41
The structures of several ginseng saponins, ginsenoside Rb1 (structure VI),
ginsenoside Rg1 (structure VII), and ginsenoside Ro (structure VIII) were eventually
established and confirmed (Figure 13.1). For example, the structure of Rg1 has been
established as 6,20-di-O-β-glucosyl-20-S-protopanaxatriol (Figure 13.2).
Also confirmed was that panaxoside A, a ginseng saponin isolated by the Soviet
chemist Elyakov et al., was identical to ginsenoside Rg1.24

OTHER COMPONENTS OF GINSENG ROOT

The most important components, other than saponins, from the extraction of ginseng
root are ginseng oil, phytosterol, carbohydrates, acids, nitrogenous substances,
vitamins, minerals, enzymes, and ferments (Figure 13.3).17–19

Ginseng Oil and Phytosterol

Ginseng oil contains low boiling or volatile, and high boiling or nonvolatile,
fractions. The low boiling fraction (boils from 70°C to 100°C) contains panacene
and c-elemene. Panacene gives the characteristic fragrance of ginseng. The high
boiling fraction (boils from 120°C to 150°C) contains panaxynol.42,43 Panaxynol,
a yellow oil, is a straight-chain, unsaturated alcohol with 17 carbon atoms
(Figure 13.4).44,45
β-Sitosterol, isolated from the nonvolatile fraction of ginseng oil by Horhammer, is
the most common phytosterol in plants.41 It has been used as a competitive cholesterol
inhibitor. Analysis of the phytosterols extracted from Chinese and Korean ginseng
revealed that these phytosterols are distinctive for each species.46 The phytosterol
from Chinese ginseng is called stigmasgterol,40 and that from Korean ginseng is
called β-sitosterol.46
114 The Healing Power of Ginseng

HO O
HO HO
20
12 17
11 13 16
14 15
1 9
2 10 8 H+
HO 3 5 7
4 6 HO
II
I

HO O
HO HO

12

H+

HO 3
HO

OH IV OH
III

COOH

HO

FIGURE 13.1  Structures of ginseng saponins.

Sugars and Carbohydrates

The aqueous extract of ginseng root contains many different types of sugar or
saccharide.47–49 The most common single-sugar compounds (monosaccharides)
are glucose and fructose. Maltose and sucrose are the most common double-
sugar compounds (disaccharides). Multisugar compounds such as trisaccharides,
tetrasaccharides, and oligosaccharides are also found in ginseng root.
A crude polysaccharide, which was identified as ginseng pectin, was isolated
from a boiling-water extract of ginseng root.50–52 Pectin is a high molecular weight
polysaccharide. It is normally found in plants and fruits. It has been used widely in
food preparations such as jellies and jams, as a plasma expander, and medicinally as
an antidiarrheal agent.
Chemical Constituents of Ginseng Plants 115

CH2OH
O O CH2

OH
O
HO
O
HO OH
HO

HO

HOH2C
O O
(Aglycone)
OH
HO

HOH2C O Ginsenoside Rb1

O

OH
HO

OH
VI
(Sugar)

FIGURE 13.2  Ginseng saponin.

HOH2C
O O
OH
HO OH

HO

HO
(Aglycone)

O
HOH2C

O
OH
HO
OH
VII

FIGURE 13.3  Ginsenoside Rg1.

116 The Healing Power of Ginseng

CO
OH
O
HOOC OH
O O HOH2C
O OH
OH
HO
VIII
HOH2C O
O

OH
HO
OH

FIGURE 13.4  Ginsenoside Ro (Chikusetsu Saponin V).

Organic Acids
Many organic acids are present in the alcohol extracts of ginseng roots. The most
common organic acids are citric, fumaric, ketoglutaric, oleic, linoleic, linolenic,
maleic, malic, pyruvic, succinic, tartaric, and other yet unidentified acids.53,54 As to
ginseng’s activity, what role these acids play is not known.

Nonprotein Nitrogenous Substances

Nitrogenous substances, about 2%–5% of unknown structure, were detected in the
ethereal extract of ginseng root; the nonprotein nitrogenous substances were about
1%–1.5%.55,56 Although in an early study, it was shown that American ginseng does
not contain an alkaloid,57 a nitrogenous substance called choline has been isolated
and identified in the alcoholic extract of ginseng. Choline is an alkaloid in nature; it is
found in plants and in animal organs. Choline chloride has been used as a lipotropic
agent (preventing the excess of accumulation of fat). Choline also gives a marked
hypotonic action on blood pressure in rabbits.58

Amino Acids and Peptides

Korean white ginseng root contains at least 15 different free amino acids. Some of
them are essential, and others are nonessential.59 Essential amino acids are so called
because they must be provided by the diet, since the body does not manufacture
them.60 The essential amino acids found in ginseng are arginine, histidine, lysine,
leucine, threonine, valine, and phenylalanine. Nonessential amino acids, alanine,
aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, tyrosine, and serine, are also found in
ginseng. Some of these amino acids are found in the stems and leaves, as well as in
the root.
Chemical Constituents of Ginseng Plants 117

Vitamins
The ginseng root contains many biologically essential vitamins. So far, vitamin B
complex, biotin, niacin, niacinamide, and pantothenic acid have been identified.61 The
presence of vitamin B12,62 nicotinic acid, and folic acid has also been reported.62,63
The contents of these vitamins were shown to vary with the age and origin of the
ginseng plant.

Minerals and Trace Elements

The ginseng root contains many biomedically important mineral and rare element
substances. In the water extract of ginseng, elements such as aluminum, manganese,
potassium, phosphorus, silicate ions,64 sulfur, magnesium, calcium, and iron were
found.19 The additional minerals and trace elements found were sodium, zinc, copper,
molybdenum, and boron.65
Trace amounts of the rare elements of manganese (Mn), vanadium (V), copper
(Cu), cobalt (Co), and arsenic (As) contained in Korean ginseng root were detected
by a radioactivation method.66 These minute amounts of rare elements were found to
be extremely important to our health. Ginseng roots cultivated in different areas of
Korea contain different amounts of these rare elements (Table 13.4).67

Enzymes
Korean fresh ginseng root and dried white root contain diastase, which changes
starches into sugars, but the red ginseng root does not.68 Korean ginseng root also
contains other unidentified enzymes and ferments.

GINSENG SAPONINS IN LEAVES AND STEMS

The total crude ginseng saponins vary significantly according to Panax species,
sources of cultivation, and the parts of the plant extracted. Ginseng leaves, stems, and
buds contain about 5%–15% of ginseng saponins in comparison to 2%–15% saponins
found in roots. Saponin mixtures found in ginseng roots are called ginsenoside R

TABLE 13.4
Korean Ginseng Root Cultivated in Different Areas
Trace Element Buyo Kumsan Kanghwa Poongki
Manganese 25.9 ppm a 19.0 ppm
Vanadium 0.023 ppm 0.02 ppm
Copper 7.0 ppm
Cobalt 0.06 ppm 9.0 ppm
Arsenic 0.44 ppm 0.06 ppm 0.25 ppm

a ppm, parts per million.

118 The Healing Power of Ginseng

(where R denotes root), while the saponics found in leaves are called ginsenoside F
(where F represents folia, meaning leaves).69,70
Komatsu and Tomimori isolated fatty acids, nonacosane, and phytosterols from the
nonvolatile fraction of the ether extract of ginseng leaves, stems, and flowers. Later,
a new natural flavonoid (yellow plant pigment) called panasenoside was isolated and
characterized.71,72
Ginseng is well known for its beneficial biological effects on the human body.
While the plant contains various ingredients, ginsenosides play a more significant
role in exerting pharmacological actions than any other constituents. Of the great
number of ginsenosides present in P. ginseng, fewer than 10 account for most
ginsenoside contents. In particular, ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, and Rg1
are most abundant in the roots of raw ginseng. Intriguingly, chemical reactions during
the processing of ginseng, such as oxidation, hydrolysis, and/or dehydration, lead
to the formation of artifactual compounds, which often have enhanced biological
activities. Besides, orally administered ginsenosides undergo biotransformations in
the gastrointestinal tract, and some metabolites produced by the action of bacteria
have structures different from those of naturally occurring ginsenosides.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF AMERICAN GINSENG

Pioneer studies in Japan showed that American ginseng roots contain many
ingredients similar to those found in Korean and Chinese ginseng, but the American
root contains slightly more saponin but less proteinous and oily substances.76–79
American ginseng also contains inorganic salts (sulfate and phosphate salts of
iron, aluminum, calcium, silicon oxide, and manganese), reducing and nonreducing
sugars, phytosterol esters, terpene, panacene, and fatty acids.
Here in the United States, Wong reported his studies on the American ginseng root
in 1921. The authentic samples of four and six-year-old American ginseng roots were
crushed and extracted with different solvents. A small amount of ginseng oil, sugar,
and saponins were obtained but none contained any alkaloid. By using different
organic solvents, quite different amounts of total extractives were obtained. A small
amount of enzyme was also detected in the extract, but the nature of the enzyme
was not identified. The total extracted ginseng oil was about 0.8%.57 The American
ginseng oil was also explored by Torney and Cheng.73
In recent years, E. John Staba of the University of Minnesota made extensive
studies on American ginseng. He concentrated on the saponins and sapogenins
contained in the American ginseng plant. For the first time the saponins of the above-
ground parts (stems, leaves, and fruits) of American ginseng were also explored.
Jung-yun Kim under the supervision of Staba, earned his Ph.D. from the studies of
the phytochemistry of American ginseng in 1974.74,75 They found that the above-
ground parts of the plant contain many of the saponins normally present in the
root. The ethereal extract portion contains both β-sitosterol and stigmasterol. The
methanol extract contains predominantly ginseng saponins and saccharides. A total
of 11 ginseng saponins, called panaquilins, were isolated and identified. The term
panaquilin is similar to panaquilon, a name introduced originally by Garriques for
the ginseng saponin he isolated from American ginseng root in 1854.2 These newly
Chemical Constituents of Ginseng Plants 119

isolated American ginseng saponins are panaquilins A, B, C, D, E1, E2, E3, G1, G2
(c), and (d). In their studies it was found that the amounts of saponins contained in
the ginseng plant vary not only with the part of the plant but also with the age of
the plant and the season of collection. For example, a 6-year-old root contains a
different saponin mixture from that found in a 2-year-old root. Similarly, the ginseng
leaves collected in July contain different saponins from those collected in September.
Panaquilins B, C, E2, E3, and G2 are present throughout the plant. Panaquilins D,
E1, and G1 are present mainly in the root rather than in the above-ground parts;
while panaquilins (c), (d), and G2 are found predominantly in the above-ground parts
rather than in the root. The American ginseng leaves contain panaquilins B, C, (d),
E2, E3, and G2. After acid hydrolysis of these saponins, sapogenins (aglycones) were
obtained.

SECRET PRINCIPLES OF GINSENG

Staba carefully compared the properties of panaquilins with those of ginsenosides
(isolated by Shibata et al.) and panaxosides (isolated by Elyakov et al.) and found
that the American ginseng root has a different composition of ginseng saponins.
Table 13.5 gives a comparison of these ginseng saponins.
Although P. ginseng and American ginseng contain similar ginseng saponins,
panaquilins E1 and G2 (in American ginseng) are absent in the root of P. Ginseng,
while ginsenosides Ra and Rf are not present in the root of American ginseng. The
American ginseng root contains about 17.3% panaxadiol, 0.44% panaxatriol, and

TABLE 13.5
Similarities of Panaquilins, Ginsenosides, and Panaxosides
Isolated from American and Korean Ginseng Roots
American Ginseng
Plant Species (Panax quinquefolium) Panax ginseng
Ginsenoside Panaxoside
Panaquilin (Japanese Terminology) (Russian Terminology)
— Ro —
— Ra F
B Rb1, Rb2 E
C Rc D
D Rd —
E1 — —
E2 Rd C
E3 Re B
— Rf —
G1 Rg1 A
G2 Rg2 —
— Rg3 —
— Rh1 —
— Rh2 —
120 The Healing Power of Ginseng

0.28% oleanolic acid. The approximate ratio of panaxadiol to panaxatriol of American

ginseng root is about 39:1 by column chromatography, or 40:1 by preparative
chromatography. The ratio of sapogenin panaxadiol to panaxatriol for P. ginseng
is about equal. Accordingly, the American ginseng contains much more panaxadiol
than P. ginseng root.74,75,79,80 This could be the reason why the Chinese have always
said that American ginseng is different in medicinal properties from Panax ginseng,
or Chinese ginseng.

STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY OF GINSENOSIDES

Ginsenosides belong to a family of steroids with a four trans-ring rigid steroid
skeleton. Most ginsenosides share a unique triterpenoid saponin structure of the
dammarane type. More than 100 ginsenosides have been isolated from roots, leaves,
stems, flower buds, and berries of Asian ginseng and American ginseng, and these
ginsenosides exhibit considerable structural variation. Ginsenosides differ from one
another by the type of sugar moieties, sugar number, and site of sugar attachment
at positions C-3, C-6, or C-20. The structural isomerism and stereoisomerism, the
number and site of attachment of hydroxyl groups, and available modified side chain
at C-20 also increase their diversity.
Ginsenosides from ginseng are divided into several groups. Protopanaxadiol
(PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT) groups are the main constituents, while ocotillol
and oleanane groups are minor ones. The PPD group has sugar moieties attached
to the β-OH at C-3 and/or c-20, and the PPT group has sugar moieties attached to
the α-OH at C-6 and/or β-OH at C-20.4,5,12 The ocotillol group has a five-membered
epoxy ring at C-20, and the oleanane group has a modified C-20 side chain.13
Chemically, several differences exist between Asian ginseng and American
ginseng. An important parameter used for this differentiation is the presence of
ginsenoside Rf in Asian ginseng but pseudoginsenoside F11 in American ginseng.
High-performance liquid chromatography–evaporative light scattering detector
(HPLC-ELSD) or high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
(HPLC-MS) can be used to detect both F11 and Rf. In addition, ratios of Rg1/Rb1
and Rb2/Rb1 are useful. Both ratios less than 0.4 is indicative of American ginseng,
while a high value of ratios is characteristic of Asian ginseng. One exception is wild
American ginseng, which may have a high Rg1-to-Rb1 ratio.
Like Asian ginseng, a recent study on American ginseng shows that ginsenoside
content also varies among different parts of the plant. The leaf contains the highest
ginsenosides (16.5%), followed by root-hair (6.9%), rhizome (5.1%, root (4.9%), and
stem (2.0%). The content of ginsenosides increases with the age of the plant parts,
except the leaf. In general, ginsenoside Rb1, Re, Rd, Rc, Rg1, and Rb3 are the six
major saponins in American ginseng, accounting for more than 70%. Variability
in individual ginsenosides and total ginsenoside amount has been observed in
different commercial products of American ginseng, which is in part associated
with natural variations such as climate, geographical location, and cultivation length
and conditions. This ginsenoside variability in different ginseng products may also
be responsible for different or even opposing reported pharmacological activities.
Chemical Constituents of Ginseng Plants 121

Thus, the importance of standardization of ginseng products should be primarily

emphasized.
To mimic Korean (or Asian) red ginseng, American red ginseng can be prepared
experimentally using steaming or heating treatment (e.g., at 120°C for 4 hours). The
chemical composition of the steamed American ginseng is quite different from the
untreated ginseng. The steaming process causes obvious chemical degradation and
conversion of original saponins to some newly occurring compounds. The polar
ginsenosides including Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, Rb3, and Rd decrease remarkably, while
less polar ginsenosides, including Rg2, Rg3, Rg5, Rh2, Rk1, and Rs4, increase. Due
to the change in ginsenoside profile, the steaming treatment may enhance American
ginseng’s effects, such as increasing its anticancer activities.

CONSTITUENTS OF JAPANESE GINSENG

Japanese ginseng (Panax japonicum C. A. Meyer) is also called chikusetzu ninjim
in Japanese. It has been the most widely used ginseng substitute in Japan, chiefly for
stomachic, expectorant, and antipyretic action.
Inuoune4 seemed to be the first who reported finding and testing pharmacologically
a saponin isolated from Japanese ginseng in 1902. Later Murayama et  al.,80,81
Aoyama,82 and Kotake et al.83 also investigated the crude ginseng saponin. Kitasota
et al.84 and Kuwata and Matsukawa85 isolated oleanolic acid from Japanese ginseng.
In 1962, Shibata et al. reported that in addition to oleanolic acid, arabinose, glucose,
and glucuronic acid, a small amount of panaxadiol was also present in saponin
mixture isolated from Japanese ginseng.28
Kondo et  al. isolated three saponins, chikusetsu saponins III, IV, and V, in
crystalline forms and also confirmed the structures of these saponins.86 Chikusetsu
saponin III is composed of protopanaxadiol or 20-epi-protopanaxadiol, glucoses
(2 moles), and xylose. This particular saponin is a homologous saponin of ginsenoside
found in P. ginseng. Chikusetsu saponin IV is composed of oleanolic acid bound with
glucose, arabinose, and glucuronic acid. Chikusetsu saponin V is also an oleanolic
acid bound with glucoses (2 moles) and glucuronic acid. This particular saponin is
found to be identical to ginsenoside Ro of ginseng saponin.
The structure of chikusetsu saponin IV is shown to be identical to a tonic saponin of
araloside A, which was isolated from Aralia manschuria, Araliaceae, by Kochetkov
et al.87

CONSTITUENTS OF SIBERIAN GINSENG

Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus of Araliaceae) contains many
biologically active saponin glycosides. At least six glycosides, called eleutherosides,
have been isolated from the root of Siberian ginseng. Eleutherosides A, B, C, D, E,
and F are known and have been tested in animals.88,89
Eleutheroside A has been identified as daucosterin. Eleutherosides B, D, and E are
structurally close, and they all are syringarosinol. Eleutheroside C is a nonglycoside,
while eleutherosides A, B, C, and E contain aglycones of varied structures.
Eleutheroside F is of unknown structure.90
122 The Healing Power of Ginseng

R1

R2

O
R3

R4
O

R5

R6

FIGURE 13.5  Phytochemicals and constituents of Siberian ginseng.

The active constituents in eleuthero are known as eleutherosides. The eleutherosides

are actually a diverse group of quite different compounds and include the following:
lignans—eleutherosides D and E (syringarosides) and B4 (sesame); phenylpropane
derivatives including eleutheroside B (syringin), caffeic acid, and chlorogenic acid;
coumarins including eleutheroside B1; and isofraxidia sterins including eleutheroside
A (daucosterin) (Figure 13.5).

Phytochemicals and Constituents of Siberian Ginseng

Eleuthero contains phenolics, polysaccharides, and eleutherosides A–G, the total
content ranging between 0.6% and 0.9% (Table 13.6). Eleutherosides B, B1, and E
are representative of three classes of compounds collectively called eleutherosides.
Other constituents include phenylpropanoids, lignans, coumarins, polysaccharides,
and sugars. A review of the chemistry of eleuthero with 29 chemical structures has
been published.

1. Seven primary eleutherosides have been identified, with most of the research
attention focusing on eleutherosides B and E.
2. Eleuthero also contains complex polysaccharides (a kind of sugar molecule).
3. These constituents play a critical role in eleuthero ability to support immune
function: glycosides (eleutherosides), resins, anthocyanin, and pectin.

The herbal classes CHMM (Chinese Herbal Materia Medica) recorded that the
root of the Siberian ginseng contains various kinds of natural constituents, including

TABLE 13.6
Phytochemicals and Constituents of Siberian Ginseng
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
OCH3 O-β-D-Gle CH3 OCH3 O-β-D-Gle OCH3
Chemical Constituents of Ginseng Plants 123

“eleutheroside A, eleutheroside B, eleutheroside C, eleutheroside D, eleutheroside

E, eleutheroside A is daucosterol, eleutheroside B is syringin; the root also contains
sinapaldehyde glucoside, coniferaldehyde glucoside, coniferin, liriodemdrin,
amygdlin, [O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-[O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)]-O-β-
D-glucoronopyranosyl]-16-hydroxy-13β,28-epoxyoleanane], etc.”

PANAX NOTOGINSENG
Panax notoginseng is a species of the genus Panax, and it is most commonly referred
to in English as notoginseng. In Chinese it is called tiánqī (  ), tienchi ginseng, sānqī
(  ) or sanchi, “three-seven root,” and “mountain paint.” Notoginseng belongs to the
same scientific genus as Asian ginseng. In Latin, the word panax means “cure-all,”
and the family of ginseng plants is one of the best-known herbs.
Notoginseng grows naturally in China and Japan. The herb is a perennial with
dark-green leaves branching from a stem with a red cluster of berries in the middle.
It is both cultivated and gathered from wild forests, with wild plants being the most
valuable. The Chinese refer to it as “three-seven root” because the plant has three
petioles with seven leaflets each. It is also said that the root should be harvested
between 3 and 7 years after planting it.
It is classified in Chinese medicine as warm in nature, sweet and slightly bitter in
taste, and nontoxic. The dose in decoction for clinical use is 5–10 g. It can be ground
to powder for swallowing directly or taken mixed with water: the dose in that case is
usually 1–3 g. In the Bencao Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica, ad 1596), it is
stated: “On account of the fact that sanqi is a herb belonging to the blood phase of the
yang ming and jue yin meridians, it can treat all diseases of the blood.” Notoginseng
is an herb that has been used in China quite extensively since the end of the nineteenth
century. It has acquired a very favorable reputation for treatment of blood disorders,
including blood stasis, bleeding, and blood deficiency. It is the largest ingredient in
Yunnan Bai Yao, a famous hemostatic proprietary herbal remedy that was notably
carried by the Viet Cong to deal with wounds during the Vietnam War.
Notoginseng, P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. vietnamensis, contain
dammarane-type ginsenosides as the major constituents. Dammarane-type
ginsenosides include two classifications: the 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (ppd) and
20(S)-protopanaxatriol (ppt) classifications. P. notoginseng contains high levels of
Rb1, Rd (ppd classification), and Rg1 (ppt classification) ginsenosides. Rb1, Rd, and
Rg1 content of P. notoginseng is found to be higher than that of P. ginseng and
P. quinquefolius in one study.
Eight saponins, namely, saponins A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H, have been successfully
isolated, and among them saponin A and saponin D have been identified.91
Hydrolysis of saponin A, a white powder, in dilute HC1 gives oleanolic acid,
glucose, and glucuronic acid. From chemical and physical data, it has been confirmed
that saponin A is identical to chikusetsu saponin V, the main saponin of P. japonicum
C. A. Meyer.
Saponin D, also, is a white powder, and the IR spectra showed the presence of
hydroxyl and olefinic bonds. The acid hydrolysis or saponin D with HC1-dioxane-
water gave panaxadiol and glucose, which were identified by TLC, paper partition
124 The Healing Power of Ginseng

chromatography, and gas liquid chromatography. It consists of 20-protopanaxadiol

and 4 moles of glucose. Saponin D has been confirmed to be identical to ginsenoside
Rb1, the chief saponin present in ginseng root.
The hydrolyzed products of saponins showed some differences among the
different ginseng species. Japanese and Himalayan ginseng roots contain mainly
oleanane-type triterpenes, while ginseng and American ginseng roots contain more
dammarane-type triterpenes glycosides.79
It is very interesting to note that the leaves of many Panax species such as Chinese
ginseng, Japanese ginseng, Himalayan ginseng, as well as American ginseng, contain
a certain amount of many of the saponins present in the roots.69,74 The Chinese ginseng
leaves contain more panaxadiol and panaxatriol but little oleanolic acid. The leaves of
Japanese ginseng contain more panaxatriol and oleanolic acid but little panaxadiol,
while Himalayan ginseng leaves contain more panaxadiol.79
To investigate the chemical constituents of the processed rhizomes of Panax
notoginseng, their 70% ethanol extract was chromatographed on microporous resin
(SP825), silica gel, rP-C18, and semipreparative HPLC to afford compounds 1–23.
On the basis of physicochemical properties and spectral data analysis, their structures
were identified to be 6′-O-Acetylginsenoside Rh1, ginsenoside Rk3, ginsenoside
Rh4, 20s-ginsenoside Rg3, ginsenoside Rk1, 20R-ginsenoside Rg3, ginsenoside
Rg5, ginsenoside F2, 20s-ginsenoside Rh1, 20R-ginsenoside Rh1, gypenoside X
VII, notoginsenoside Fa, ginsenoside Ra3, ginsenoside Rg1 (14), ginsenoside Re
(15), notoginsenoside R 2 (16), ginsenoside Rg2, notoginsenoside R1, ginsenoside
Rd, ginsenoside Rb1, notoginsenoside D, notoginsenoside R4, and ginsenoside
Rb2, respectively. Among them, compound 1 was isolated from P. notoginseng
for the first time, and compounds 4, 6, 8, and 11 were isolated from the processed
P. notoginseng for the first time. According to the fingerprint profiles of raw and
processed P. notoginseng, the putative chemical conversion pathways of panoxatriol
and panoxadiol compounds in the processing procedure were deduced, and the results
revealed the main reactions to be dehydration and glycosyl hydrolysis.

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82. Aoyama, S., J. Pharm. Soc., Japan, 50: 1065, 1930.
83. Kotake, M., J. Pharm. Soc., Japan, 50: 396, 1930.
84. Kitasota, I. and S. C. Sone, Acta Phytochim., Japan, 6: 179, 1932.
85. Kuwata, S. and Matsukawa, J. Pharm. Soc., Japan, 54: 211, 1934.
86. Kondo, N. et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 18: 1558, 1970; 19: 1103, 1971.
87. Kochetkov, N. K., A. J. Khorlin, and V. E. Vaskovsky, Tetrahedron Lett., 713, 1962.
88. Brekhman, I. I. and I. V. Dardymov, Lloyda, 32: 46, 1969.
89. Brekhman, I. I., Eleutherococcus, Nauka Publishing House, Leningrad, 1968.
90. Ovodov, Y. S. et al., Khim. Prirodnih Soedin, 1: 63, 1967.
91. Kondo, N., J. Shoji, and O. Tanaka, Chem. Pharm. Bull., 21: 2702, 1973.
 14 How Differences in
Chemical Constituents
in Ginseng Affect
Medicinal Effects
It has been confirmed that all pharmacologic and medicinal active components in
ginseng plants are mostly from saponins. As of 1999, it was reported that 34 ginsenosides
have been identified in Panax ginseng roots, the dominant saponins in these roots are
of the Rb series and are of the dammarane type. Most of the other saponins are present
in miniscule amounts (the next largest group, the Rg series, also of the dammarane
group, are present at about one-third the quantity of the Rb series in Panax ginseng.
The ginsenosides are concentrated primarily in the root’s cortical tissues (outer
layers) compared to the quantities found in the interior portions. According to one
Chinese report, the ginsenoside content of the root hairs (fibrous lateral roots that are
mainly cortical-type material) was 9.7%, while that in the thicker lateral roots was
6.4%, and that in the main tap root (which is the portion usually traded on the market,
having little cortical material) was only 3.3%. An earlier European report gave the
figures as 5%–7%, 2%–4%, and 0.7%–1.7% for these ginseng root parts, respectively.
The root of P. ginseng contains a large number of different constituents. There
are primarily a number of saponins, generally referred to as ginsenosides. The
three genuine sapogenins of ginsenosides were identified as 20(S)-protopanaxadiol,
20(S)-protopanaxatriol, and oleanolic acid.1–3 Panaxadiol and panaxatriol, which were
supposed to be the sapogenins, were later found as artifacts during acid hydrolysis
of saponins.3–5 The sapogenins and saponins isolated from ginseng root are listed in
Table 14.1.6–14
The only oleanolic acid-type saponin so far identified in the root is ginsenoside Ro,
or 3β-Ο-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-Ο-β-D-glucoyranosiduronyl-oleanolic acid 28-β-
D-glucopyranosyl ester.8 Thus, ginsenosides Rc, Rg1 and Ro are the representatives
of the ginseng saponins of protopanaxadiol, protoanaxatriol and oleanolic acid type,
respectively. 20(R)-Ginsenosides Rg2 and Rh1, ginsenosides Rg3, Rh2, Rs1, and Rs2
are only found in red ginseng. They are believed to be the degradation products of
the processing of red ginseng.11,15
Other principles isolated from the root include acetylenic compounds panaxynol,
panaxydol, panaxytriol, and heptadeca-1-ene-4,6-diyn-3,9-diol.16–20 From the volatile
fraction of the root, a series of sesquiterpenes such as eremophilene, β-gurjunene,
trans- and cis-caryophyllene, ε-muurolene, γ-patchoulene, β-eudesmol, β-farnesene,
β-bisabolene, aromadendrene, alloaromadendrene, β-guaiene, γ-elemene, mayurone,
pentadecane, and 2,5-dimethyltridecane were also isolated.21 Some pyrazine
127
128 The Healing Power of Ginseng

TABLE 14.1
Saponins from Panax Ginseng Root
Classification Saponins
Protopanaxadiol-type Ginsenoside Ra1
ginsenosides Ginsenoside Ra2
Ginsenoside Ra3
Ginsenoside Rb1
Ginsenoside Rb2
Ginsenoside Rb3
Ginsenoside Rc
Ginsenoside Rd
Ginsenoside Rg3
Notoginsenoside R4
Notoginsenoside Rh2
Notoginsenoside Rs1
Notoginsenoside Rs2
Quinquenoside R1
Malonylginsenoside Rb1
Malonylginsenoside Rb2
Malonylginsenoside Rc
Malonylginsenoside Rd
Protopanaxatriol-type Ginsenoside Re
ginsenosides Ginsenoside Rf
20-Glucoginsenoside Rf
20-Glucoginsenoside Rg1
20(S),20(R)-Glucoginsenoside Rg2
20(S),20(R)-Glucoginsenoside Rh1
Notoginsenoside R1

derivatives including 3-sec-butyl-2-methoxy-5-methylpyrazine and 3-isopropyl-2-

methoxy-5-methylpyrazine were identified in the basic fraction of the volatile extract
of the root (Table 14.1).22
Furthermore, a number of hypoglycemic peptide glycans named panaxans A-L
and panaxans Q-U, were also isolated from the root.23–26
The ginsenosides are considered to be the major pharmacologically active agents
in ginseng. These are dammarane saponins and can be divided into two classes:
the protopanaxatriol class consisting mainly of Rg1, Rg2, Rf, and Re and the
protopanaxadiol class consisting mainly of Rc, Rd, Rb1, and Rb2. Ginseng root also
contains other saponins, glycans, and essential oils. Many other constituents have
been identified (Tables 14.1 and 14.2).27
Ginseng root has been used for thousands of years in the traditional medical
system in oriental countries. It occupies a prominent position on the list of the best-
selling medicinal plants in the world. Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer)
and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) are the two most recognized ginseng
How Differences in Chemical Constituents 129

TABLE 14.2
Distribution of Ginsenosides in Panax ginseng
Percent (%) Content
Rg1 Re Rf Rg2 Rb1 Rc Rb2 Rd Total
Leaves 1.078 1.524 — — 0.184 0.736 0.553 1.113 5,188
Leafstalks 0.327 0.141 — — — 0.190 — 0.107 0.765
Stem 0.292 0.070 — — — — 0.397 — 0.759
Main root 0.379 0.153 0.092 0.023 0.342 0.190 0.131 0.038 1.348
Lateral roots 0.406 0.668 0.203 0.090 0.850 0.738 0.434 0.143 3.532
Root hairs 0.376 1.512 0.150 0.249 1.351 1.349 0.780 0.381 6.148

botanicals around the world. Compared to the long history of use and the copious
amounts of research on Asian ginseng, the study of American ginseng and its
constituents is much less extensive.
Table 14.1 and Figure 14.1 show the chemical differences in American ginseng
and Asian ginseng. As one of the best-selling herbs in the United States, American
ginseng is grown in the eastern temperate forest areas of North America, from
southern Quebec, Minnesota, and Wisconsin in the north, to Oklahoma, the
Ozark Plateau, and Georgia in the south. With the widespread popularity of herbal
medicines in the West, the past few decades have witnessed some promising
advances in research on American ginseng and its constituents. The triterpenoid
saponins, called ginseng saponins or ginsenosides, are the major active constituents

OH OH
R1O CH3 R1O CH3
HO 20 HO 20
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

CH3 CH3
HO HO
H3C CH3 OR H3C CH3

Protopanaxatriol class Protopanaxadiol class

R R1 R R1
(20)S-protopanaxatriol H H (20)S-protopanaxadiol H H
Ginsenoside Re Glc(2→1)Rha Glc Ginsenoside Rb1 Glc(2→1)Glc Glc(6→1)Glc
Ginsenoside Rf Glc(2→1)Glc H Ginsenoside Rb1 Glc(2→1)Glc Glc(6→1)Ara p
Ginsenoside Rg1 Glc Glc Ginsenoside Rc Glc(2→1)Glc Glc(6→1)Ara f
Ginsenoside Rg2 Glc(2→1)Rha H Ginsenoside Rd Glc(2→1)Glc Glc

Ara = α-L-arabinose, Glc = β-D-glucose, Rha = α-L-rhamnose, f = furanose, p = pyranose

FIGURE 14.1  Protopanaxatriol and protopanaxadiol classes.

130 The Healing Power of Ginseng

0.60 Asian ginseng extract

0.40
Rb1
AU

Rg1 Rc
0.20 Rb2 Rd
Re
Rb3
Rf
0.00
15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00

0.60
American ginseng extract
Rb1

0.40 Re
Rd
AU

0.20 Rb
Rc 2
Rb3
Rg1 F11

0.00

15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00
Minutes

FIGURE 14.2  Asian and American ginseng.

in American ginseng. As shown in Figure 14.1 and Table 14.1, however, American
ginseng has a ginsenoside profile different from that of Asian ginseng in terms of
total ginsenosides, the ratio of protopanaxadiol (PPD) to protopanaxatriol (PPT),
and other marker ginsenosides. In addition, although low Rg1/high Re was reported
in most populations of American ginseng, the high Rg1/low Re chemotype was also
observed (Figure 14.2).

GINSENOSIDE CONTENT COMPARISON

Saponins—plant chemicals—in ginseng are called ginsenosides. While American
ginseng contains more ginsenosides than Asian ginseng—29 versus 20 individual
ginsenosides—Asian ginseng is more effective medicinally, according to the British
Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Food. This is because the type of ginsenoside
best suited for medicinal purposes is available in greater quantities in Asian ginseng.
American ginseng contains more of the ginsenosides better suited to adapt to and cope
with stress. For both types of ginseng, the age, growing conditions, genetic makeup
of the seeds, and where and how it was grown affect the number of ginsenosides
available.
Higher levels of ginsenosides than found in Panax ginseng (with a differing mix
of individual subtypes) are reported for American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), at
6.2%–7.4%, and for Tienchi ginseng (san qi) of southern China (Panax pseudoginseng),
at 3%–8% ginsenosides, with some reported levels of 12%. In a study of ginsenosides
in ginseng roots found on the Taiwanese market, it was reported that the highest
content of ginsenosides was found in Panax pseudoginseng, followed, in order by
How Differences in Chemical Constituents 131

P. quinquefolius, P. ginseng root hair, and then red and white P. ginseng roots (tap
roots, as commonly sold in stores).
Studies of ginseng processing, in which the roots are steamed soon after collection,
indicate that red ginseng (often referred to in the literature as Radix Ginseng Rubra),
usually has a higher ginsenoside content than white ginseng. During the process
to make red ginseng, malonyl ginsenosides are converted to their corresponding
ginsenosides by hydrolysis. According to a report on American ginseng, the steaming
process used to produce red American ginseng increases the level of its ginsenoside
Rb1 by as much as 1,005 through conversion of malonyl-Rb1 to Rb1. The acidic malonyl
compounds are poorly absorbed in humans, but intestinal bacteria metabolize malonyl
ginsenosides to neutral ginsenosides, which are better absorbed. A small amount of
acetyl ginsenosides are also generated from the malonyl ginsenosides when preparing
red ginseng. It has been proposed that some of the changes in ginsenosides that occur
when white ginseng is steamed to produce red ginseng also arise during preparation
of ginseng tea and ginseng extracts. Another factor influencing the difference in
ginsenoside content between white and red ginseng is the removal or retention of
the outer root skin. White ginseng is frequently prepared by peeling the root. Since
the ginsenoside content is particularly rich in the peel, this processing results in a
relatively low ginsenoside content. Red ginseng, on the other hand, is processed by
steaming the unpeeled roots.

MEDICINAL EFFECTS OF GINSENG SAPONINS

According to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Asian ginseng tastes sweet and
a little bitter; is warm in property and nature; acts on the lungs, spleen, and stomach
meridians; and nourishes the Qi and Shen. The pharmacologic effects and medicinal
uses of Asian ginseng are as follows:

• It has been associated with improving overall mental health and ability,
particularly in the area of memory.
• It is usually used to invigorate the body’s essence, for tiredness, poor
appetite, palpitations, mental fatigue, and spontaneous perspiration.
• For qi deficiency of the middle jaw.
• Strengthens the function of the lung-qi.
• Improves type-2 diabetes and polyuria thirst order.
• Strengthens the heart-qi and spleen-qi and calms the spirit. For instability,
insomnia, dreaminess, palpitation, listlessness, and lassitude.
• Invigorate kidney-yang. For male sexual disorders, impotence, premature
ejaculation, and spermatorrhea, particularly the use of red ginseng.
• Enhances mental capacity.
• Has immunomodulating activity.
• A Mayo Clinic study reviewed that ginseng showed good results in helping
cancer patients with fatigue.
• Ginseng has been popular to prevent senility. Its strengthening and energizing
effects are important to keep a weak body active well into old age.
132 The Healing Power of Ginseng

American ginseng tastes sweet and a little bitter; is cold in nature; and acts on the
heart, lung, and kidney meridians. It nourishes the yin of the body. Pharmacologic
effects and medicinal uses are as follows:

• It is associated with lowering blood sugar levels.

• It is used to improve mental health and function as well as act as a mood
enhancer and booster.
• It is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity.
• It nourishes the stomach and yin and benefits qi to treat a dry mouth and
tongue.
• It promotes the production of body fluids and reduces internal heat for
febrile diseases, lassitude, thirst, night sweating, and fatigue.
• It has the possibility to reduce the risk of cancer.
• It is used to treat colds and flu.
• It has stronger antioxidant activity than Asian ginseng.

In conclusion, according to TCM, the yin and yang concept views the world as a
balance between two opposite and complementary forces. One is rather active and
issuing, yang; the other is more passive and receptive, yin. The Chinese TCM also
considers yin to be a cooling force and yang to be a hot one. The theory that strongly
influences traditional medicine is that in the world (as in the human body), a balance
should be maintained between yin and yang forces. Illness is the result of an excess
of one of them. In TCM American ginseng supports the yin forces, whereas Asian
ginseng promotes yang. Their activities thus differ and are complementary.
It is nice to see ginseng has been for centuries a trusted herbal remedy, getting the
recognition it deserves. Ginseng is called an adaptogen, which is a substance that is
supposed to help the body better cope with mental and physical stress.
Ginseng has a long history of use in Asia, which has generated interest in continuing
the tradition into the present and studying, by modern methods, the constituents
of ginseng and their pharmacologic and clinical effects. A careful reading of both
the traditional literature and modern Asian and Western research efforts is essential
to help guide consumers and health-care professionals toward knowing the correct
indications and dosages for ginseng, selecting appropriate ginseng materials to use,
and avoiding unsubstantiated claims of beneficial or harmful effects.

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studies on the oriental plant drugs. XIV. Protopanaxadiol, a genuine sapogenin of
ginseng saponins,” Chem. Pharm. Bull., 14: 595–600, 1966.
2. Tanaka, O., M. Nagai, and S. Shibata, “The stereochemistry of protopanaxadiol, a
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How Differences in Chemical Constituents 133

4. Shibata, S., M. Fujita, H. Itokawa, O. Tanaka, and T. Ishii, “Studies on the constituents
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8. Sanaka, S., N. Kondo, J. Shoji, O. Tanaka, and S. Shibata, “Studies on the saponins of
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22: 421–428, 1974.
9. Kasai, R., M. Besso, O. Tanaka, Y. Saruwatari, and T. Fuwa, “Saponins of red ginseng,”
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10. Sanada, S. and J. Shoji, “Studies on the saponins of ginseng. III. Structures of
ginsenoside-Rb3 and 20-glucoginsenoside-Rf,” Chem. Pharm. Bull., 26: 1694–1697,
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11. Kitagawa, I., M. Yoshikawa, M. Yashihara, T. Hayashi, and T. Taniyama, “Chemical
studies on crude drug processing. I. On the constituents of Ginseng Radix Rubra,”
Yakygaku Zasshi, 103: 612–622, 1983.
12. Kitagawa, I., T. Taniyama, T. Hayashi, and M. Yoshikawa, “Malonyl-ginsenoside-Rb1,
Rb2, Rc and Rd, four new malonylated dammarane-type triterpene oligosaccharides
from Ginseng radix,” Chem. Pharm. Bull., 31: 3353–3356, 1983.
13. Sandra, S., N. Kondo, J. Shoji, O. Tanaka, and S. Shibata, “Studies on the saponins
of ginseng. II. Structures of ginsenoside-Re, Rf, and Rg2,” Chem. Pharm. Bull., 22:
2407–2412, 1974.
14. Ijda, Y., O. Tanaka, S. Shibata, “Studies on saponins of ginseng: The structure of
ginsenoside-Rg1,” Tetrahedron Lett., 9: 5449–5453, 1968.
15. Li, X. G., “Changes of chemical constituents in ginseng root after processing,” Bull.
Chinese Mater. Med., 11: 194–199, 1986.
16. Takahashi, M. and M. Yoshikura, “Studies on the components of Panax ginseng C. A.
Meyer. IV. on the structure of a new acetylene derivative “Panaxynol” (2). Synthesis of
1,7,9-heptadecatrien-4-yn-3-nol,” Yakugaku Zasshi, 86: 1051–1053, 1966.
17. Takahashi, M. and M. Yoshikura, “Studies on the components of Panax ginseng C. A.
Meyer. V. on the structure of a new acetylene derivative, ‘Panaxynol’ (2). Synthesis of
1,9-(cis)-heptadecatrien-4,6-diyn-3-nol,” Yakugaku Zasshi, 86: 1053–1056, 1966.
18. Poplawski, J., J. T. Wrobel, and T. Glinka, “Panaxydol, a new polyacetylenic expoxide
from Panax ginseng root,” Phytochemistry, 19: 1539–1541, 1980.
19. Shim, S. C., H. Y. Koh, and B. H. Han, “Polyacetylenes from Panax ginseng roots,”
Phytochemistry, 22: 1817–1818, 1983.
20. Dabrowski, Z., J. T. Wrobel, and K. Wojtasiexiez, “Structure of an acetylenic compound
from Panax ginseng,” Phytochemistry, 19: 2464–2465, 1980.
21. Zang, H. X., Y. X. Sun, S.Q. Wang, W. P. Jiang, and L. R. Yang, “Analysis of the volatile
constituents of Jilin Ginseng,” Kexue Tongbao, 30: 195–199, 1985.
22. Iwabuchi, H., M. Yoshikura, S. Obata, and W. Kamisako, “Studies on the aroma
constituents of crude drugs. 1. On the aroma constituents of Ginseng Radix,” Yagugaku
Zasshi, 104: 951–958, 1984.
134 The Healing Power of Ginseng

23. Konno, C., K. Sugiyama, M. Kano, M. Takahashi, and H. Hikimo, “Validity of the
Oriental medicines. LXX. Antidiabetes drugs. 1. Isolation and hypoglycemic activity
of panaxans A, B, C, D and E, glycans of Panax ginseng Roots,” Planta Medica, 50:
434–436, 1984.
24. Hikino, H., Y. Oshima, Y. Suzuki, and C. Komo, “Isolation and hypoglycemic activity
of panaxans F, G and H, glycans of Panax ginseng roots,” Shoyakugaku Zasshi, 39:
331–333, 1985.
25. Oshima, Y., C. Konno, and H. Hikino, “Antidiabetes drugs. XIV. Isolation and
hypoglycemic activity of panaxans I, J, K and L, Glycans of Panax ginseng roots,”
J. Ethnopharmacol., 14: 255–259, 1985.
26. Konno, C., M. Murakami, Y. Oshima, and H. Hikino, “Validity of the Oriental medicines.
CVI. Antidiabetes drugs. 19. Isolation and hypoglycemic activity of panaxans Q, R, S,
T and U, glycans of Panax ginseng roots,” J. Ethnopharmacol, 14: 69–74, 1985.
27. Chang, H. M. and P. P. H. Butt, Pharmacology and Applications of Chinese Materia
Medica, Vol. 1., World Scientific, Singapore, 1986.
Section VI
The Healing Power of Ginseng
 15 Traditional Chinese
Medicine Records
of Medical Benefits
of Ginseng and
Siberian Ginseng
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) describes ginseng in the Shen-nong-Ben-cao
Jing (100 bc) as being sweet and a little cold. It mainly supplements the five viscera.
It quiets the essence spirit, settles the ethereal and corporeal souls, checks fright
palpitations, eliminates evil qi, brightens the eyes, opens the heart, and sharpens the
wits. Protracted consumption may make the body light and prolong life.
To appreciate fully the ancient description of ginseng, here is an elaboration of
the statements:

• Ginseng is sweet: Anyone who tastes a ginseng root will find it quite bitter.
The freshly picked root is sweeter (has a somewhat pleasant taste compared
to many other herbs), but, more importantly, the designation of the root as
sweet is partly based on the idea that sweet is the underlying inherent taste
within the herb that reflects its actions. Like other sweet herbs, it is believed
that ginseng will supplement the spleen, calm irritation, and nourish the
body. Later Chinese texts often mention the bitter taste as well.
• A little cold: The action of the herb is relatively mild, in contrast to a cold
herb, but its nature is still like that of a cold herb, able to alleviate heat
syndromes. The combination of sweet and cold together has the effect
of calming nervous agitation: the sweetness alleviates irritation, and the
coldness calms the internal fire that agitates the human spirit.
• Supplement the five viscera: Ginseng does something more than most of the
sweet herbs; it benefits not only the spleen, but also the other four systems
of the body: liver, kidney, heart, and lung. One implication is that ginseng
greatly improves the ability of the spleen to draw nutrients out of food and
distribute them to the other organs. It serves as a nutritive aid but does not
provide nutrients.
• Quiets the essence spirit: The essence spirit can be broadly interpreted as
referring to the mind. Thus, ginseng quiets the mind. By taking ginseng,
excessive mental chattering calms down.

137
138 The Healing Power of Ginseng

• Settles the ethereal and corporeal souls: The ethereal soul (hun) and
corporeal soul (po) refer to fundamental forces within the body. The ethereal
soul is believed to reside in the liver and to be responsible for dreams; the
unsettled hun causes one to have disturbing dreams, even nightmares.
The corporeal soul is said to reside in the lungs, and to be responsible for
maintaining the integrity of the physical body. Persons who develop lifelong
degenerative diseases are said to suffer from scattering of the corporeal soul,
often the result of being frightened. It could be said that ginseng calms the
distressed mind while strengthening the body.
• Checks fright palpitations: When a person is frightened, he/she experiences
an irregular heartbeat and palpitations. Anxiety attacks and panic attacks
correspond roughly to fright palpitations. Ginseng helps calm the heart (the
resting place of the spirit) so that it does not overly react to external stimuli
or to internal mental worries: equanimity is restored.
• Eliminates evil qi: Evil qi refers to influences from the environment that cause
diseases. Herbs that nourish the viscera, like ginseng, are usually not attributed
the ability to expel the evil that is causing disease; more often, such herbs are
said to protect the body from evil qi (evil cannot get into the strong and well-
nourished body to cause disease) or to help the body recover its strength once
the evil has been eliminated. Ginseng can be taken when a disease is present to
help cure it by eliminating the evil qi. Some later authorities disagreed with this
view, suggesting that ginseng had only tonic properties and should not be taken
while evil qi was still present for fear of enticing the evil to stay within the body.
• Brightens the eyes, open the heart, and sharpens the wits: The eyes are the
windows to the mind; the heart is the residence of the mind, and the wits are
the expression of the mind. This section says that by taking ginseng one’s
mind will not become dull. If the heart becomes closed, if the mind becomes
overwhelmed with thoughts, if the spirit is clouded and the eyes therefore
dim, then a person’s fundamental nature will be prevented from attaining
its ultimate expression: the person will be timid, unhappy, even depressed.
When the heart opens and the mind quiets, the true nature will be expressed,
and the person will display sure purpose, will, and courage, and be able to
accomplish great things.
• Protracted consumption may make the body light and prolong life: This
phrase is included in reference to the intensive efforts undertaken by Taoists
pursuing immortality during the Han dynasty period. They believed that
one could shed the physical body and float into the heavens as an immortal
being. Most of this transformative (alchemical) process was accomplished
with minerals, such as cinnabar (mercury sulfide), which slowly poisoned the
Taoists’ bodies due to prolonged exposure. One consequence was that they
lost weight: at the time, their shrinking flesh was taken not as an indication
of poisoning, but as a sign that they were shedding their early body to leave
only the heavenly body. This section does not indicate that ginseng can be
used as a weight loss herb for the obese, nor does it even suggest that one can
live longer on this earth by taking the herb regularly; it refers specifically to
the Taoist concept of transformation to an ethereal immortal.
TCM Records of Medical Benefits of Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng 139

Ginseng’s value as a universal tonic, which promotes and maintains good

health, particularly for those who are physically and mentally troubled, aged
men and women, has long been recognized in the Orient, and is slowly gaining
recognition in the Western world. For quite a long time Chinese medical practice
has claimed that ginseng has the power to restore vigor, maintain health, and
erase the debilities of old age. Numerous scientific experiments in laboratories
and clinical trials in humans have helped to establish that ginseng preparations
are indeed capable of stimulating the functions and regulating the malfunctions of
the organs, the central nervous system, the cardiovascular system, the endocrine
glands, and the metabolism.1 In addition, ginseng is unique in medicinal
properties in that it remarkably increases an organism’s resistance to harmful
stresses arising from various origins, thus maintaining the normal functions of
the organism.2
For thousands of years the Chinese as well as other Orientals used ginseng,
primarily, for tonic purposes. Chinese doctors believe that most ailments are due to the
debility of the body or the loss of balance or harmony of the organism. Accordingly,
for mental and physical debility ginseng is the best remedy. On the other hand, Soviet
scientists have confirmed that ginseng is a harmless adaptogen. The real truth about
ginseng, the evidence on “how ginseng works,” and “what ginseng can do for you”
are discussed in the following chapters.

ADAPTOGENIC POWER OF GINSENG

The distinguished pharmacologist I. I. Brekhman and his associates of the Institute of
Biologically Active Substances, Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the
Russian Federation, Vladivostok, conducted systemic biological research on Oriental
herb drugs, particularly ginseng and Siberian ginseng, for more than 25 years.
Evidence from laboratory and clinical investigations indicated that the basic effect of
ginseng’s activity is its capacity to increase the nonspecific resistance of the organism
toward various stresses.3–5 This characteristic medical claim is called adaptogenic
activity. The concept of adaptogenic activity represents a recent innovation in Western
medicine, a new milestone in modern therapeutics.

Adaptogen
According to Brekhman and Dardymov, Panax ginseng and several other species
of the Araliaceae family provide the medical properties of adaptogens.4,5 The word
adaptogen means “a substance causing a state of nonspecifically increased resistance
of the organism to stresses of various origin.” Ginseng is one of the most useful
adapteogens.5 The concept of “a state of nonspecifically increased resistance (SNIR)”
of the organism was originally developed by N. V. Lazarev, who found that 2-benzyl-
benzimidazol (bendazol) was effective for the treatment of damage to various regions
of the nervous system, and for increasing nonspecific resistance of the organism to
adverse stresses.6 As a matter of fact, the discovery of the adaptogenic activity of
bendazol and its analogous drugs was already known in well-established Oriental
herb medicine.
140 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Requirements to Be an Adaptogen
What types of medicinal agents have the virtue of adaptogens? The requirements
for a remedy to be an adaptogen, according to Brekhman, are that it should (1) b
innocuous or safe; (2) have antistress activities; and (3) possess normalizing and
protective effects. According to published research reports, ginseng and Siberian
ginseng (eleuthero) meet all of the fundamental requirements necessary to be
classified as adaptogens. One of the most important indices of a drug’s adaptogenic
action is its capacity to increase a human’s physical resistance toward adverse stresses
and maintain the body in homeostasis.5 Thus, ginseng overcomes diseases by a
mechanism of building general vitality and resistance and strengthening the normal
functions of the organism. Brekhman proclaimed that ginseng, without any doubt, is
an “adaptogen,” if not a “panacea.”5
The body has a homeostatic mechanism to maintain a constant equilibrium, and
medicinal substances that help maintain homeostasis were named “adaptogens”;
Brekhman explained that adaptogenic activity is the essence of the tonic effect of
ginseng.

HARMLESS MANROOT
When we use a drug, we want to know its purity, side effects, and relative toxicity
and safety. The laboratory LD50 index, or 50% animal lethal (death) dosage, is the
method most frequently used in pharmacology and toxicology to indicate the toxicity
of the drug.
After repeated tests, it has been proved that ginseng root, its extracts, and its
chemically purified constituents (ginseng saponins) are harmless. The well-known
ginseng pharmacologists Brekhman,5 Yonekawa,7 Kitagawa and Iwaki,8 Hong,9 and
Kaku et al.10 have repeatedly stressed the fact that ginseng has very low toxicity
in comparison with a majority of commonly used official remedies. Yonekawa7
found that the lethal dose of ginseng saponin, ginsenin, was 2–3 g/kg in mice, while
Kitagawa and Iwaki8 found that the LD50 of ginseng ethereal extract in mice was
5 g/kg. Brekhman5 reported that the LD50 of Panax ginseng root was 10–30 g/kg,
while the LD50 for the isolated pure ginseng saponins, panaxosides, given orally were
1.4 g/kg in mice. The oral toxicity of ginseng root is about 10–20 times less than that
of its pure saponins. Even for the pure ginseng saponins, the LD50 of ginsenoside Rg1 is
1.25 g/kg given intraperitoneally to mice.10 The toxicity of ginseng saponin is similar
or lower than the toxicity of most commonly used official drugs. For example, the
oral LD50 value (in rats) of aspirin is 1.75 g/kg; caffeine, 0.2 g/kg: and sulfaquanidine
(an intestinal antibacterial agent), 1 g/kg. Thus, ginseng is an innocuous and perhaps
even a safer remedy in comparison with those officially accepted as “drugs.”

STRESS AND ANTISTRESS ACTIVITY OF GINSENG

What is Stress?
Stress, in a broad sense, is mental or physical strain, pressure, tension, or unhappiness.
Frustration and suffering are also stressful conditions. Adverse stresses can be
TCM Records of Medical Benefits of Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng 141

man-made or due to the environment. The most common chemical and physical
sources of stress are drugs, chemicals, fumes, polluted water and air, high or low
pressures, extreme temperatures, and radiation. Biological causes of stress may
be bacteria, toxins, foreign sera, viruses, and tumor tissue. In addition to these
physical, environmental, and biological stresses, there are also mental stresses of a
socioeconomic nature.
Stress can make you miserable or ill. In extreme cases, it can kill you. But how do
you respond to stress? For a long time, doctors have told us to avoid stress, but Hans
Selye, considered the world’s leading authority on stress, says that the key to handling
stress is to work at something at which you can win. You can overcome the effects of
stress by following a code of behavior based on natural laws.11

Stress-Related Diseases
Evidence is growing that stress can be one of the components of any disease. The
presence of stressful environmental conditions is one of the major factors that
contribute to an individual’s susceptibility to disease, as pointed out by Robert Ader,
Professor of Psychiatry and Psychology at the University of Rochester School of
Medicine and Dentistry12:

“Every illness from the common cold to cancer, has a psychologic component,” said
Dr. Samuel Silverman, Associate Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical
School. Some physicians, including Dr. Silverman, still think that the seven well-
defined diseases [peptic ulcer, hypertension, hyperthyroidism, rheumatoid arthritis,
ulcerative colitis, neurodermatitis, and asthma], are psychosomatic diseases, that is,
the physical disorder is caused by the emotional state of the patient.12

How Your Body Handles Stress

Laboratory studies on animals have shown that the adrenal gland in particular is the
prime reactor to stress. For example, when rats are exposed to various types of stress
such as environmental temperature change, pressure change, injecting foreign protein
or toxic material, all the rats had their adrenals enlarged, while the lymph nodes,
thymus, spleen, and gastric and duodenal tracts had shrunk. The initial response of
the body to any kind of stress is alarm, followed by the stage of resistance.
Selye, the world-famous endocrinologist and director of the American Academy
of Stress Disorders, published his original concept of reactions toward stress, the
“nonspecific biological stress syndrome” describing the pituitary-adrenal axis that
releases powerful corticosteroids in the body’s precautionary girding for “fight or
flight” when responding to danger or startle.12

Typical Stress Examples

Stress, such as meeting the annual income tax return deadline of April 15, may
lead to serious physiological changes, which may even result in cardiovascular
disorders. Meyer Friedman and Ray Roseman of Mount Zion Hospital and Medical
Center followed the blood changes of 18 tax accountants between January and June.
142 The Healing Power of Ginseng

As a rule, the accountants increased their workload to 70-hour weeks against the
April target date, then slacked off to leisurely 30-hour weeks. In the course of this
experiment, the group’s serum cholesterol averaged 206–217 mg% during the off-
season winter months of work, rose sharply in March, and peaked at a mean 323 mg%
by mid-April. Then by the first week in June, it declined to 206 mg%. Blood clotting
times kept pace, from 8.1 minutes in February, dropping to a tense, taut 5 minutes
on April 15, and by June increased again to 8.8 minutes. This economical stress on
the accountants caused high blood cholesterol, one of the effects of stress in persons
prone to cardiovascular disorders.13
Both Sidney Cobb of Brown University and Robert Rose of Boston University
School of Medicine agree that because of the round-the-clock and day-in and day-
out stress of split-second decisions and actions, air-traffic controllers have a higher-
than-average incidence of hypertension, peptic ulcers, and diabetes.14 Hypertension
has long been thought to be a psychosomatic disease—the disease caused by stress.
Elevated blood pressure has been specifically associated with emergency situations,
with prolonged combat duty, and with job termination.14
How would unemployment affect one’s health? In 1975, the unemployment rate
was headed for 10% nationwide, but in an economic disaster area such as Detroit,
the automobile city, 15%–20% of the work force was idle. Gordon Deshler, medical
director of Detroit’s Metropolitan Health plan, said that “The truth of the matter is
that Detroit is probably one of the most stressful areas in the whole world. We have
large numbers of people who require continuing support with medication for pain,
anxiety, for stress, and so forth. It really is pretty much a way of life.”12

Antistress Effect of Ginseng

Quite a number of interesting laboratory investigations dealing with the protective or
antistress effect of ginseng have been reported in the medical literature. It is of great
interest and importance that some properties of ginseng are demonstrable only in
stressed, injured, and impaired animals. In other words, normal animals or animals
kept at normal conditions usually show little or no physiological change after being
fed ginseng. This is because animals usually retain their homeostasis. Therefore, in
order to evaluate the true antistress effect of ginseng, various types of experiments
were designed using animals under severe stress or animals with previously induced
stresses of a physical, chemical, or biological nature.
Physical stresses, such as extremely cold and hot temperatures, have been used to
evaluate how the animals react, and what role ginseng plays in the reaction to stress.
Quantitative measurements of the vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content in the adrenal
gland of the test animals and their body temperature have been used as indictors to
evaluate stress. This is because under extreme temperatures, either cold or hot, the
adrenal vitamin C of the animals usually falls to a very low level.
It seems that the earliest laboratory studies on temperature stress started some
20  years ago. In 1958, two Chinese physiologists, Sung and Chi of the Chinese
Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, announced their fundamental research
discovery on the protective effect of ginseng against temperature stresses.15 In their
study, white male rats were divided into groups: one group ate a regular diet, while
TCM Records of Medical Benefits of Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng 143

the other group ate the same diet supplemented with 5% ginseng powder. After
3 weeks, some of the rats from both groups were put into a 78°C–90°C chamber for
5–6 minutes or put into a chamber at −2°C for 1 hour before being returned to room
temperature. In another experiment, each rat received 2.4 mL of 50% ginseng extract
1 hour before the temperature stress, while rats fed with water served as controls.
After temperature stress, all of the rats were killed, and the vitamin C contents of
their adrenal glands were determined. It was found that the vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
content of the adrenal glands of rats subjected to either hot or temperature stress was
significantly depleted. However, depletion of the adrenal vitamin C was less in rats
rerated with ginseng powder in their diet or with ginseng extract 1 hour before the
stress. Also, the rats in the control group subjected to high-temperature stress either
appeared unable to move or showed chronic convulsion, and did not regain their
normality until 20–60 minutes after their removal from the hot chamber. Most of the
rats fed with ginseng appeared to be normal immediately after their removal from
the hot chamber, and none of them showed convulsion. Their work clearly indicated
that ginseng was capable of increasing the nonspecific resistance of the organism to
temperature stress. The authors suggested that the administration of ginseng extract
may interfere with the nervous control of the pituitary gland or that ginseng has
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)–like action.15,16
Similar antistress effects observed with ginseng could in some cases also be
obtained with cortisol or cortisone. Thus, the question has been raised whether the
antistress effects of ginseng are actually mediated through the adrenal cortex or
through the brain pituitary-adrenal cortex system. Studies in the area of endocrinology
are very difficult. Many times, Brekhman has said that the intravenous injection of
ginseng extract to a dying cat, after it has lost its breath and heartbeat can often revive
it. Chang and Kao injected a ginseng extract to dogs dying as a result of bleeding
or suffocation, and brought the dogs to life. All of these indicate that the action of
ginseng is definitely related to the adrenal system or the pituitary gland of the brain
or both.17
In 1964, the effect of ginseng against temperature stress was investigated by
Tsung, Chen, and Tang of Kirin Medical Institute.18 In their experiments, instead
of measuring the adrenal vitamin C level, they explored the possible mechanism of
the organism’s antistress activity by observing how the animal survived. Ninety-
two male white mice were treated by intraperitoneal injection of a 50% aqueous
extract of ginseng, 10 mL/kg, to each mouse; while those injected with the same
amount of physiological saline served as controls. In each experiment, six mice (three
experimental and three control) were put into a 45°C–47°C chamber 30 minutes
after the injection or into a 2°C chamber 20 minutes after the injection. The mice
were allowed to remain in the chamber until half of the mice were dead. The results
showed that out of 21 mice in each group, 14 mice in the control group and 7 in the
experimental group were dead under heat stress, while among the 25 mice in each
group kept in the cold chamber, 18 in the control group and 6 in the experimental
group were dead.
In a second series of experiments, the adrenals of the mice were taken out, and
by a similar procedure, they were put in the cold and hot temperature chambers.
The results showed that out of 17 mice in each group, 7 in the control group and
144 The Healing Power of Ginseng

10 in the experimental group were dead in the hot chamber, while out of 20 mice
in each group, 10 in the control group and 9 in the experimental group were dead
under cold stress. Their experiments clearly confirmed that ginseng strikingly raised
the animals’ ability to tolerate temperature stress, and elongated their survival
under stress. However, this antistress activity was abolished after the removal of the
adrenals. The authors then suggested that the mechanism of the antistress activity
of the organism induced after the injection of ginseng might be associated with the
hypophysis (pituitary gland) adrenal system.18
Research on the antistress activity of ginseng was also pursued in Bulgaria. In
1963, Petkov and Staneva-Stoicheva of Postgraduate Medical Institute, Sofia, reported
their work on the effect of ginseng on the adrenal cortex.19 In their experiments, white
rates were fed with 20% alcoholic extract of ginseng by means of a stomach tube at
a daily dose of 2 mL/kg for 17 days, while a second group of rats, fed with the same
volume of water, served as controls. In one series of their experiments, they found
that the eosinophil count in the peripheral blood of the experimental rats was 26%
lower than at the beginning of the experiment. The control animals had only a slight
reduction in the number of eosinophil cells. The average weight of the adrenals of the
experimental rats was increased by about 13% over that of the controls. Also there was
a slight decrease in the vitamin C content of the adrenal cortex, but the corticosteroid
content in the urine was found to be 60% higher in the experimental animals than
in the controls. Another series of experiments was performed under hot stress by
immersing one hind leg of the rat in hot water (70°C) for 1 minute. After this stress,
the eosinophil count of the control animals had a 41% rise after 2 hours and a 45%
rise after 4 hours of the stress, while the rats under ginseng treatment, after the same
intervals, showed a 12% and a 9% fall of the eosinophil count. During the subsequent
days three rats in the control group died, while all the rats in the experimental group
survived. In a third series of experiments, all of the rats had one of their adrenal
glands removed (adrenalectomy). After this unilateral adrenalectomy, the remaining
adrenal gland of the ginseng-treated rats, in each case, weighed much more than
the adrenal gland that had been removed at the beginning of the experiment. The
corresponding increase in weight of the adrenal gland of the rats in the control group
was insignificant. Accordingly, the hypertrophy effect (enlargement) of the adrenal
gland of the experimental rats indicates the pharmacological action of ginseng. All
of these results, according to Petkov, confirmed that ginseng extract had a stimulating
effect on the adrenal cortex, and this effect may be of neurogenic origin. Ginseng
increased the reactivity of the cerebrocortical cells, thus facilitating the adaptation
of adrenal cortical function to the needs of the organism under stress. The anti-
inflammatory and antiexudative effects of ginseng, as had been reported by others,
may also be due to the stimulating effect of ginseng on glycocorticoid hormone
production.19
After the studies of Sung and Chi, Tsung and associates, and Petkov, Wang of the
Chinese Medicine Research Institute in Kirin further reported that a 20% alcoholic
extract of ginseng leaves and stems had a stimulating effect on the activities of the
pituitary-adrenal cortex system. From different pharmacological experiments, Wang
confirmed that the activity of ginseng was not directly on the adrenal cortex per se
but rather on the cerebral level, that is, the pituitary gland of the brain.1
TCM Records of Medical Benefits of Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng 145

Antistress effects have been observed not only with ginseng ethanol extract but
also with a number of isolated ginseng glycosides. Ginsenoside Rb1 or ginsenoside
Re was administered to rats for 10 days. From the eighth day, the rats were exposed
to heat (45°C, for 30 minutes) for three consecutive days. It was observed that the
decrease of adrenal ascorbic acid content due to stress was inhibited by the application
of isolated pure glycosides, indicating that glycoside also normalizes the insufficiency
of adrenal glands induced by stress. Here again in normal animals, adrenal ascorbic
acid content did not change significantly after treatment with pure glycosides.
In recent years, studies on the antistress effect of ginseng were performed in
much greater detail by many investigators in South Korea. For example, in 1964,
B. I. Kim reported that an alcoholic extract of ginseng, as does hydrocortisone,
prolonged the survival time of the adrenalectomized mice when exposed to cold.21
In 1965, C. Kim reported that the total serum protein, hemoglobin, and the red
blood cells of mice were markedly decreased when exposed to a cold environment.
However, the ginseng-treated mice showed an increase in the serum hemoglobin
and the red blood cell counts.22 In 1965, G. C. Kim reported the influence of
ginseng on the rectal temperature of mice in a cold environment in comparison
with cortisone and chloropromazine.23 In his experiments, 1,680 mice were divided
into four groups; a normal group without restraint (movement of all four legs were
uninhibited), a normal group with restraint, adrenalectomized mice without restraint,
and adrenalectomized mice with restraint. These mice were exposed to a cold
temperature of 0°C (50 minutes per day) for 1, 5, and 10 days. The adrenalectomy
(both sides) was performed 3 days before the cold stress. It was found that the mice
treated with ginseng (an alcoholic extract at a daily dose of 10 mg/kg) and treated
with cortisone (at a dose of 10 mg/kg/day) repressed the drop of rectal temperature
of all groups, and the suppression effect was more apparent with the mice in the
restraint groups. Both ginseng and cortisone exerted a greater effect on the normal
mice than the adrenalectomized mice in preventing the rectal temperature drop.
It is surprising, however, after the administration of chlorpromazine (a dose level
of 9.5 mg/kg/day), that both the normal and adrenalectomized mice with restraint
showed a further drop in the rectal temperature.23
Similar studies on the influence of ginseng on the rectal temperature of rats
exposed to cold was also reported by Yoon and Kim in 1971. Two hundred adult
male albino rats were divided into ginseng and saline groups. For 8 or 15 consecutive
days, the rats received 5 mL/kg of either a ginseng extract or a physiological saline.
The significant findings from their studies were that without exposure to cold
environment, there was no significant difference in rectal temperature between the
ginseng and the saline groups, regardless of whether the rats were intact (without
any surgery), hypophysectomized, adrenalectomized, thyroidectomized, or thyroid
adrenalectomized; the rectal temperature of the ginseng-treated rats after the different
types of surgery as mentioned dropped little in comparison with those in the saline
group; also ginseng facilitated the earlier recovery from abnormal to normal rectal
temperature than saline in the rats under cold stress.24
Hu and associates reported their series of studies on the effect of ginseng against
temperature stresses. Their findings were essentially similar to those reported by
others, indicating that ginseng exerted little or no influence on the adrenal vitamin C
146 The Healing Power of Ginseng

content of animals under normal temperature conditions. However, the administration

of ginseng did accelerate the recovery from, and helped in the maintenance of, the
body temperature under cold or heat stress conditions.25–29
Only recently W. B. Kim, H. R. Kim, and H. Y. Chung found that after the
administration of ACTH, the adrenal vitamin C content decreased significantly as it
does with temperature stress. However, animals, both mature and immature, under
the influence of ginseng showed a protective effect and mitigated the fall in the
adrenal vitamin C content.30,31
Ever since the announcement of ginseng’s adaptogenic power by Brekhman, scientists
all over the world tried to prove and also disprove its marvelous action. Amirov and
Abdulova reported that the increase in the resistance of the body to toxic substances
can be achieved not only by gradual adaptation to toxic substances but also by the
administration of ginseng. As an adaptogen, ginseng has polytropic action. It improves
the resistance of the body toward stresses by any mechanism that may act upon the
endocrine system, metabolic processes, and may be joined together with neurohumoral
mechanisms, thus stimulating the amazing defensive or adaptive activities of the body.32
The tendency to get sick and also the ill effects of exposure to toxic chemicals such
as morphine, cocaine, strychnine, and curare poisons were much less in ginseng-fed
animals than in control animals.33–35 Animals under ginseng treatment also showed
relatively longer survival time during periods of starvation,36 or when exposed to low
pressure and extremely cold temperature after adrenal gland removal.37 The tolerance
of ginseng-treated mice to the stress of increased gravitational force was greater than
that of the control group,38,39 another incident showing the antistress effect of ginseng.

NORMALIZING EFFECT OF GINSENG

The third and most important attribute of an adaptogen is its normalizing effect on
wounds and fast recovery from various illnesses. In experimental investigations with
animals, it has been established that ginseng is effective against chemically (alloxan)
induced diabetes, radiation sickness, experimental emotional disorders, mental strain
and nervous exhaustion, hypotension, and certain forms of hypertension and cancer.5
This broad-spectrum antistress effect of ginseng is due to its normalizing effect. The
“normalizing effect” of ginseng or of any other adaptogenic drug is a new dimension
in medicine and a novel approach in therapeutics. The following are a few examples
to illustrate the marvelous normalizing effect of ginseng.
Liver damage caused by carbon tetrachloride or irradiation was prevented by
the administration of ginseng extract to animals.40 Ginseng also prevented the
development of fever induced by intravenous injection of typhoid and a paratyphoid
vaccine in rabbits. When mice were injected with trypanosomes (a genus of
flagellate protozoan), it was found that the life span of the ginseng-treated animals
was significantly prolonged compared to that of the controls.40 Rabbits inoculated
with Shigella paradysenteriae W. and given ginseng extract suffered only from a
drastically increased number of leukocytes (white blood cells) in the blood, whereas
the control animals developed diseased white blood cells (leukopenia).41
Ginseng has certain anti-inflammatory activities. It appears to be capable of
lessening the swelling at the ankle joints due to the injection of egg-white or dextran.42
TCM Records of Medical Benefits of Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng 147

A noticeable anti-inflammatory effect was obtained in rabbits having an inflammation

of the ear-shell caused by freezing.
In general, laboratory experimental work revealed that in animals exposed to
pathological environmental conditions, the ginseng-fed animals showed quick
adjustment with respect to the adverse conditions. This is the typical normalizing
of the organism under the influence of ginseng. In addition to the medical defensive
power, the wonder root is further capable of aiding in recovery from damage such
as abnormal enlargement (hypertrophy) and contraction (atrophy) of the adrenal and
thyroid glands caused by toxic chemicals; reducing the blood sugar level in animals
having very high blood sugar; or increasing the blood sugar level in animals having
very low blood sugar. The normalization effect was also attained in red blood cell
diseases as well as white blood cell diseases.43,20
After learning all the facts about ginseng’s mysterious adaptogenic power, we
know no chemical drug today that is comparable to ginseng. No wonder the manroot
deserves the title of “panacea,” or “elixir of life,” and has been scientifically called
“adaptogen.” In my opinion, to maintain homeostasis and good health, we all need this
mysterious adaptogen against all known and unknown harmful stresses and distresses.

SIBERIAN GINSENG’S MEDICAL BENEFITS

Both Panax Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng are well-known herbal medicines in
China for centuries. The dried root and rhizome of Acanthopanax senticosus of
the family Araliaceae is Siberian ginseng. It grows in abundance in northeastern
China, particularly in the Heilongjiang province, as well as Inner Mongolia, North
Korea, and Siberia. The varieties of Siberian ginseng Eleutherococcus henry and E.
senticosus are known to most Westerners. The Chinese variety of Siberian ginseng,
or wu jia shen, is not well known; it is a tonic herb for Qi and an effective antifatigue
herb. It is also recommended for rheumatism, bone or tendon pain, general debility,
and weakened immunity. Siberian ginseng is an adaptogenic and an effective,
antiaging medicinal herb.44,45
The best known medical benefits of Siberian ginseng are the adaptogenic
effect: Siberian ginseng, or wu jia shen (ci wu jia), has even a stronger adaptogenic
activity than Panax ginseng. An adaptogen is a substance that causes “a state of
nonspecific increased resistance” (SNIR) to adverse stresses of various origins.46 An
effective adaptogen must (1) be innocuous and safe, (2) have antistress activity, and
(3) possess normalizing and protective properties. According to published results,
ginseng, Siberian ginseng, and Chinese schisandra fruits meet all the fundamental
requirements necessary to be classified as adaptogens.46
Siberian ginseng invigorates Qi and nourishes the spleen; it is used for weakness,
fatigue, lassitude, anorexia, insomnia, sleep with dreams, forgetfulness, and
palpitations as a result of weakness of the spleen and Qi deficiency. Siberian ginseng
can be used alone in a decoction, in a tincture, in an extract such as Wu Jia Shen Gao
(R-7), or in a combination with schisandra fruit and other tonic herbs.47
The Qi tonic effect has healing properties. The antifatigue and antistress properties
in Siberian ginseng are stronger than in Panax ginseng. Also, a noticeable sedative
effect on the central nervous system may occur.47 The herb also stimulates immune
148 The Healing Power of Ginseng

resistance and can be taken in convalescence to aid recovery from chronic illness.
As a general tonic, Siberian ginseng helps both to prevent infection and to maintain
well-being. Siberian ginseng is also used in the treatment for impotence.
Siberian ginseng nourishes the kidneys and tranquilizes the spirit: it is used for
treating male sexual disorders, impotence, spermatorrhea, and aches and pains in
the loins and knees due to kidney deficiency or mental disturbance. Siberian ginseng
is prescribed with processed rehmannia root, eucommia bark, dodder seed, and
rosa cherokee fruit47 to stimulate adrenal and sex hormone production, it is also a
gonadotrophic.47
The German Commission E, on the basis of studies conducted concluded that
eleutherosides were an effective tonic.48
The glycosides of Siberian ginseng appear to act on the adrenal glands, helping
in the prevention of adrenal hypertrophy and excess corticosteroid production in
response to stress. The eleutherosides additionally help reduce the exhaustion phase
of the stress response and help the adrenals return to normal function faster. As a
result, Eleuthero root has a beneficial effect on the heart and circulation. It has been
shown to increase energy and stamina, and to help the body resist viral infections,
environmental toxins, radiation, and chemotherapy.
Siberian ginseng or Wu jia shen is a sedative and is helpful in patients suffering
from sleep difficulties. The root is used to treat a wide spectrum of ailments in the
nervous, cardiovascular, and endocrine systems. It helps to adjust blood sugar levels
and is used to treat sexual debility.46,49
Siberian ginseng expels pathogenic wind and eliminates dampness: it is also used
to treat arthritis, rheumatic arthralgia, and numbness of the limbs. It can be used
alone in a decoction or in combination with millettia (ji xue teng), dried (chaenomeles)
papaya fruit, and clematis root (wei ling xian).47
Siberian ginseng regulates endocrine secretions, adrenal cortex, and blood
sugar levels.47 It also appears to produce moderate reductions in blood sugar and
blood cholesterol levels and modest improvements in memory and concentration.
Siberian ginseng may also have mild estrogenic effects. In laboratory studies, various
chemicals found in eleuthero have also shown antiviral and anticancer properties, but
these effects have not been well studied in humans.
Siberian ginseng increases the immune activity of the body, and it has a protective
effect against radiation and toxic chemicals that cause loss of white blood cells.
Evidence is also mounting that Siberian ginseng enhances and supports the immune
response. Siberian ginseng may be useful as a preventive measure during cold and
flu season. Recent evidence also suggests that Siberian ginseng may prove valuable
in the long-term management of various diseases of the immune system, including
HIV infection, chronic fatigue syndrome, and autoimmune illnesses such as lupus.
Siberian ginseng is able to strengthen the immune system and improve resistance:
it is used to treat white blood cell loss in cancer patients caused by the side effects of
chemotherapy or intoxication of noxious chemicals (such as pyridoxine or benzene
fumes). Siberian ginseng extract, or Wu Jia Shen Gao (R-7), can be used to strengthen
immunity and boost detoxification.47
Dong reported that Siberian ginseng has an anti-inflammatory effect and pain
relieving effect. It also has analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects.49
TCM Records of Medical Benefits of Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng 149

IMMUNE SYSTEM
Evidence is also mounting that Siberian ginseng enhances and supports the
immune response. Siberian ginseng may be useful as a preventive measure during
cold and flu season. Recent evidence also suggests that Siberian ginseng may prove
valuable in the long-term management of various diseases of the immune system,
including HIV infection, chronic fatigue syndrome, and autoimmune illnesses
such as lupus.
In perhaps the most convincing study carried out so far, B. Bohn and coworkers
in Heidelberg, West Germany, looked at immune parameters in 18 individuals in
a randomized, double-blind fashion for a total of 4 weeks. The subjects in this
study had venous blood drawn both before and after Eleutherococcus senticosus
administration, and the samples were analyzed by flow cytometry, which counted
absolute numbers of immune cells present in their blood.
Overall, the E. senticosus group showed an absolute increase in all immune cells
measured. Total T-cell numbers advanced by 78%, T-helper/inducer cells went up
by 80%, cytotoxic T cells by 67%, and NK cells by 30%, compared to the control
group. The B lymphocytes, which are cells that produce antibodies against infectious
organisms, expanded by 22% in the E. senticosus subjects, compared to controls.
Most importantly, no side effects were noted in the E. senticosus subjects up to
5 months after E. senticosus administration ended.
The researchers stated: “We conclude from our data that Eleutherococcus
senticosus exerts a strong immunomodulatory effect in healthy normal subject.” The
Bohn study has caused drug companies to spend millions of dollars in an effort to get
E. senticosus approved as a drug by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
The increases in T, B, and NK cells in people given E. senticosus suggest that it
could be very useful in alleviating immune suppression associated with strenuous
exercise. In addition, one might speculate about a positive effect of E. senticosus
in the very early stages of HIV (AIDS-virus) infection. In an HIV-infected patient,
E. senticosus might prevent or retard the spread of the virus, thanks to the synergistic
positive actions of elevated numbers of both helper and cytotoxic T cells.
Supporting these findings, E. senticosus is now used in the support of cancer
patients undergoing radiation and chemotherapy, especially in Germany. Studies have
shown that when administered to patients, E. senticosus drastically reduces the side
effects of radiation and chemotherapy (e.g., nausea, weakness, fatigue, dizziness, and
loss of appetite). Other research with cancer patients has linked E. senticosus with
improved healing and recovery times, increased weight gain, and improved immune
cell counts. In Russia, the administration of E. senticosus to cancer patients seemed
to permit larger than normal doses of drugs utilized in chemotherapy, thus speeding
treatment periods.
How does E. senticosus actually spur the immune system to greater activity? At
present, there is no consensus. Some researchers believe that E. senticosus induces
increased interferon biosynthesis (interferon is a powerful chemical that boosts
immune system activity), while others believe that polysaccharides (long-chain
sugar molecules) naturally found in E. senticosus stimulate the activity of special
white blood cells called macrophages. These macrophages play a number of roles in
150 The Healing Power of Ginseng

the immune system, including the breakdown of infected cells and the stimulation
of other immune cells. However, the polysaccharides are probably “nonspecific”
immune stimulants, which means that their effectiveness fades fairly quickly and
that they must be administered continuously or at regular intervals in order to produce
a positive effect.

ATHLETES AND ANTIBIOTICS

Why should athletes try to stimulate their own immune systems, rather than rely
on antibiotics and other remedies to control infections? Obviously, prevention of
infection can promote more consistent, high-quality training and lower the risk of
missed competitions. In addition, many microorganisms are now resistant to many of
the commonly used antibiotics. That means that an infection picked up during heavy
training may be more difficult to shake off than ever before.
Some of the more notable antibiotic-resistant organisms include Streptococcus
pyogenes, which causes “strep throat”, upper respiratory infections, and is reported
to be resistant to both penicillin and chloramphenicol. Another common bacterial
species, Haemophilus influenzae, which produces both ear and upper-respiratory
tract infections, is now resistant to a variety of antibiotics, including chloramphenicol,
ampicillin, and tetracycline. Staphylococcus aureus, which causes “staph infections”
of the skin, especially around surgical wounds, is resistant to erythromycin,
tetracycline, and the ß-lactam antibiotics. Finally, certain strains of Escherichia coli,
which have caused deaths in recent incidents when customers of restaurants have
consumed contaminated or poorly cooked meat, are resistant to a variety of different
drugs.
Investigators in the United States recently completed a pilot study in which
E. senticosus extract was given to AIDS patients in hopes of improving their immune
system functioning and overall survivability. The results were very promising,
and so a four-city, randomized, double-blind clinical trial will be carried out with
E. senticosus.
Extracts of E. senticosus appear to have the ability to prevent immune suppression
in vigorously training athletes and may limit the risk of infection. By boosting
recovery following hard workouts, E. senticosus may also downgrade athletes’
chances of overtraining.
The ability of Siberian Ginseng to increase stamina and endurance led Soviet
Olympic athletes to use it to enhance their training. Explorers, divers, sailors, and
miners used eleuthero to prevent stress-related illness. After the Chernobyl accident,
many Siberian citizens were given eleuthero to counteract the effects of radiation.

REFERENCES
1. Wang, P. H., Acta. Pharm. Sinica, 12: 477, 1965.
2. Brekhman, I. I., Medgiz, Leningrad: 182, 1957.
3. Brekhman, I. I., Med. Sci. Serv., 4: 17, 1957.
4. Brekhman, I. I. and I. V. Dardymov, Lloyda, 32: 46, 1969.
5. Brekhman, I. I. and I. V. Dardymov, Ann. Rev. Pharmacol., 9: 419, 1969.
TCM Records of Medical Benefits of Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng 151

6. Lazarev, N. V., in 7th All-Union Congress of Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol., Medgiz,

Moscow, 1947, 579 pp.
7. Yonekawa, M., Keijo J. Med., 6: 785, 1926.
8. Kitagawa, H. and R. Iwaki, Nippn Yakurigaku Zasshi (Folia Pharmacol., Japan), 59:
348, 1963.
9. Hong., S. A. and H. Y. Cho, in Korean Ginseng Science Symposium, Korean Society of
Pharmacognosy, Seoul, 1974, pp. 113–139.
10. Kaku, T. et al., Arzneim-Forsch., 25: 539, 1975.
11. Industry Week, January 30, 1975.
12. Leff, D. N., Med. World News, 16: 74, March 24, 1975.
13. Med. World News, 16: 103, February 24, 1975.
14. Cobb, S. and R. M. Rose, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 224: 489, 1973.
15. Sung, C. Y. and H. C. Chi, Acta Physiol Sinica, 22: 155, 1958.
16. Liu, K. T. and C. Y. Sung., Acta Physiol Sinica, 25: 129, 1962.
17. Chang, T. H. and T. H. Kao, J. Chin. Med. Assoc., 44: 1040, 1958.
18. Tsung, J. Y., C. Cheng, and S. Tang, Acta Physiol. Sinica, 27: 324, 1964.
19. Petkov, W. and D. Staneva-Stoicheva, in Proc. 2nd. International Pharmacology
Meeting, Prague, August 20–23, 1963, Pergamon Press, NY, 1965, pp. 39–45.
20. Brekhman, I. I. and O. I. Kirillov, Rast. Resursy., 4: 1, 1968.
21. Kim, B. I., Choongang Uihak (Korean Med. J.), 8: 107, 1963.
22. Kim, C., Katorik Taehak Uihakpu, Nonumnjip, 8: 251, 1964.
23. Kim. C. C., Katorik Taehak Uihakpu, Non Mumjit, 9: 29, 1965.
24. Yoon, H. S. and C. Kim, Katorik Taehak Uihakpu, Non Mumjit, 21: 25, 1971.
25. Hu, C. Y. and C. Kim, Katorik Taehak Uihakpu, Non Mumjit, 12: 49, 1967.
26. Kim, C. C., J. K. Kim, and C. Y. Hu, Katorik Taehak Uihakpu, Non Mumjit, 10: 455,
1966.
27. Hu, C. Y., C. C. Kim, and J. K. Kim, Choosin Uihak, 10: 73, 1967.
28. Kim, C. C., J. K. Kim, and C. Y. Hu, Choosin Uihak, 10: 57, 1967.
29. Kim, C., C. C. Kim, M. S. Kim, C. Y. Hu, and J. S. Rhe, Lloydia, 33: 43, 1970.
30. Kim, H. R. and W. B. Kim, Choesin Uihak, 15: 87, 1972.
31. Kim, W. B. and H. Y. Chung, Choosin Uihak, 15: 83, 1972.
32. Amirov, R. V. and E. B. Abdulova, Uchenye Zapskii Azerbaidzhanskogo Zast. Usoversh
Urachei, 1: 3, 1966.
33. Kim, C. -c. et al., Choesin Uihak, 10: 57, 1967.
34. Oshima, Y., J. Chosen Med. Assoc., 19: 539, 1929.
35. Golikov, P. P., Inf. A Study Ginseng and Other Drugs the Soviet Far East, 7: 17, 1966.
36. Hong, S. A., Choesin Uihak, 15: 87, 1972.
37. Kim, C.-C. and Roh, H.- K., Katorik Taehak, Uihakpu. Non-Munjip, 8: 265, 1964.
38. Kim, C. C., Korean Med. J., 11: 51, 1966.
39. Choi, Y. C., Seoul Uidae Chapchi, 13: 1, 1972.
40. Chang, P.-H., Yao Hsueh Hsueh Pao (Acta Pharm. Sinica), 13: 106, 1966.
41. Brekhaman, I. I. and N. K. Fruentov, Farmakol. I Toksikol., 19(suppl.): 37, 1956.
42. Zhou, J. H., F. Y. Fu, and H. P. Lei, “Proceedings of the Second International
Pharmacological Meeting,” in Pharmacology of Oriental Plant, Vol. 7, K. K. Chen and
B. Mukerji, Eds., Pergamon Press, NY, 1965, p. 17.
43. Pichurina, R. A., Dissertacija, Tomskiy Medicinskiy. Institut., Tomsk, 1963, p. 106.
44. Hou, J. P., The Myth and Truth About Ginseng, South Brunswick, NJ: AS Barnes and
Co., 1978.
45. Jiang Su New Medical College, Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai
Science and Technology Press, Shanghai, 1977.
46. Brekhman, I. I. and I. V. Drdymo, Annual Review of Pharmacology, 9: 419–430, 1969.
152 The Healing Power of Ginseng

47. Wang, J. H., Ed., Xin Bian Chang Yong Zhong Yao Shou Ce [Manual of Commonly Used
Chinese Medicinal Herbs], Jin Dun Press, Beijing, 1994.
48. Robbers, J. E. and V. Tyler, Tyler’s Herbs of Choice, The Haworth Press, Binghamton,
NY, 1999.
49. Dong, K. S., X. Q. Wang, and Y. F. Dong, Xian Dai Lin Chuang Zhong Yao Xue
[Contemporary Clinical Chinese Materia Medica], Zhong Guo Zhong Yi Yao Press,
Beijing, 1998.

The section on Siberian Ginseng’s Medical Benefits is taken from “The Healing Power
of  Chinese Herbs and Medicinal Recipes” by Joseph P. Hou and Jin, Y. Y., The Haworth
Integrative Press, NY, 2005. (p. 94–96).
 16 What Ginseng Can
Do For You

SAFE TONIC AND THE ANTIFATIGUE EFFECT OF GINSENG

Fatigue
Fatigue is the common symptom of weariness that occurs after sustained or intensive
physical or mental strain. Fatigue causes irritability, decreased ability to concentrate,
a tendency to be upset by trivialities, and impairment of the ability to rationalize.
Most often, psychiatric fatigue, such as combat fatigue during a period of war, is a
very common symptom of distress, uneasiness, or emotional disorders. Common
symptoms associated with these disorders are headache, chest pain, very rapid
beating of the heart, along with difficulty in breathing. Certain illnesses such as
anemia, chronic infection, malnutrition, metabolic disease, and endocrine gland
disorders may cause chronic fatigue.

Tonic Effect of Ginseng

Repeated laboratory tests have shown that the active principles of ginseng root indeed
are able to prevent fatigue and to increase the physical performance of animals,
including man. “The increase in strength and efficiency after a single dose is called
stimulant action, while the improved vitality after prolonged administration of
ginseng is called tonic effect,” according to Brekhman.1
The stimulant effect of ginseng was first tested in humans by the Chinese 2,000
years ago. The test consisted of a person with a piece of ginseng root in his mouth
walking for 5 li while another walked with his mouth empty, and if the person with
ginseng in his mouth did not feel tired or out of breath, the root in his mouth was
genuine ginseng (the tonic effect). The other person must be out of breath. This two-
man walk test was the first trial in history to identify if the ginseng was genuine or
an adulterant.
The first modern method of detecting the tonic and antifatigue effects of ginseng
in animals was a swimming test using white mice of similar weight.2–5 In order to
make the results more obvious and the testing period of swimming shorter, a 1 g
weight was put on the tails of the mice. Results from hundreds of tests showed that the
average swimming time after oral administration or injection of 0.15 mL of ginseng
extract, was increased to about 60%–100% over controls.1,3,5
The antifatigue effect of ginseng is more pronounced if ginseng has been taken
continuously for a longer time. Again, by using the swimming test with mice, Soviet
scientists conducted experiments that continued for 2 months, during which time the
mice had to swim once every 5 days. For the first 10 days on which they swam, no

153
154 The Healing Power of Ginseng

ginseng preparation was given. From the 11th day to the 40th day, half of the mice
received injections in an amount of 0.1 mL per mouse (20 g of body weight) of a 10%
aqueous liquid extract once every other day. Mice in control received 2% alcohol
solution. The swimming was started 20 minutes after the injection.
At the end of the 2-month test, the average swimming time of the mice in control
was about 47–61 minutes, while those under the influence of ginseng was about
96–117 minutes, which is about an 80% improvement. It was further noted that in
the 20-mouse groups, 8 in the control group and only 4 in the ginseng-treated group
were dead as a result of complete physical exhaustion.6
A second method is to measure the increased duration of running on an endless
rope.7 The device consists of four closed, vertical boxes 7 × 7 × 25 cm. Through the
center of each box, a descending rope is passed. The rope is put into motion by an
electric motor at a velocity of about 6 m/min. The floors of the boxes are electrified
to about 25 volts. The time to complete fatigue is that time when the mice can no
longer run but remain on the floor despite the current being on. In this particular test,
the mice under the influence of ginseng gave a significantly better performance than
the control.
In order to test the potency of the ginseng preparations, the amount of the
preparation that increases the work duration by about 33% is called one stimulant
unit of action, denoted as SUA33.6 This particular pharmacological testing method of
ginseng preparations was developed by Brekhman at Vladivostok. It was shown that
the active principles, ginseng saponin glycosides isolated by Soviet chemists from the
Chinese ginseng root, gave much more pronounced stimulant action than the crude
extract. This was proved by the swimming and rope-running tests.8 One SUA33 equals
0.101 mL/20 g of body weight of 15% solution of ginseng extract, or 0.151 mg of
ginseng saponin glycoside, panaxoside C, powder. A number of ginseng saponins and
aglycones (obtained after acid hydrolysis of saponins) isolated from the ginseng root
are about 100–1,000 times more potent than the crude extract. Among the five ginseng
saponins isolated by the Soviet chemists, panaxosides A and C (panaxatriol group)
are more potent than panaxosides D, E, and F (panaxadiol group). Also, panaxoside
C, with four sugar molecules, is twice as potent as panaxoside A, which has only three
sugar molecules. The aglycone, panaxatriol, possesses a relatively higher activity than
panaxadiol. Of the panaxadiols, panaxoside D is the most potent. Panaxoside E and
panaxoside F are a pentoxide and a hexoside, respectively, and are less active than
panaxoside D. The potencies of panaxosides are about 700–6,600 SUA33, while the
potencies of the aglycones are about 2,000–5,000 SUA33 in comparison with ginseng
extracts, which are only 50–70 SUA33.3 Furthermore, the activities of ginseng extracts
from natural ginseng were virtually the same as those cultivated ginseng roots.
The Japanese workers, without delay, repeated the swimming tests of mice
conducted initially by the Soviet investigators; however, a slightly different approach
was adopted. In the tests, four different types of ginseng extracts were used: ether
extract, alcohol extract, water total extract (without previously extracting with organic
solvents), and water extract (after extraction with ether). Five mice in a group were to
swim at 32°C until exhaustion, and the swimming performance of each mouse was
recorded. As shown in Table 16.1, with the mice in the control groups the duration
of swimming was from 34 (shortest) to 194 (longest) seconds, while with the mice
What Ginseng Can Do For You 155

TABLE 16.1
Swimming Performance in Mice with and without Ginseng Extract Treatment
Control Group
Ether Alcohol Total Water
Extract Extract Extract I II III
Dose in mg/kg Test A 200 100 100
55–123 52–164 80–198 34–96 40–96 46–194
Duration of swimming Test B 74–280 131–577 104–242 40–116 41–101 52–180
(in seconds)

Note: The swimming tests were performed at 32°C, five mice in a group. The durations of swimming
(from the shortest to the longest) were recorded and are shown. A represents the swimming tests
conducted 3 days after oral administration of the ginseng extract; B represents the swimming tests
conducted 1 hour after administration of the ginseng extract.

after treatment with ginseng extract, the swimming performance was significantly
increased. It was especially noted that the mice treated with alcohol extract, ether
extract, and water extract, respectively, showed the swimming duration, in each
case, to be improved by from 60% to 200% in comparison to both the shortest
and the longest swimming records of the controls. Particularly noteworthy was the
comparison between the performance observed 1 hour after treatment with ginseng
extract to that conducted 3 days after the oral treatment with ginseng extract. Thus,
1 hour after treatment with ginseng the mice’s performances were much better than
the controls.5
The antifatigue effect of ginseng was also tested using special commercially
available ginseng preparations of GI Pharmaton and Geriatric Pharmaton. The
swimming time of rats after administration of these preparations was significantly
prolonged over controls. Geriatric Pharmaton gave a much more pronounced effect
than the GI Pharmaton preparation.9
The most recent mice swimming studies were performed by K. H. Rueckert of
Pharmaton, Ltd., Lugano, Switzerland.10 In his first experiment, 450 mice were used.
These mice, both male and female of similar body weight of about 20 g, were divided
into nine groups of 50 mice each. The swimming performance of these mice was
measured after the mice had been treated with Pharmaton’s ginseng extract in the diet.
Two dose levels of the ginseng extract were used, that is, 3 mg/kg/day or 0.06 mg/20 g
(mouse body weight), and 30 mg/kg/day or 0.6 mg/20 g. Each of these dose levels
was administered continuously to groups of mice for periods of 14, 21, and 28 days.
At each time interval, the swimming performance of the ginseng-treated mice was
tested and compared with that of the untreated control group. In the swimming test,
the mice were placed in a water bath at 18°C and allowed to swim until complete
exhaustion. The swimming time of each mouse was recorded. After the first swim,
the mice were allowed to dry out in a warm airstream. Each mouse was then retested
after a rest-drying period of 1 hour. When the swimming tests were completed, the
average or mean swimming time in each of the two tests of the two dose groups was
computed. The results showed that the mice treated with the 0.06 mg/day dose for
156 The Healing Power of Ginseng

14 days improved little, while the mice treated with 0.6 mg/day had better swimming
performance than the control group. The improvement was about 12%–20%. After
21 days of treatment with ginseng extract, the swimming performance of 0.6 mg/day
group, for example, was about 27% better at the first test and about 20% better at the
second test than the control group. After 28 days of ginseng extract treatment, the
swimming performance was significantly improved by about 48% at the first test, and
38% at the second test over the control group; the mice treated at a lower dose level,
0.06 mg/day, also showed improvement in swimming performance but not as much as
those at the higher ginseng dose level of 0.6 mg/day. The data on swimming tests thus
collected are listed in Table 16.2. The table may give you a better understanding of
the improved swimming performance of the ginseng-treated mice over the controls.
Using a similar procedure, by using 1,000 mice, Rueckert repeated the swimming
study again in 1975. These mice were numbered and divided into several groups of
50 mice (25 female and 25 male of similar body weight of about 20 g) in each group.
For each of the treated groups there was a separate control group of 50 mice, which
were kept under the same conditions. They were allowed to swim at 18 ± 0.1°C until
complete exhaustion, and the swimming time of each mouse was registered. After the

TABLE 16.2
Comparison of Swimming Performance of Mice at 18 ± 0.1°Ca
Mean Swimming Performance, Percentage
Group Test Time (Seconds) (%) Improvement/Control
1. Control First 476 ± 92 —
Second 545 ± 121 —
2. 0.06 mg, 14 days First 502 ± 97 5.4%
Second 594 ± 133 9.0%
3. 0.6 mg, 14 days First 582 ± 100 22.0%
Second 610 ± 122 12.0%
4. Control First 496 ± 86 —
Second 536 ± 83 —
5. 0.06 mg, 21 days First 592 ± 104 19.5%
Second 654 ± 140 22.0%
6. 0.6 mg, 21 days First 630 ± 133 27.0%
Second 645 ± 137 20.2%
7. Control First 466 ± 82 —
Second 518 ± 96 —
8. 0.06 mg, 28 days First 701 ± 130 51.8%
Second 719 ± 134 38.8%
9. 0.6 mg, 28 days First 668 ± 139 47.9%
Second 717 ± 132 38.4%

a Each mouse was treated (except the control group) with ginseng extract. Geriatric-Pharmaton, at
levels of 0.06 or 0.6 mg per mouse for 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively.
What Ginseng Can Do For You 157

first test, a dry-resting period of 1 hour was allowed, and then the mice were tested
again (second test). Before the swimming experiment was conducted, the mice were
treated (except the control group) with ginseng extract G-115 at 0.06 mg/day/mouse
for, respectively, 14, 21, and 28 days. The controls were treated with placebo (water)
daily. The results showed that mice treated with ginseng extract for 14 days had about
5.1% increase in swimming performance at the first test and about 9.0% at the second
test over the controls.
Figure 16.1 shows the increase in swimming performance in mice treated with
ginseng extract, Geriatric Pharmaton G 115. The percent of increase is obtained by
subtracting the mean control time from the swimming time of mice treated with
ginseng, divided by the mean swimming time of the control, multiplied by 100.
After 21 days of treatment, the swimming improvements were about 20% at the
first test and about 22% better at the second test over the controls. After 28 days of
treatment, however, the improvement was even more pronounced, about 52% at the
first test and about 39% at the second test over the control group. These numbers
are plotted in the figure. The figure depicts the percentage increase in swimming
performance of mice after treatment with 0.06 mg/mouse/day of ginseng preparation
(ginseng extract F-115) for 14, 21, and 28 days over the control mice. As a matter
of fact, the curve clearly indicates that a much better improvement of swimming
performance, called duration, was obtained after a relatively longer ginseng
treatment.11
In a separate study, mice treated with two other ginseng extract preparations of
two foreign companies, X2 and S-II, for 28 days, also showed some improvement
in swimming performance over the controls. It seems that ginseng extract is indeed
capable of improving the physical activities of animals, and the improvement could be

70
Percent increase of swimming performance

60

50

40

30

20

10

5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (days)

FIGURE 16.1  Percentage increase of swimming performance.

158 The Healing Power of Ginseng

reached at a relatively low dose. The biggest problem in this type of experiment would
be the purity and strength of the ginseng preparation. In order to obtain dependable
and reproducible results, a standardized product has to be used.11
The antifatigue activity of ginseng extract was also investigated by the well-known
Japanese pharmacologists Saito, Nabata, and Takagi of the University of Tokyo. In
their studies, six different testing methods, for example, exploratory movement,
hole cross, rotating rod, sliding angle, spring balance, and rectal temperature tests
were used. They evaluated the effect on different fractions of ginseng root extract on
recovery from exhaustion. Four hours of oscillation exercise were used to exhaust
the mice. Aqueous extracts of ginseng were injected intraperitoneally immediately
following the exercise. It was observed that a water extract of ginseng significantly
accelerated the recovery of exploratory movement and elevated rectal temperature.
The antifatigue effect of a ginseng saponin, ginsenoside Rg1, and the lipophilic
fraction of ginseng extract was more pronounced and more obvious in every test
than that of other fractions isolated by the Japanese investigation.12,13
The swimming and running data clearly suggest that ginseng’s antifatigue effect in
mice may also be applicable to other animals and to humans for athletics or sports.14
Quite interesting results were shown with horse racing in Japan and Korea back
in the early twentieth century (Chapter 4). A study with ginseng extract (Geriatric
Pharmaton, G115) in 42 sportsmen was conducted with a physical education unit
in Liverpool, England. These 42 students had to undergo a training program with
continuous medical checkups. This particular study showed that the sportsmen’s stroke
volume and cardiac output, reaction time, and respiratory quotient were significantly
increased; in other words, the athletic performance, in general, was improved.11
Having such a promising effect, the number of athletes from the Communist countries
treated with ginseng tonic before attending the Olympic games is unknown.
Not too long ago, vitamin E, a modern chemical agent, had been claimed to prevent,
among other things, ulcers, baldness, arthritis, diabetes, liver dysfunction, sexual
impotence, and aging. The same vitamin has been added to cosmetics and used as a
deodorant. Other claims have suggested that large doses of vitamin E can improve
athletic performance15; however, in controlled trials, the E vitamin did not enhance
the endurance of competitive swimmers.16–18 The likelihood of serious adverse effects
of vitamin E from such self-medication appears to be very low. Nevertheless, diarrhea
and intestinal cramps have been reported with daily dose of 3200 IU of vitamin E.18
The antifatigue mechanism observed with ginseng and how it improves physical
performance have been the subject of argument between Soviet and Chinese
investigators. The Russian scientists, particularly Brekhman’s group, are saying that
ginseng basically is a “stimulant,” and it has a marked stimulant effect.19 On the
contrary, based on their experiments, the Chinese investigators, Tsung et al., of Kirin
Medical Institute, proclaimed that the antifatigue activity of ginseng has a “sedative”
instead of a “stimulant” effect.20 The antifatigue action of ginseng was shown by
the fact that the treated animals (rats) decreased their oxygen consumption, thus
reducing the unnecessary tension and muscle exercise and fatigue, and their survival
in a low-pressure (190/Hg) chamber was also prolonged. This was confirmed with
three experiments. In a mice swimming test, the swimming duration time of mice
in the control group was 60 ± 10 minutes; the time for the ginseng-treated group,
What Ginseng Can Do For You 159

88 ± 8 minutes (about 50% better than the control group); while the time for the
caffeine-treated group was 47 ± 3 minutes. In another experiment, the mice were
kept in reduced-pressure chambers. None of the ginseng-treated mice were dead,
10 of 20 mice injected with sodium bromide were dead, and all of the 20 mice
injected with caffeine were dead. A third experiment was the oxygen-consumption
tests. It was found that the least oxygen was consumed after the injection of ginseng,
in comparison with the amount consumed after injection of sodium bromide and
chlorpromazine, and the caffeine group showed the highest oxygen consumption.
Scicenkov studied the effect of ginseng on the visual performance of healthy
young men. He found that, after a single administration of the liquid extracts of
ginseng roots, the process of dark adaptation was accelerated, its final level was
increased, and visual acuity also increased substantially. This may also be considered
to be a tonic effect.21
It is an undisputable fact that ginseng can be considered as a tonic, a “safe” tonic.
As Brekhman proclaimed about ginseng, “It possesses the stimulant action of other
commonly used stimulants, but its safety is unique. It decreases a person’s fatigue and
boosts a person’s working capacity as well as efficiency.” In clinical pharmacological
tests, the tonic effect of ginseng on humans becomes apparent after both single and
repeated doses. The tonic effect was observed not only during the treatment, but also
3–4 months later. The general tonic effects observed during the course of treatment
with ginseng are good mood, good appetite, good sleep, and absence of depressed
state. Ginseng’s tonic effect on animal organisms (including man) has been proven.6
Brekhman, the Russian proponent of using ginseng as adaptogens, later described
the tonic effect of ginseng as a stimulant action. Chinese researchers insisted that
ginseng functioned as a mild sedative and calming agent; the ability to overcome
fatigue, for example, was described as the result of having less stress on the body rather
than by causing an overt stimulation. One peculiar effort to resolve the differences in
these viewpoints was made by a Japanese researcher, Hiroshi Saito, who suggested
that ginseng did both: some of the ginsenosides, particularly the Rg series, were
stimulating in nature, while others, particularly the Rb series, were calming in
nature. He and coworker Yien-mei Lee, pointed out that “We noticed that multiple
pharmacodynamic activities of ginseng originated from various ingredients and there
are many pharmacologically antagonistic actions in ginseng.” How these apparently
competing effects of some active components could explain away the difference of
opinion about ginseng effects when ginseng was used as a whole preparation and not
subdivided was never made clear by any subsequent authors who used the underlying
concept in the attempt to cover up incompatible claims.
As an example of the confusion generated by those making claims for ginseng’s
effect on energy, it has been suggested that Asian ginseng is “stimulating,” but that
American ginseng is “calming.” One origin of this concept may be traced in the
Chinese view regarding yin and yang. In China, it has been said that Chinese ginseng
has the ability to tonify qi and invigorate yang (corresponding roughly to metabolism
and movement), while American ginseng has the ability to tonify qi and nourish yin
(corresponding roughly to control and calming). However, this analysis comes about
from a peculiar historical situation rather than an inherent difference in the herbs.
Chinese ginseng comes from the far north of China; American ginseng was always
160 The Healing Power of Ginseng

imported through Hong Kong, in the far south. From this experience, the Chinese
had viewed their own ginseng as a northern product and the American ginseng as a
southern product. In fact, American ginseng is mainly from the northern part of the
United States and Canada.

CAN GINSENG PREVENT CANCER?

Modern medical science still does not know how the change from a normal to an
abnormal cell takes place. This is the main riddle of cancer. Certainly you are aware
that noxious chemical fumes, polluted air and water, excessive cigarette smoking,
excessive exposure to radiation, certain food dyes, food preservatives, food additives,
and certain pesticides are possible carcinogens—agents that cause cancer.22 With
the advancement of the chemical and drug industries, new chemicals and drugs are
placed on the market every day. More new synthetic drugs and chemicals introduced
on the market means more potential carcinogens.
In the United States, the cancer incidence is increasing steadily. In 1973, 37,000
persons died from colon and rectal cancer; 14,700 from stomach cancer; and 6,400
from esophageal cancer.23 The American Cancer Society estimated the death toll
in 2000 to be 552,200, almost 12 times the 46,181 American victims of combat in
Vietnam, and 59,000 more than the 295,867 Americans who died on the battlefields
during World War II.24
Enough evidence leads us to believe that excessive smoking causes lung cancer.
The risk of dying from lung cancer for those who have smoked heavily for years is
about 20 times greater than for nonsmokers.25
Breast cancer is also increasing and occurring in a younger age group than before.
At least 1 in every 20 women in the United Kingdom was found to be suffering from
breast cancer.26
Cancer may also be induced by psychological or nervous stress, particularly in
women. “There is some casual link between cancer and the feeling of hopelessness,
helplessness, despair, and depression,” said James P. Henry, Professor of Physiology
at the University of Southern California School of Medicine. Henry has paid a great
deal of attention to studying why his laboratory female animals get breast tumors.
He thinks the cause is despair, not rage, as when female mice are separated from
their young.27
Aging is an important determinant of the incidence of cancer. Regardless of what
the cancer may be, about 1 man in 14 of those 60 years of age or older, as compared
to 1 in 700 of those 25 or younger will develop cancer.25
Scientists have been desperately searching for anticancer drugs for years. Those
available to date that act on gastrointestinal tract malignant tumors are mitomycin,
carmustine (BCNU), lomustine (CCNU), fluorouracil, fluorometholone, thiopepa,
and nitrosourea. These potent chemotherapeutic agents have demonstrated some
tumor inhabiting effect, yet none of them have shown outstanding success in the
treatment of cancer.28
Russian scientists have devoted enormous time to ginseng research in the area of
cancer prevention, if not treatment, in the past 25 years. In experimental oncology,
ginseng preparations were capable of inhibiting urethane-induced adenomas of
What Ginseng Can Do For You 161

the lung, 6-methyl-thiouracil–induced tumors of the thyroid gland, and indole-

induced myeloid leukemia in animals.29–31 Cells of Ehrlich ascitic tumor were
introduced intravenously into mice, and ginseng exerted an effect of decreasing
the transplantability and the size of tumorous foci.32 Evidence was also obtained
in the decrease of formation of spontaneous tumors of the mammary gland33,34
and spontaneous leukemia in mice.35 Ether and alcoholic extracts of ginseng had a
much greater effect than the aqueous extract in inhibiting malignant tumors in the
secretory glands. However, ginseng had no effect on leukemia-1210 tumors.36 With
these preliminary findings, the use of ginseng or its components in the prevention of
cancer may be possible in the future.
Ginsenosides, the essential oil and the polysaccharides of ginseng, showed
antitumor activity. Among the individual saponins, ginsenosides Rb1, Rb3, Rd, Re,
Rf, Rg1, Rg2, and Rh1 were tumor inhibitory. Ginseng polysaccharides inhibited the
growth of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and sarcoma S180 in mice. Ginseng essential oil
inhibited the stomach cancer cell line SGC-823 in vitro. When ginsenosides were
added to the culture medium of rat Morris hepatoma cells, morphological changes
toward normal cells were observed in the cultured hepatoma cells.
Ginseng also exhibited anticarcinogenic activity. Oral administration of red
ginseng extract attenuated the carcinogenicity of urethane, N-methyl-N′-nitro-N′-
nitrosoguanidine and aflatoxin in mice and rats.
Furthermore, ginseng could increase the activity and reduce the toxicity of other
antitumor agents. An emulsion preparation containing the mixture of ginseng extract
and the antitumor agent tegafur increased the survival of mice bearing leukemia P388
more effectively than tegafur used alone. Ginseng polysaccharides also produced a
synergistic antitumor effect with cyclophosphamide.
A recent report from Tang Center for Herbal Medicine Research and Department
of Anesthesia Critical Care, University of Chicago, reported the anticancer effect of
American ginseng.
American ginseng can potentially be used for cancer treatment and chemotherapy-
induced side-effect management. In in vitro studies, American ginseng was found
to inhibit the growth of breast cancer cells. After steaming treatment of American
ginseng, its antiproliferative effects on cancer cells were improved significantly,
possibly due to the altered ginsenoside profile. Antiproliferative effects of
representative constituents were also evaluated, showing that ginsenoside Rg has a
positive effect. Steamed American ginseng inhibited the colorectal cancer growth
both in vitro and in vivo, which might be achieved through all-cycle arrest and
induced apoptosis in the cells.
The cellular and molecular targets of ginsenosides against cancer have also
been studied. It appears that several molecular mechanisms exist and collectively
converge on various signaling pathways. These pathways include regulation of cell
cycle, induction of apoptosis, inhibition of angiogenesis, prohibition of invasion, and
reduction of inflammatory response. A series of cell cycle proteins, apoptosis-related
proteins, growth factors, protein kinases, and transcription factors are affected by
ginsenosides. For example, Rh2 and Rg3 inhibit cancer cell proliferation by inducing
gene and protein expression of the cell cycle regulatory protein p21, thus arresting
tumor cell cycle progression by inducing cancer cell apoptosis through activation
162 The Healing Power of Ginseng

of caspase-3 protease via a bel-2-insensitive pathway and by sensitizing multidrug-

resistant tumor cells to chemotherapy. To characterize further downstream genes
targeted by ginseng saponins such as Rg3 in a human cancer cell line, the gene
expression profiling was assayed, showing that the most affected pathway was the
Ephrin receptor pathway.
The most commonly used cancer chemotherapies are limited by severe side
effects and dose-limiting toxicity. The drug-related adverse events not only worsen
patients’ quality of life, but can also lead to refusal to continue a potentially curative
chemotherapy. American ginseng and ginsenoside Re attenuated cisplatin-induced
nausea and vomiting in a rat model without affecting its anticancer properties in
human cancer cells.

IMPOTENCE AND APHRODISIAC ACTIVITY

Impotence is the most common sexual disability after 45 years of age. Sexual failure is
a serious problem; it can cause serious distress or uneasiness,36 and it may precipitate
an emotional crisis in a man that may threaten his life and his marriage.37
Factors causing male impotence include the following:

• Psychogenic: 90% is due to psychological factors

• Organic diseases: Debilitating diseases
• Fatigue
• Intoxication: Alcohol, drugs, and marijuana

Most sexual disorders including male impotence are mainly psychological in

origin. However, even if you experience impotence, you may well still be able to
attain an erection and function sexually under certain circumstances, for example,
with a partner who knows how to make love, or with the help of a sexual stimulant
remedy.37,38 Most important of all, you must forget all your troubles and concentrate
on love-making. Impotence may also be a consequence of organic disease. About
half of all male diabetics become impotent before the age of 60.38 Fatigue is another
important factor leading to impotency. The husband, exhausted by his day’s work,
loses interest in love when he gets home; he may be overdedicated to his job or his
profession; his wife thinks he is married to his job, not to her. Besides physical
fatigue, mental fatigue due to job difficulties, economic crisis, and depression may
also be factors causing male impotence.
Statistically, heavy alcohol drinking is a common factor in impotence. 39
Marijuana, on the other hand, interferes with production of sexual hormones, in
certain cases suppressing the male sex hormone, testosterone, to levels that could
result in impotence and even infertility.40
There is no actual age limit for having or not having sex. There are 30-year-old
men who are inactive, and there are 90-year-old men who still have active sex lives.
Those leading a vigorous sex life in younger years tend to remain active longer. Good
health, overall satisfaction with life, and the availability of a sanctioned sexual partner
help maintain sexual activity’s significant role in the life of the elder person.41,42
What Ginseng Can Do For You 163

At age 68, about 78% of men still engage regularly in sexual activity. There are
studies that have reported that sex around the age of 90 or 100 is nothing unusual if
a person is healthy and physically fit.43

Aphrodisiac Remedies
All through history, people have searched for some means of revitalizing weakening
sexual potency. All kinds of treatments from all over the world have been tried,
without notable success. Today, scientists finally may be on the trail of an authentic
aphrodisiac. Several substances have shown attractive properties and may be useful
as sexual stimulants for those who are impotent, particularly the aged.44
Many popular magazines carry advertisements advocating the use of oral
preparations, sprays, and ointments for the genitalia that will increase sexual potency.
The ingredients of these sexually stimulating preparations usually include vitamin
E, whose role is quite unproved, together with varying mixtures of minerals and
trace elements, carbohydrates, and proteins. Few of the preparations have any proven
pharmacologic effect.45
Spanish fly and yohimbine are some of the most well-known traditional
aphrodisiacs.44 Spanish fly is also called cantharides, or blistering fly. It is obtained
from iridescent beetles found in southern France and Spain and is an extremely harsh
irritant. When swallowed in liquid form, it burns the mouth mucous membranes.
According to Kent, the irritating effect of Spanish fly can cause dilation of the
blood vessels of the genital organs, leading to erection of the penis or congestion
of the labia. Rather than being pleasurable, such physical arousal is unpleasant and
dangerous. It causes gastroenteritis and nephritis. In fact, a large dose of Spanish
fly can be fatal. Yohimbine is a powder made from the inner bark of African
yohimbe tree. It acts similarly on the blood vessels, but its aphrodisiac effect has
been questionable.44
Parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA) is a chemical that can produce an aphrodisiac
effect in rats. However, PCPA is a very dangerous chemical that causes convulsions
and other negative reactions. As a result, it has not been tested in humans.44
Some people who tout marijuana as having an aphrodisiac capacity contend
that they enjoy sexual relations more when under the influence of this perception-
distorting drug. However, it has been proven that the sexual-stimulating effect of
marijuana is similar to that of alcohol.44
Levodopa has been used extensively in humans and has produced significant
hypersexual behavior in men when it was administered for the treatment of Parkinson
disease.46 There is controversy about the use of androgen (male sex hormone),
however, and in most cases it is found useless in the treatment of impotence.47

Ginseng’s Aphrodisiac Action

The great popularity of ginseng is probably based on its aphrodisiac activity. The
reputed power of ginseng as an aphrodisiac has attracted the attention of millions of
people.
164 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Perhaps Eiberhof was the first Western scientist who tested the active principles
from ginseng (panaquilon) in patients and found it exerts some aphrodisiac action.48
Yona Cawa reported that ginseng was active as an aphrodisiac and general mild
stimulant to the sympathomimetic system.49 Min found that ginsenin produced a tail
erection effect in mice that may be related to aphrodisiac properties.50 Panax acid
obtained from an ether extract of ginseng also produced a tail erection in mice.51 The
extracts from P. ginseng exhibited greater activity than that from American ginseng
in producing the tail erection effect in animals.50
The book Ninjinshi (History of Ginseng) written by T. Imamura, recorded that in
the 1930s many Japanese and Korean hospitals used ginseng extracts in the treatment
of impotence and some female sexual disorders.52
Some recent scientific investigators have provided more evidence for the
gonadotropic or aphrodisiac action of ginseng. One study showed that ginseng
has estrogenic properties.53 In experiments with animals, a gonadotropic effect of
ginseng was established as manifested by causing infantile male and female mice to
reach puberty earlier than they would have otherwise. The gonadotropic activities
of ginseng saponins, panaxosides A, C, D, E, and F, exerted a similar, but stronger
effect than that of crude ginseng extract. However, Kit54 and Wang55 reported that
ginseng does not possess any male or female sex hormone activity, based on the
fact that administration of ginseng preparations could not restore the castrated male
and ovariectomized female animals to normal. However, ginseng contains certain
principles that do stimulate and promote an animal’s sexual maturity.
Ginseng was given orally to (normal) rats in a daily dose of 0.1–0.2 g for 61 days,
or the rats were injected with 10 mg of methanol extract of ginseng for 8 days. There
was no remarkable change in growth of either female or male rats, nor was any change
observed in the sexual cycle between experimental and control rats.56
Whether or not the active principles of ginseng root contain any sex hormone
activity has been puzzling for a long time, and only a few reports are available to date.
Female hormone-like activity was observed in one study after a methanol extract
of ginseng was given to female mice.57 By a thin-layer chromatographic technique,
estrogen-type (female hormone) components of estrone, estradiol, and estriol were
isolated from an oil-soluble fraction of ginseng extract.58 This is the first time that
ginseng was found to contain sex hormones or sex hormone-like substances.
Using a biochemical approach, it was found that an alcoholic extract of ginseng
increased the testicular RNA and DNA levels of rats. Oura and associates observed
in a series of investigations that ginseng extracts, particularly fraction number four,
increased the synthesis of DNA and protein in test tubes. It is assumed that the
synthesis of RNA and protein may be equally promoted in the testes.59–61
Brekhman administered Korean ginseng to 44 patients who had showed refractory
impotence to all medication for 2–5 years, and observed complete recoveries of 21
patients and considerable improvements of 11 patients.
Popov and others administered ginseng to 27 impotent patients, of whom 15
completely recovered and nine showed considerable improvement. So ginseng proved
to be an excellent agent for revitalization therapy.
Impotence and decreased libido are extremely frequent in diabetic patients.
Kakiwoochi reported that Panax ginseng was shown to be effective in the management
What Ginseng Can Do For You 165

of the complications in diabetic patients, and made considerable improvement in 80%

of impotent patients and 60% of patients with decreased libido.
In another recent experiment using mesenteric mast cells as indicators, it was
found that ginseng preparations have the ability to increase the number of mast
cells. In the castrated male rat, ginseng functions like testosterone by decreasing the
deterioration of the mast cells.61
Recent clinical studies in humans in Japan and in the Soviet Union show that
ginseng extract was quite effective toward several forms of impotence, particularly
the premature ejaculation-type impotence and nervous-type impotence. It is not
effective for psychic-type impotence.55 The aphrodisiac activity of ginseng seemed
to be proven correct. As a sexual tonic, ginseng is probably the safest aphrodisiac
agent in comparison with all other chemicals speculated around the world.
A man may take ginseng to treat erectile dysfunction (ED). A 2002 Korean
study revealed that 50% of men who took ginseng noticed an improvement in
their symptoms. In addition, research published in the British Journal of Clinical
Pharmacology provides “evidence for the effectiveness of red ginseng in the
treatment of ED”.129
Another report shows that ginseng has been used for both men and women.
If you take ginseng for long enough, often even just once, there is absolutely
no denying that it is a powerful sexual tonic, increasing libido, performance, and
pleasure for both men and women. For men, ginseng’s benefits include boosting
libido, increasing pleasure, and treating erectile dysfunction, by increasing nitric
oxide production similar to prescription medications like Viagra.62 Panax ginseng has
similar benefits for women, most notably increasing libido, pleasure, and sensation,
also in part due to its oxygenating effects throughout the body.

QUIETING YOUR SPIRIT

The central nervous system (CNS) is the most highly organized of all the systems
of the body. It may be considered as being superimposed on all other organs for the
purpose of coordinating their diverse functions toward a harmonious functioning of
the organism as a whole. Because of its complex structure, delicate ramifications,
and supreme importance to the body, the CNS is extremely sensitive to all drugs.
How does ginseng affect the CNS? This problem has been the number-one research
project, and a dozen of the top pharmacologists in the world have investigated it.
The pharmacologic properties of ginseng claimed in the earliest Chinese Materia
Medica books are

quieting the spirit, establishing the soul, allaying fear, brightening the eyes, benefiting
the understanding.

This is a beautiful and factual description of ginseng’s activities on the CNS.

How did the Chinese doctors know all about this even 2,000 years ago? Only after
50 years of scientific research has it been proven that the activities of ginseng on the
CNS are its principle pharmacologic properties. Also, ginseng’s activities on the CNS
are most confusing.6
166 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Early pharmacologic studies on ginseng in Japan revealed the rather complex

effect of ginseng’s properties on the nervous system. For example, Fujitani found
that panaquilon has hypnotic and depressant activities.63 Panax acis and panacene
similarly showed weak sedative and hypnotic effects on the cerebral centers, but
they stimulated the vasomotor and respiratory centers, thus increasing blood flow
and pressure and the rate of respiration when given in small doses, but lowering the
blood pressure when given in large doses,64–66 Yonekawa67 investigated the various
pharmacologic activities of ginsenin. A stimulant effect on the nervous system in
mice was observed using small doses, and a depressant effect was obtained using
large doses. Ginseng saponins (extracted from ginseng roots) had stimulatory effects
on the CNS in rats, as was shown by decreased sleeping components and increased
activity components.68 Ginseng saponins increased in low doses (1.5–5.0 mg/kg),
but decreased in high doses (100 mg/kg), the spontaneous motor activity in mice and
rats.69 Apparently in small doses, ginseng saponins stimulate the CNS, but the mode of
action is different from that of an amphetamine or Benzedrine-like compound.70 The
stimulant action of ginseng is characterized by low toxicity, absence of pronounced
excitation, and lack of disturbance of normal sleep. Ginseng is a remedy having few
side effects in comparison to other known chemical stimulants.1
Again, from the studies of ginseng aqueous extract, the Chinese scientists found
that ginseng was a potent sedative.20 It weakens respiratory systems, slows spontaneous
activity, and also prevents convulsion provoked by a number of CNS stimulants, such
as caffeine, sodium benzoate, strychnine nitrate, and Cardiazol (pentylenetetrazol).
Tagaki and his associates at the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of
Tokyo, conducted a series of systemic pharmacologic studies on ginseng extracts and
ginseng saponins.71,72 The crude ginseng extract was separated into several fractions,
and each fraction contained two to three individual saponins. The first fraction (G No.
3, containing ginsenosides Rb and Rc) showed CNS depressive, ataractic, analgesic,
and muscle-relaxant activities in mice, rats, and guinea pigs. The second fraction
(G No. 4 containing ginsenosides Rg1, Rg2, and Rg3) had both stimulant and depressant
activities, in addition to muscarinic and histaminic actions. The third fraction (G No.
5 containing lipophilic saponins) had papaverine-like in addition to muscarinic and
histaminic actions. Fractions No. 4 and No. 5 had central depressant action, such as
decreased spontaneous movement, decreased body temperature and alertness, and
relaxed muscle tone. Accordingly, ginsenosides of the protopanaxadiol series (Rb
group) are sedatives, while ginsenosides of the protopanaxatriol series Rg group are
mostly stimulants. This explains why ginseng extract contains both depressant and
stimulant components.71 Kaku et al. further investigated the pharmacologic properties
of each of the individual purified ginseng saponins, Rb1, Rb2, Rc1, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, and
Rg2. Their data show that all the saponins exhibited antifatigue action. They markedly
increased the movement after compulsory gait, and the action was consistent and
independent of their action on the movement before compulsory gait. These saponins
also showed moderate depressant actions on electroencephalogram and in the behavior
of cats. Saponins Rg1, Re, and Rb2 are more potent than the others.73
Many clinical tests in the Soviet Union in the early 1950s revealed that ginseng
extracts are effective for patients who are suffering from different types of nervous
What Ginseng Can Do For You 167

exhaustion and several emotional disorders.1,74 After treatment with ginseng, the
patients showed weight gain with the disappearance of common symptoms such as
weakness, fatigue, headache, insomnia, distress, and uneasiness. Ginseng extract
also produced good results in a number of other emotional disorders such as mental
weakness and exhaustion, various emotional disorders including vegetative nervous
disorders, hypertension, gonadal disorders, hypotension, and loss of appetite. It seems
from clinical experience that ginseng extract would be useful as a supplementary
remedy for emotional disorders.73

IMPROVING MENTAL EFFICIENCY AND WORKING CAPACITY

The influence of ginseng on working capacity and mental efficiency is a new dimension
of pharmacologic research. That ginseng increases memory has been claimed by the
ancient Chinese doctors. According to Brekhman, however, “The fact that ginseng
increases both mental capacity and quantitative indices of work in laboratories and
at industrial occupations indicates its powerful effect upon a specific portion of the
central nervous system.” It was assumed that ginseng may have a particular and, most
probably, electrical effect on the highest sections of the CNS.6 Ginseng has a favorable
effect on the cerebral cortex process and makes the conditioned reflexes easier; thus,
ginseng is capable of increasing the mental efficiency of man.
Many studies have been conducted in the Soviet Union and in Sweden to prove
that ginseng increases mental efficiency. In proofreading, all the tests showed that
ginseng helped to lessen the number of mistakes (by about 51%), while the number
of letters read was only slightly increased (by about 12%). Ginseng extract was also
tested in telegraph operators who had to transcribe a special code in a fixed period
of time. Ordinarily, the continued work would result in an increase in the number of
errors of about 128%, while in the operators who took 30 mL of ginseng extract, the
number of mistakes decreased by about 38%.6
In a recent study in Stockholm, healthy college students served as volunteers
in a double-blind experiment lasting for 33 days. The volunteers were divided
into three groups, each group containing five male and five female students. The
students were treated with two ginseng capsules per day. The tests conducted
were the spiral maze test and the letter cancellation test. At the end of the 33-day
tests, the students given ginseng extract (Geriatric-Pharmaton or Gerikomplex-
Vitamex)75 treatment had fewer errors than the control group who were treated with
placebo capsules. Also it was found that the two ginseng preparations exerted an
almost equally favorable effect on psychomotor function and on mental capacity.
In other words, students given ginseng showed a statistically significant increase
in mental concentration.76
Accordingly, a healthy individual may increase his capacity for intellectual work in
addition to physical performance under the influence of ginseng. The improvement of
work is qualitative but not quantitative; in this regard, ginseng may increase industrial
productivity. This is, as Brekhman called it, “the tonic effect on man’s organism”
to prove that ginseng is a remedy that when taken for some time, causes increased
vitality, leading to greater work efficiency and mental capacity.
168 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Recent clinical studies on mental performance of ginseng by Hallstrom, Popov,

Lo, and D’Angelo showed that

• Ginseng improved competence, mood, and performance of nurses on night

duty.
• Bulgarian research showed improvement in mental and nervous problems
without adverse side effects.
• In aged patients with problems of reduced intellectual output, loss of
memory, and slow thinking, the therapeutic effect of ginseng was seen after
1 week with considerable improvement noted after 2 months.
• In a double-blind crossover trial on university students, ginseng improved
performance of mental arithmetic.

REGULATING YOUR BLOOD PRESSURE

Hypertension is one of the most common human disorders and a major cause of
complications leading to death in middle-aged and aged individuals. At least
23 million people in the United States have hypertension, which is a major risk factor
for strokes and heart failure. There is a substantial increase in hypertensive heart
disease with age in both sexes. Blacks have substantially more heart disease and
hypertension than whites, and usually males have more than females.

How Ginseng Acts on the Cardiovascular System

Although it is premature to say that ginseng is effective in its treatment or prevention
of hypertensive or hypotensive heart diseases, the effects of ginseng on the heart,
blood pressure, blood vessels, and even respiratory systems are medically significant.
Quite a number of studies have been reported in medical literature. The sedative
effect of ginseng, that is, lowering the blood pressure, has been the most interesting
and pharmacologically useful observation.
Yonekawa66 observed that ginsenin increased the function of an isolated frog’s
heart at a small dose, but paralyzed it at a large dose. Kin51 found similar effects
with panax acid. In studies with nonisolated hearts of frogs and cats, ginseng showed
similar dose-dependent stimulant-depressant effects. In other studies, ginsenin,66
panaquilon,62 and panax acid64,65 all showed blood pressure lowering (depressor)
but not pressure increasing effects in animals. Kin51 and Watanabe,77 on the other
hand, reported that ginseng and ginseng saponin caused an increase in blood pressure
(pressure effect) at small doses, but a pressure lowering (depressor effect), which
remained for some time, occurs at large doses in rabbits. Injection of ginseng extract
also caused a depressor effect in anesthetized dogs.78
Toward the blood vessels, the alcoholic extract of ginseng initially contracts, then
dilates, the capillary blood vessels in frogs. Ginsenin showed a vasocontraction effect in
frogs and rabbits at small doses, but a vasodilation effect was observed at large doses.66
Administration of ginseng saponins, ginsenosides, to dogs caused a remarkable
increase in blood flow, and the effect was more potent than that induced by
papaverine. Ginsenosides also showed a vasodilator effect. The ginsenoside Rg1 at a
What Ginseng Can Do For You 169

dose of 5–10 mg/kg had a depressor effect preceded by a slight pressor effect, but the
respiration was little affected. The dose-dependent raising-lowering of blood pressure
(biphasic effect) seemed to be due to the direct action of the ginseng saponin on the
blood vessels.72 Because of the vasodilation effect of the capillary vessels, ginseng
extract also increased the blood supply to tissues and the brain.79
The depressor effect, as a matter of fact, has been adopted in China as well as in
the Soviet Union as an indicator in biological analysis for potency determination of
ginseng preparations.55 In other words, the potency of a ginseng preparation can thus
be standardized. The practical application of the depressor effect in humans after an
oral dose of ginseng, however, is still questionable, and more research definitely is
needed to prove it.
Other studies in China showed that ginseng has direct dynamic action on the
blood flow, with an increase in the force of cardiac contraction, especially during
acute circulatory failure or shock.80 The effect of ginseng in normalizing the level
of arterial pressure is indeed unique. It is effective in the treatment of abnormal
hypotension. Clinical research conducted at Hwa-san Hospital in Shanghai showed
interesting results. Seven cases of acute interference with blood flow of the heart
muscle (myocardial infarction) with shock irregularity in the rhythm of the heart’s
beating were involved. The patients were treated by a routine method or with ginseng.
When a Western type of drug was given to raise the blood pressure, the blood pressure
rose only temporarily, then fell in a short time even after repeated doses. However,
when ginseng preparations, either alone or in conjunction with seng fu tang, were
given to similar patients, the blood pressure rose and remained at a normal level. In
addition ginseng also prevented shock, and patients returned to normal.81
By contrast, clinical work in Asia is carried out with far higher amounts of
ginseng and for uses that differ markedly from those described in the West. The
Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China82 officially lists 3–9 g as the dosage
for ginseng in decoction (tea) form. Thus, for example, in the attempt to prevent and
treat cardiovascular diseases, ginseng is given in this dosage range to lower blood
pressure. By contrast, Western literature cautions persons with hypertension to avoid
ginseng, especially to avoid red ginseng, even in the much lower doses used in the
West. In a recent report from Korea,83 red ginseng was administered at a dose of
4.5 g per day (Korean red ginseng powder, 1.5 g per dose, three times daily) and
reported to have a slight blood pressure lowering effect (about 5% average decline)
after 2 months daily administration. In reviewing prior studies of ginseng’s effect on
hypertension, the authors of that study noted that there had been negligible or minor
effects on blood pressure previously mentioned for administration of 3 g red ginseng
powder every day for 3 months and with 3–6 g of red ginseng powder every day for
an average duration of 10 months.
As a reflection of this direction in ginseng research, in 1980 the Institute for
Traditional Medicine of Portland, Oregon, conducted a clinical trial in Santa Cruz,
California, on the impact of Asian ginseng on the risk factors for cardiovascular
disease: cholesterol, triglycerides, elevated blood sugar, and blood pressure.84 In that
study, the first clinical trial of ginseng in the United States, 100 patients received
red ginseng provided by the Korean Ginseng Research Institute at a dosage of either
3 or 4.5 g per day (others received a placebo). Only modest effects were observed
170 The Healing Power of Ginseng

after 3 weeks of daily administration of the ginseng capsules, with slight favorable
improvements in the risk factor.

GINSENG CONTROLS BODY’S CHOLESTEROL

AND ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Cholesterol is produced naturally in our body and exists in blood, bile, and the
gallbladder. Another direct source of cholesterol is foods such as beef drippings,
milk, eggs, cheese, butter, cream, organ meats, etc., all of which contain high levels
of cholesterol.
The cholesterol content in blood is usually maintained at a constant level. For
example, if dietary sources are high in cholesterol, less cholesterol will be formed
in the liver. A number of hormones markedly affect the formation of cholesterol and
its degradation. For example, insulin and thyroid hormone deficient people usually
suffer from high cholesterol.
According to Dawber and Kannel of the Framingham Heart study, a man under
59 years with a blood cholesterol measurement of 260 or above has more than three
times the risk of heart attack than a man with a blood cholesterol level below 200.
Laboratory testing animals—monkeys, dogs, cats, pigs, chickens, rats, guinea pigs,
and hamsters—fed a high-fat and high-cholesterol diet, developed atherosclerosis and
heart attacks, resulting in deaths sooner, and in more instances, than in those fed with
a low-cholesterol diet. This is similar to what is observed in humans.
At present, atherosclerosis, particularly of the coronary arteries, is the most
widespread illness in the United States. In 1965, nearly 40% of all deaths in the
United States were due to heart attacks caused by atherosclerosis. Of these deaths,
nearly one-third occurred in people under the age of 65. Today, about one in five
American males will develop coronary disease before the age of 60 years. The chance
that he will die of the heart disease before 60 years is about 1 in 15.85
If you have high blood cholesterol, your doctor may have told you to eat a low-
cholesterol and low-fat diet. You may have known that in order to reduce cholesterol
in the diet you have to use unsaturated vegetable oils for cooking, instead of saturated
oil, animal fat, butter, or lard; switch from deep-fried foods to boiled foods; and
eat less cheese, milk, egg yolk, liver, and butter. You may also want to switch from
regular cheese to cottage cheese, whole milk to skim milk or even soybean milk, and
eat more fish, chicken, and turkey instead of beef, pork, duck, and bacon. You may
even want to cut your regular American diet with Chinese dishes, which contain less
cholesterol and less calories.

Ginseng Controls Cholesterol Level

From animal studies, ginseng saponins show a marked effect on the regulation of
blood cholesterol levels. After administration of ginseng, animals showed an increase
in the synthesis of cholesterol in the liver, but the total cholesterol concentration in
the serum decreased by about 25%, as a result of decreased absorption of cholesterol
from the gastrointestinal tract and also an increase in the speed of cholesterol
metabolism in the animal’s body. In addition, abnormal (high) cholesterol levels in
What Ginseng Can Do For You 171

the blood and deposits of fat in the heart can be prevented when ginseng is included
in the diet.86
The effect of ginseng on blood cholesterol levels in connection with diet and
antisclerotic drugs was investigated. Popov of the Revitalization Center at Nassau,
Bahamas, found that with ginseng preparations in combination with antisclerotic
drugs, the cholesterol levels of the blood fell nearly 20% in the treatment of 106
patients aged from 40 to 70 years, suffering from hypertension and high blood
cholesterol. Popov concluded that ginseng extract possesses a substantial synergistic
effect in reducing blood cholesterol concentration.87

Effect on Lipid Metabolism

Rates receiving an intraperitoneal dose of 50 mg/kg of ginsenoside Rc showed a
threefold increase of epididymis fat synthesis from 14C-acetic acid relative to the
control, and a sixfold increase in intestinal fat synthesis. The lipolytic effect of
adrenocorticotropic hormone and insulin could be antagonized by most ginsenosides,
including ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rg1, Rg2, and Rh1.88
The cholesterol and triglycerides levels in plasma in rats fed a high-cholesterol
diet were significantly decreased by intramuscular administration of ginsenosides
at 10 mg/kg for 14 days. But the biosynthesis of cholesterol was increased, and the
turnover of cholesterol into bile acids and the excretion of cholesterol were also
promoted to keep the lower level of cholesterol in the blood. It was also found in
rabbits fed a high-cholesterol diet that ginsenosides promoted the metabolism
of cholesterol and lowered blood cholesterol levels to prevent aortic atheroma
formation. Ginsenoside Rb2 remarkably decreased the total cholesterol and low-
density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and significantly increased high-density
lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol in the blood of rats fed a high-cholesterol (1%) diet.
In an experiment using 14C-acetic acid incorporation, ginsenoside Rb1 was found to
significantly promote the biosynthesis of cholesterol in the liver and serum of rats.89

ANTIDIABETIC EFFECT OF GINSENG

Diabetes is a universal disease that is encountered most frequently in industrialized
countries, particularly among poor and older people. Despite the important medical
advances in the treatment of the disease and its complications, diabetes has accounted
for about 38,000 deaths a year in the United States since 1965, and has been
implicated as a contributory cause in a substantial proportion of deaths from other
chronic diseases. Diabetes has been characterized by consistently higher mortality
rate among females than among males.90 It is more interesting to note that, from
1964 to 1973, the mortality rate from diabetes among men insured under standard,
ordinary policies of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company decreased by 20%,
while that among insured women increased by 5%. By 1999, 450,000 deaths were
attributed to diabetes, which has now become the nation’s third-ranking cause of
death, behind cardiovascular disease and cancer, and is increasing rapidly at a rate
of about one million new diabetics every 3 years. The disease is about three times as
common among the poor as among middle-income families and the rich.
172 The Healing Power of Ginseng

In diabetes the metabolism of carbohydrates is impaired, and that of proteins and

fats is enhanced. Glucose in the body thus builds up to high levels, especially in the
blood (hyperglycemia), and is excreted in the urine (glucosuria). The breakdown
of tissue proteins, lipids, and fatty acids is sharply accelerated in diabetics, thus
producing a large amount of nitrogen and ketone bodies in the urine. The excretion
of glucose and ketone bodies causes a big loss of body water and salt, thus producing
a dehydration effect and a feeling of great thirst. In severe cases, it can produce
ketoacidosis (a disease of high ketone in the urine), coma, and eventually death, if
the condition is not corrected by the administration of insulin.
Obesity is the most common contributing factor to diabetes. Heredity also appears
to be an important factor. The life expectancy of diabetics is estimated to be shorter
by one-third than that of nondiabetics. Failure to control the diabetic state may lead to
serious complications. Cataracts and blindness, leg gangrene, heart disorders, including
atherosclerosis, and kidney failure are the most common diabetic complications.
Diabetes is also the second leading cause of blindness in the United States.
Drugs lowering the blood sugar level are called hypoglycemics. Insulin had been
the most effective antidiabetic drug. However, it is ineffective orally. Unfortunately
most of the clinically available oral hypoglycemic drugs have undesirable side effects.
Research findings show that treatment of diabetes with oral hypoglycemic drugs may
be associated with an increased rate of cardiovascular mortality, when compared to
the treatment of diabetes with diet alone or diet plus insulin.91 The effect of ginseng
on hyperglycemia has been extensively investigated both at laboratory and clinical
levels. Preliminary data are promising and interesting.

Ginseng for Diabetes

One of the most important medicinal uses of ginseng is its activity for a diabetic
patient. Ginseng’s activity toward diabetes seemed to be known to Chinese doctors
as early as the first century. T’ao Hung-ching’s Ming-I Pieh-lu, a famous Chinese
medical book published before the Han dynasty, described the usefulness of ginseng
in eliminating tiredness, thirstiness, and polyurea, which are the most common
symptoms of diabetes. Other famous Chinese medical compendia, such as Hai-
yao Pen-ts’ao written by Li Heng of T’ang dynasty, Yung-Yao-Fa Hsiang-lun by
Li Tung-yuan of Yuan dynasty, and Pen-ts’ao Kang-mu, edited by the most famous
pharmacologist and physician, Li Shih-chen of the Meng dynasty, recorded the uses
of ginseng to relieve the ailment or symptoms related to diabetes.
There are at least 25 separate modern scientific studies of ginseng’s activities in
diabetes conducted in Japan, China, Bulgaria, the Soviet Union, and Korea. The
pioneer Japanese workers in this area, Arima and Miyazaki,92 who treated high
blood sugar (hyperglycemia) in rabbits with ginseng saponin, observed, as with
ginseng extract, a blood sugar lowering (hypoglycemic) effect. Kin93 reported that
subcutaneous injection of ginseng saponin, panax acid (an active component of
ginseng), or oral administration of panacene (another active component of ginseng)
to rabbits produced a marked hypoglycemic effect. Particularly, ginseng saponin
inhibited adrenaline-induced hyperglycemia, but questionable results were obtained
on hyperglycemia induced by ammonium chloride.
What Ginseng Can Do For You 173

In China during the 1950s C. K. Wang and H. P. Lei of Peking University,94,95

C. Y. Sung and T. H. Chen96 of the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences in Peking,
and C. Tsuao and C. C. Yen97,98 made separate studies on the effect of ginseng in
alloxan diabetes. Their data, as were reported to the First Conference of the Society
of Chinese Physiological Science in 1956, indicated that the application of ginseng
extract decreased blood sugar and urine acetate in alloxan-induced hyperglycemia in
dogs, rats, and mice. Later in 1957, Wang and Lei,94 by using a ginseng preparation
(a 50% alcohol extract of red ginseng and dried) to normal and alloxan-induced
diabetic male dogs. With daily doses of 0.13, 0.2, and 1.0 mg/kg of body weight,
for 2 weeks, observed the hypoglycemic effect of ginseng when given alone or in
combination with protamine-zinc insulin. The average blood sugar levels in the
period 5–10 days prior to ginseng administration were compared with that during
the last day of treatment. In the normal dogs, the administration of 1 mg/kg of
ginseng preparation produced somewhat drops in the blood sugar levels. A dosage
of 0.2 mg/kg produced no significant change, but in another dog it produced a rise in
blood sugar level. In the diabetic dogs, the ginseng preparation at 1 mg/kg produced
a significant decrease in blood sugar levels. Apparent falls in the urine output and
urine sugar were sometimes observed during the treatment. Although the dose level
of 0.2 mg/kg failed to change the blood sugar level, in every instance, the general
condition and urine ketone reactions were improved during the period of ginseng
treatment. In spite of the fact that ginseng had a hypoglycemic effect (at high doses)
in the normal and diabetic animals, it was unable to completely correct the metabolic
disturbance occurring in alloxan-diabetic dogs and, therefore, failed to check the
diabetic state. It may be helpful in the treatment of the diabetic state, but it cannot
be relied upon to act as a substitute for insulin.55
In 1959, Tsuao, Yen, and Lei further reported that ginseng normalized blood sugar
levels in alloxan-induced diabetic mice but did not prevent their death.98 Liu, Chi, and
Sung99 studied the effect of ginseng on alloxan diabetes in rats fed different diets. In
the first series of experiments, 17 rats were divided into two groups and were given
alloxan, 200 mg/kg, intraperitoneally. One group of the animals (6 rats) was fed with
cornmeal, a high-carbohydrate diet, plus 5% of ginseng powder in the cornmeal,
while the second group (11 rats) was fed only with cornmeal for a total of 12 weeks
(1 week prior to and 11 weeks after the injection of alloxan). After 3 days of alloxan
injection, 3 of the 11 rats in the control group were dead, while only one rat in the
ginseng-fed group was dead. Of the remaining eight rats in the control group, six rats
developed diabetes, the blood sugar levels were about 557 ± 17 mg%, and 7 weeks
later, all of the six diabetic rats were dead. In the ginseng-fed group, however, among
the six rats, one was dead and three developed mild diabetes; the average blood
sugar levels were 587 ± 75 mg%. The rats continued with 5% ginseng powder in the
feed gradually lowered their blood sugar levels to normal and remained at normal
blood sugar levels (ca. 150 mg%) for at least 3 weeks after the withdrawal of ginseng
treatment. As shown in Table 16.3, the alloxan-induced diabetic rats’ high blood sugar
levels reduced to normal 7 weeks after the continued administration of 5% ginseng
in the diet, while the diabetic rats of the control group were all dead within 7 weeks.
In another series of experiments wherein the rats were fed a high-protein diet
(a mixture of fish powder, beans, whole wheat, bone meal, yeast powder, and cod
174 The Healing Power of Ginseng

TABLE 16.3
The Effect of Panax ginseng on Alloxan-Diabetes in Rats Fed with Cornmeal
Week Mean Serum Sugar Levels (mg%)
Rats 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
5% ginseng 1 339 510 176 146 116 130 168 112 125 140  83
powder 2 600 600 589 600 584 364 160 128 245 214 190
added in 3 463 420 294 255 208 274 160 170 146 152 148
diet 4 197 174 128 139 148 160 144 141 175 130 102
5 170 144 143 139 130 136 152 130 136 116 128
Control 1 554 Dead
(no ginseng) 2 585 Dead
3 524 600 Dead
4 600 600 Dead
5 600 600 600 600 600 Dead
6 600 600 576 600 600 600 Dead
7 167 162 122 126 116 144 120 130 110  80 101
8 222 198 145 143 152 176 162 130 140 124 101

Source: Data after Liu, K. T et al. Acta Pharm. Sinica, 7: 213, 1959.

liver oil), the blood sugar levels of the alloxan-diabetic rats treated with ginseng did
not differ significantly from those of the untreated diabetic rats. It appears that the
diet of the animals made the results of the two series of experiments contradictory.
Nevertheless, when the high-protein diet was replaced by cornmeal during the
latter half of the experiment, the blood sugar levels of the untreated rats increased
drastically while no significant change in blood sugar levels was observed in the
ginseng-treated rats. This experiment clearly indicated that although the rats fed with
5% ginseng for 1 week could not escape the action of alloxan, ginseng, ultimately, did
normalize the blood sugar levels of alloxan-induced diabetic rats, particularly when
the rats were fed a high-carbohydrate diet.
Studies in the Soviet Union and Bulgaria in the 1950s and 1960s further supported
the theme of ginseng’s uses in diabetes. In the treatment of alloxan-induced diabetes,
ginseng was found to impede a loss of body weight of rats, to reduce the sugar levels
in the urine, and to prolong the survival time of the diabetic animals.100 Another
study showed an extract of ginseng reduced the high blood sugar levels in rabbits
with adrenaline hyperglycemia, and in humans with alimentary hyperglycemia.101
According to Petkov,102 ginseng evidently is capable of potentiating the action
of insulin. It is very surprising that ginseng extract regulates the carbohydrate
metabolism both ways—that is, in an experimentally induced hyperglycemic
state, ginseng was able to reduce the blood sugar level, while in an insulin-induced
hypoglycemic state, ginseng could bring about an increase in the blood sugar level
to normal.103
From biochemical approaches, the effect of ginseng on carbohydrate metabolism
has been evaluated by many investigators. Lee104 found that ginseng may contain a
What Ginseng Can Do For You 175

substance that is capable of increasing the basal metabolism in normal rats; in this
regard, the effects could be blocked by antihistaminic agents. Based on this finding,
it was believed that the effect of ginseng on metabolism may be due to histamine
liberation, or that ginseng may stimulate the liberation of histamine in the body.
In 1973 Oura and Hiai105 of Toyama University reported that after intraperitoneal
injection of ginseng extract (a fraction 4), the liver glycogen and the reducing sugar
levels in rats were reduced. Ginseng saponin contained in the extract somehow caused
a decrease in the total carbohydrate level in the animal. Ginseng extract caused a
marked reduction in the blood glucose levels of rats with adrenal glands removed,
but had a weak or insignificant effect in normally fed rats and infested rats infused
with glucose solution. The reduction of blood sugar was observed 2 hours after the
injection of ginseng, and this effect continued for about 8 hours. Also, in rats, liver
glycogen content and the sugar levels in the liver, kidney, and muscles were also
remarkably reduced after the treatment with ginseng extract.106 The authors suggested
that ginseng extract turns the metabolic flow in the direction of lipogenesis by the
conversion of sugar. This was confirmed by the fact that the first phenomenon observed
was a striking stimulation in the incorporation of radioactivity into the adipose tissue
beginning 2 hours after the administration of ginseng. Almost simultaneously a slight
decrease of blood sugar level was also observed.107 The investigators also found that
the glycogen content of rat liver varies with diet. Similarly, from the application
of a radioisotope, sodium 14C-acetate, the incorporation of the 14C-acetate into the
total lipid and glycogen content in the liver was determined 4 hours after injection
of ginseng extract into rats The results indicated that a striking stimulation of
metabolism was obtained in rats fed a fat-free diet over the high-fat diet group.108
The early clinical studies on the hypoglycemic effect of ginseng were conducted
in Korea and Japan in the 1930s. In the treatment of diabetic patients, Saito109 and
Saito and Abe110 found that the alcoholic extract of ginseng was effective in inhibiting
adrenaline hyperglycemia and alimentary hyperglycemia. In Japanese hospitals in the
early days, diabetic patients were treated with ginseng powder or by injection with
ginseng extract. The blood sugar levels and the general symptoms of the diabetic
patients were indeed reduced, but a cure of the diabetes was not obtained.
In the Soviet Union, Shass111 reported that the treatment of diabetic patients with
70% alcoholic extract of ginseng gave good results, and Shass even suggested that
ginseng could substitute for insulin. The hypoglycemic effect was very good during
winter and fall seasons, but not so good during the spring and summer seasons.
Recent clinical studies in China showed that ginseng was capable of lowering the
blood sugar levels to about 40–50 mg% in diabetic patients. This hypoglycemic effect
continued for about 2 weeks after the treatment. Unfortunately, ginseng, like other
chemical hypoglycemic agents on the market, exerted no curative effect in moderate
and severe diabetic patients; general symptoms such as thirst, weakness, and polyurea,
however, were much improved, or disappeared. Ginseng cannot substitute for insulin
in patients who use insulin for treatment, the insulin dose level could be decreased if
ginseng is concomitantly administered.55
During the period of January to July of 1970, T. Kikutani of Sanraku Hospital,
Tokyo, investigated the effect of ginseng on diabetic patients clinically. Twenty-one
diabetic outpatients (13 male and 8 female) were the subjects, and they all complained
176 The Healing Power of Ginseng

of having common subjective symptoms of fatigue and malaise, hypertension, thirst,

proteinuria, increased intake of water, loss of energy, coldness, and lumbago. These
patients were treated with a ginseng preparation in capsules (a commercial product
of Yamanouchi Drug Co., Japan), one capsule each time, three capsules a day for 4–6
months. Each capsule contained 100 mg of dried, powdered ginseng extract and 20 mg
of vitamin E. The blood sugar levels and other symptoms of the patients were examined
periodically. From this pilot clinical study, it was found that the ginseng extract was
effective on 15 out of the 18 diabetic patients. Their subjective symptoms were improved
and their blood sugar levels were reduced to normal along with the treatment.112
In another clinical trial, Kakiochi, Imanaka, Kohuo, Ohara, and Nakajima of
Osaka University, School of Medicine, treated 18 diabetic patients with the same
ginseng preparation as that used in the studies previously described. However, in
this study, the patients were allowed to take two capsules each time, three times a
day—that is, each patient takes 600 mg of ginseng extract and 120 mg of vitamin
E per day. The duration of the treatment varied from 14 to 84 days depending on
the conditions of the patient. The patients were questioned about their symptoms
regularly, and their blood, stool, and urine samples were analyzed, and their renal and
hepatic functions were checked by the staffs of the same hospital. The results showed
that ginseng was effective in four out of seven patients against general malaise, three
out of five patients against tiredness and fatigue, four out of five patients against
impotence, and three out of three patients against thirst. In other words, the ginseng
extract at 600 mg level daily dose was about 60%–100% effective in the treatment
of the subjective symptoms of the diabetic. Also found was that ginseng was able to
improve the anemic conditions of the patient. In insulin-resistant patients, ginseng
was able to reduce the dose level of insulin if ginseng was concomitantly used. The
investigators also indicated that the 600 mg dose of ginseng may be required in the
onset of the treatment, but a 300 mg maintenance dose may be sufficient for chronic
patients who need a long-term therapy. In both of the studies, no particular reason
was given why vitamin E was added in the ginseng capsules.112

REMARKABLE HEMATINIC EFFECT OF GINSENG

Anemia
When the number of red blood cells or the amount of hemoglobin within them falls
below certain levels, a person is said to have anemia. Anemia often causes pallor,
weakness, lack of vigor, and most important of all, susceptibility to other diseases.
Anemia patients have high mortality rates and, therefore, every effort should be taken
to reduce or prevent its occurrence.
The loss of a large amount of blood from the body (usually from a bleeding wound,
bleeding from the gastrointestinal tract, an ulcer, or due to abnormal menstruation
in women) may cause anemia. A drop in red blood cell production as a result of
iron deficiency in diet, malnutrition, organic diseases, or inability to absorb the
blood-making elements such as vitamin B12, folic acid, and iron may cause anemia.
Degeneration, defectiveness, or short life or red blood cells may also induce anemia.
Nevertheless, iron deficiency is the most frequent cause of anemia.113,114
What Ginseng Can Do For You 177

Ginseng’s Hematinic Effect

From animal studies, ginseng acts as a powerful hematinic agent. It increases
hemoglobin levels and restores red blood cells quickly in animals after bleeding.
Kin115 observed that rabbits receiving 0.5 g/kg daily of ginseng extract showed a rapid
increase in the number of red blood cells, which continued for about a month and then
ceased. The hemoglobin content and the white blood cell (leukocyte) counts were
also greatly increased. A hematinic iron preparation, Blutone (a strong antianemia
agent), given at 13 g/kg to rabbits as a control, induced a lesser increase in red blood
cells and hemoglobin than did ginseng extract. Ginseng was thus called a hematinic.
Several other studies showed ginseng causing an increase in the number of red
blood cells and hemoglobin in animals.116 Ginseng extract also showed fast restoration
of blood albumin in animals after massive bleeding.117
Recently, a group of Japanese investigators, Oura et  al., reported that
intraperitoneal injection of ginseng extract to rats and mice increased the synthesis
of serum proteins.118–120 Serum proteins synthesis increased by about 46%–49%.
Ginseng extract also stimulated the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in rat’s
liver, in addition to the synthesis of bone marrow deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
and the normal division of bone marrow cells. The active principles of ginseng
extract, particularly the ginsenosides, are expected to have a metabolic stimulating
or hormone-like action. Biochemical studies have added further positive evidence
supporting the thesis that ginseng is a hematinic agent. Regarding the hematinic
effect, one of the active principles of ginseng, prostisol, plays an essential role in
protein and RNA synthesis in the rats’ liver.121,122
The hematinic effect of ginseng was also demonstrated in humans, particularly
those who have been ill for a long time, who are suffering from wasteful or
consumptive diseases, or are recovering from major surgery. Following surgical
operations for gastric ulcer, patients in a Soviet hospital were given the conventional
treatment and care, and a special group was given additional ginseng preparations.
It was found that the patients treated with ginseng were the first restored to health
and returned to work.19 In a recent clinical trial at National Shirahama Hot Spring
Hospital in Japan, the efficacy of an aqueous extract of ginseng (containing prostisol)
on fatigue and anemia was critically evaluated. The ginseng extract was particularly
effective in the treatment of anemia due to tuberculosis, old age, and iron deficiency,
but ineffective toward pernicious anemia. In addition, the symptoms associated
with anemia, such as rheumatoid arthritis, fatigue, and debility, were eliminated.
Appetite, hemoglobin level, and the number of red blood cells and platelets were
greatly improved or increased. Among the 50 patients treated, no one complained of
any side effects with ginseng.123

Effect on RNA, DNA, and Protein Metabolism

Ginseng extract increased the biosynthesis of RNA and incorporation of amino acids
in the nuclei of hepatic and renal cells, resulting in an increase of serum protein.
Ginsenoside Rd exhibited the greatest effect on protein synthesis. Experiments also
showed that ginsenosides increased the synthesis of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
178 The Healing Power of Ginseng

and apoprotein in serum. The activity of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase in hepatic

cellular nuclei of rats increased markedly following administration of ginseng extract.
The rate of RNA synthesis in the nuclei and cytoplasm was subsequently increased.
Administration of ginseng also greatly increased the biosynthesis of DNA and
protein in the bone marrow. It is thus believed that ginseng is beneficial in the
treatment of hemorrhagic anemia.88

IMPROVEMENT OR CURE FOR INDIGESTION

When we say indigestion or digestive disorders, it means the digestive system may
not be in normal working order. When digestion is so below par that the food remains
undigested, it causes the growth and multiplication of putrefactive bacteria—germs
capable of decomposing foods—resulting in the generation of foul gases. The most
common indigestion disturbance, particularly in the middle-aged and the aged, is
the swelling and sometimes painful gases in the stomach and intestinal tract. Serious
and prolonged indigestion could lead to malnutrition and other complications, such
as weakness, anemia, debility, and consumption.
Ginseng has a stimulant effect on the smooth muscles of the stomach and intestines;
perhaps this is why ginseng has long been recognized as a bitter tonic, stomachic,
and stimulant to the entire digestive system. In animal studies, it was found that
ginseng extract caused acceleration of the gastrointestinal movement124,125 or increased
gastric acidity.126 The extractives of ginseng leaves similarly showed a smooth muscle
stimulant effect. Harding, a pioneer American ginseng user and cultivator, once said
that “Ginseng combined with the juice of a good ripe pineapple is par excellent as a
treatment for indigestion. It stimulates the healthy secretion of pepsin, thereby insuring
good digestion without incurring the habit of taking pepsin or after-dinner pills to
relieve the fullness and distress so common to the American people.”127
In traditional Chinese medicine, famous prescriptions containing ginseng, such
as Si Jaen Zi Tang, Bu Zhong Yi Qi, and Gui Pi Tang, are commonly used to treat or
regulate digestion problems.

GINSENG BENEFITS WEIGHT LOSS

Ginseng does many things to help human health, but many people do not realize that
ginseng is good for weight loss. It gives an energy boost and can help fight fatigue.
Because of this, it allows for the person to be more active. One of the big things that
it does in the weight loss battle is it regulates blood sugar. It does this by reducing
the amount of carbohydrate that is converted into fat. Also it is important to point out
that ginseng alone will not help a person lose weight if the person engages in poor
dietary choices. It is vital that a well-balanced diet is followed and that the person is
active. Otherwise, like the old English proverb says, “don’t dig your grave with your
own knife and fork.”
One more note, we do not recommend that you take dieting to excesses. The
danger of bulimia and anorexia is very real for many people, men and women, in
today’s diet-crazed world that values looking thin. Looking thin and being healthy is
wonderful; however, everything needs to be done in moderation. Think of the health
What Ginseng Can Do For You 179

benefits of being a normal weight, do not focus on your body’s physical appearance.
Most of all, be healthy, and the rest will fall into place.
Hopefully, you will see that ginseng can be a key cog in helping weight loss happen
naturally. Just do not get wrapped up in it. Be happy and healthy and remember the
funny line by humor columnist Dave Barry, when he said “The leading cause of death
among fashion models is falling through street grates.” So true, Barry. So true.128

WOMEN’S HEALTH—WHAT ARE THE

GINSENG BENEFITS FOR WOMEN?
Ginseng, in medical herbalism, is an herb commonly used to treat such women’s
health issues as abnormal menstruation and strong premenstrual symptoms.
Women in perimenopause often look to solutions for producing more estrogen with
ginseng. It is, quite famously, thought that this stimulation of estrogen in the female
ovaries causes a boost in libido in women. Of course, women, like men, often like it
because it can be useful in weight loss.128

BENEFITS OF GINSENG FOR HAIR GROWTH

A recent report indicating that ginseng benefits hair growth is an exciting result of
research being conducted in Osaka, Japan.
The study suggested that the Ginsenoside Ro carbohydrate was shown to help fight
androgenetic alopecia, commonly known as balding, in men. It is thought that this
could have widespread cosmetic implications and lead to future drug development
for the prevention and regrowth of hair in men with natural herbal ginseng remedies.

BENEFITS OF GINSENG ON SKIN

Drinking ginseng tea is good for refining and rehydrating the skin effectively. It is
also thought to promote skin cells regeneration by increasing oxygenation to skin
cells. It also has the effect of boosting blood circulation as well as detoxifying the
blood, which are very important to human skin health. Free of toxins, the skin can
gain a better complexion and therefore a better look.

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444–450, 2008.
 17 Healthy and
Successful Aging

LONGEVITY STORY
A remarkable article entitled “Every Day Is a Gift when You Are over 100” appeared
in the January 1973 issue of National Geographic Magazine.1 It represents the oldest
people in the world of that time, most of them well over 100 years of age. In the
article, Alexander Leaf of Harvard University found that the greatest number of
people over 100 years old living in the Caucasus of southern Russia. If we can live
healthily, it has been said that the maximum life expectancy of the human species is
about 140 years. In other words, you can live an extra 60 or even 80 years if you can
live happily and healthily. Would you call it an extra gift from God?
It would be wonderful to preserve a youthful body for as long as possible, but how
would you reach this goal? Slowing down aging, of course, is the way to do it. You
do not look young if you do not feel young. To feel young means to be healthy. Why
are the native Abkhasians of the Caucasus Mountains long-lived? Because they live
a way of life that is close to nature. They use all-natural substances, no artificial or
synthetic chemicals. Their foods, fruits, and vegetables are organically grown. They
use herbal medicine, herbal tea, honey, garlic, and do not eat much meat. They also
enjoy physical activity in their advanced years.
The history of the world is full of tales of individuals trying to stave off aging
and death. Since antiquity, from ancient Egyptians to Ponce de León, people have
explored ways to extend their life spans. In ancient China, it was said that the emperor,
Qin-shi huang (221–207 bc), once dispatched 3,000 young men and women to the
faraway eastern island of Ponglai to search for a miraculous herb for his dream of
eternal life. Unfortunately, their search ended after years of work. Nothing was found.
There have been people who drank gladiator blood or injected themselves with
concoctions made from the testes of monkeys. In modern times, people turn to
megadoses of vitamins, drink Kombucha tea, use Coenzyme Q10, and inject human
growth hormones. Today, Oriental people prefer ginseng root for longevity.
All this is done in the hopes of finding the “fountain of youth” and wishing for
a long life. Have these strategies really worked? This chapter is designed to provide
information to those who are looking for strategies on how to beat Father Time,
explanations for the causes of aging, life cycle, life span, and factors of longevity for
enjoying life to its fullest.

DREAM OF ETERNAL YOUTH AND LONGEVITY

We all recognize aging when we see sagging skin, facial wrinkles, gray hair, muscle
loss, increasing body fat, hearing loss, poor eyesight, faulty memory, and slower

183
184 The Healing Power of Ginseng

thinking and reactions. These are just a few of the manifestations of aging. While it
is easy to point out an aging person, it is not so easy to define what aging is and why
one person lives only 40 years while others live to 100 or more.
There have always been stories and legends about miraculously long lives and
people who regained their youth. Old legends told of magic potions that kept people
young. How do people prevent getting old and live longer? These questions fascinate
people, especially the scientists who study aging.
In the second century ad, Egyptian craftsmen in Alexandria were the first
alchemists who tried desperately to convert metal into gold. Almost simultaneously
and independently, the Taoist monks (not pure alchemists but religious magicians)
believed gold to be a miraculous medicine, and they, too, sought to produce it, not
for wealth but for perpetual youth and immortality. Some high priests of Taoism
dedicated their whole lives to searching for the “life-prolonging elixir.”
Poets in the Middle Ages wrote about the Fountains of Youth in which one could
bathe and stay youthful. Those ancient alchemists (whose practice was essentially
magic) also pursued the dream of eternal youth. They made it one of the three great
goals for mankind: to change lead into gold, to travel to the moon, and to discover an
elixir of life to keep people young forever.1
The ancient Chinese people have a long history of interest in longevity and the
search for immortality. Legends exist of Xian (an immortal celestial being) who lived
forever by mastering longevity techniques. Taoism, the central religious philosophy of
China, started as early as sixth century bc. Lao Tzu, the old master and spiritual father
of Taoism and supposedly the founder of natural philosophy, was only a manifestation
of the much older Universalism. The word “Tao,” which later became the shibboleth
(catchword) of a separate creed, Taoism, is basically a concept common to all Chinese.
Taoism is a religio-philosophical tradition that has, along with Confucianism and
Buddhism, shaped Chinese life for more than 2,500 years.2
Unfortunately, neither the Egyptian alchemists nor the Taoists achieved their
dreams. We still cannot turn lead into gold and did not find the magic potion of
life, but amazingly, we have reached the moon. As for the dream of staying young
and achieving immortality, as time has passed, and modern science and medicine
advanced, it is definitely and slowly coming true. Do you not think that those who
have lived up to 100 years or beyond are the blessed and fortunate ones in the world?1

WHAT IS THE AGING PROCESS AFTER ALL?

Is aging a debilitating disease? If so, aging may be treatable, like any other disease.
The truth is that aging is not a debilitating disease. It is a natural, continuous, intrinsic,
universal process, and a progressive human phenomenon. No one can stop it, and no
one can prevent it.
The aging process is complicated. It involves the effects of heredity (genetic
causes), as well as acquired factors, including lifestyle, eating habits, physical
activities, health, and diseases. Most likely, the aging process is due to cumulative
damage to cells and tissues, which surpasses the body’s ability to repair the damage,
and to the eventual wearing down of organs and systems of the entire body.
Healthy and Successful Aging 185

Control of the aging process lies not only in the hands of God but also in the
hands of men. Leonard Hayflick, an authority on aging and a Professor of Anatomy
at the University of California, San Francisco, said, “Aging is not merely the passage
of time. It is the manifestation of biological events that occur over a span of time.
Each person’s biological clock ticks at a different rate.” This means that there is no
way to compare biological age to chronological age. For example, a person who
is chronologically 80 years old may be considered to be 60 years old biologically
due to sound physical and mental conditions, and excellent health.3 In contrast,
another person who is 60 years old chronologically may be biologically 80 years old,
diseased, incapacitated, and suffering. Why can some people run in a marathon at
the age of 75 while others are in a wheelchair or handicapped at the early age of 45?
The differences involve personal choice of lifestyle and how we live.
Doctors call the normal process of aging “senescense,” meaning to grow old or the
state of being old. Some people who grow old may have physical or mental difficulties,
and doctors call this aging process “senility,” to describe problematic aging. The
difficulties of senility are most commonly associated with serious impairment of
mental functions, such as dementia or Alzheimer disease.
Aging, as a matter of fact, may be classified into two types, namely, physiological
aging and pathological aging. Physiological aging includes all the universal
physiological degenerative changes, which develop after an organism reaches
maturity (from 20 to 45 years of age). Pathological aging means that as one ages,
there are some unavoidable pathological conditions (diseases that develop along with
the physiological changes). Pathological changes, no doubt, speed up the normal
aging process.4 The severely polluted environment we are living in today; externally
detrimental physical, chemical, or biological factors with which we are afflicted
daily; plus our modern sedentary lifestyle, poor nutrition, and stressful life will cause
additional pathological changes and speed up aging.
Is there anything that we can do to block the acquired harmful factors of
pathological aging? Yes. Adopting a healthy lifestyle, good food habits, disease
prevention, and a happy mind are the primary requirements for delaying the aging
process. Roger J. Williams, author of Nutrition Against Disease, said, “Since aging
is inevitable, all we can hope to do is delay the aging process by taking advantage
of the understanding of the mechanisms involved. Providing cells and tissues with
the best possible nutritional environment would seem to be an obvious expedient.”5
Evidence of the relationship between nutrition and aging is abundant, particularly in
recent years.
Research has also shown to us that, in regard to life span, it is as important to pay
attention to your mind as your body. A balance of mind and body plays an important
role. How important is your mind in relation to the aging process? Control of stress,
relaxation, and slowing down your daily activities helps slow down aging. You must
have heard people say, “Take it easy” or “Don’t work too hard” and “Relax” to remind
us that if we want to live longer, we must reduce anxiety and keep a relaxed mind.
There is enough evidence to show that optimistic people live, on the average, 19%
longer than those who are depressed and miserable in their lives.6 You can find that
an antiaging strategy requires one to stay optimistic and keep a positive outlook.
186 The Healing Power of Ginseng

You may not realize how inactivity can affect the aging process. Other than what is
normally due to “Father Time,” aging can be directly related to our sedentary lifestyle.
One good example of this is when an individual fractures a bone in the arm and the
arm is casted. After 6–8 weeks of wearing the cast and then removing it, the muscles
of the arm are thinner (atrophied) and weaker due to the inactivity. If the cast was
over the knee joint, the joint would have stiffened and normal range of motion would
be greatly restricted.7 From these examples, you can perceive how important it is for
us to keep our body moving. If you do not move it, you lose it. Sedentary lifestyle and
inactivity affect the architectural structure and, thus, speed up the aging process.7

NORMAL HUMAN GROWTH AND AGING LIFE CYCLE

While getting old is an inevitable part of being alive, how fast we age is pretty much
dependant on the way we live. We live in a changing world. We change every decade,
every year, every month, and every day.
The human growth and aging life cycle may be broadly divided into three stages:
growth stage, peak growth stage, and aging stage.4 As shown in Figure 17.1, each of
us go initially through the growth stage—infancy to childhood (0–6 years of age),
youth (6–12 years of age), adolescent (12–20 years of age), and adulthood (20–35
years of age). One thing in common among these growth years is that we are living
the most enjoyable years of life. Our parents, grandparents, relatives, friends, and
teachers care for us as if we are in heaven or paradise. There is nothing to worry
about, and we live happily days and nights, in home, or at schools.
When we reach midlife (35–45 years of age), we are at the “peak growth stage” or
midlife. Living during these 10 years is totally different from the earlier growth stage. The
biggest physiological change of midlife is the onset of menopause caused by weakening
or even loss of production of the female or male sex hormones. Also, decreased energy
levels, decreased sexual desire, decreased mental and visual acuity, decreased muscle
mass, increased blood pressure, and heart disease are common. Midlife also brings

35–45
Mid-life
20–35 45–65
Adult Pre-
hood elderly
12–20
65–85
Adole
Elderly
scent
6–12 85–100
Youth Longevity
elderly
0–6 100 and
Child- older
hood Centenarian
Birth Death
I II III
Growth Peak growth Aging
stage stage stage

FIGURE 17.1  Normal human growth and aging life cycle.

Healthy and Successful Aging 187

the risk of financial crisis, because supporting a family and building up a career at the
same time is a challenge. The danger of midlife is real. Midlife could be successful or
a failure, and quite often is risky and dangerous. In most cases, midlife, a period after
the happy enjoyable youth years, is hard work and struggle. An old American proverb
says: “Mid-life is the old age of youth and the youth of old age.” No man or woman is
exempted from the midlife stage. It is associated with people unwilling to accept the
transition of growth to aging in life and forever trying to recapture their lost youth.
The transition from youth to adulthood is easy, but from midlife to the next aging
stage nothing is guaranteed.
The third, or aging stage, usually begins after midlife. From 45 to 65, this 20-year
period can also be called the pre-elderly period. From 65 to 85 may be called the
elderly period. From 85 to 100 is the longevity elderly period, and 100 years and
above are the centenarian years.
We know that everyone experiences life differently. Aging from 65 to becoming
a centenarian or to death may not be enjoyable because of physical or mental
decay and debilitating changes. The increased uncertainty and hardship of the
senior years can make it really miserable and cause suffering. You will find all the
important information and strategies of keeping yourself in a healthy and mentally
active condition in your 60s, 70s, and 80s in this book, and you probably will continue
to enjoy life in the later years and become a member of the centenarian club.

WHAT IS HEALTHY AND SUCCESSFUL AGING?

Longevity has been an aspiration as long as there has been human existence on earth.
According to the famous Russian physician and physiologist Eliia Michnikoff, until
now human beings have not found any reliable method of prolonging life. Evidently,
death is the natural end to life, and there is no being that can escape that fate. The
life span differs depending on the region, climate, race, heredity, and lifestyle and has
varied at different times in each historical period. The following have been considered
as probable factors for successful aging and longevity.8

Heredity
The significance and influence of heredity on longevity are self-evident There are
families whose members have been observed to live longer than the average human
life expectancy, except in cases where death occurs because of an accident. This
is because an offspring inherits strong and healthy body parts and organs from
parents, including the genes of nervous, circulatory, and other systems. Modern
science, however, has shown that heredity factors play only a minor role and can be
neutralized by other factors such as environment, arteriosclerosis, and general health.

Environment
The second most important factor in longevity is having an ideal environment to live
in, such as a moderate climate and clean air and water, free from harmful microbes
and poisons.
188 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Lifestyle
The type of work and working conditions as well as the duration of hours, in addition
to spiritual and psychological activities have an impact on longevity. It appears that
when a person enjoys good physical health and mental tranquility, it affects their
life span significantly. Longevity is directly related to working habits and how one
manages his or her stress under constant pressure. It is for this reason that long-term
joblessness and early retirement at a younger age might actually be unhealthy and
may lead to the shortening of one’s life span.

Nutrition
The kinds of food and the amount we consume have an important impact on longevity.
It is a fact that the majority of the people whose life span exceeded 100 years have
been found to be dieters. Also, there are numerous proverbs that simplify the harm
caused by overeating. Among them is this Chinese proverb: “A person digs his grave
with his own teeth.” In the Western world during World War I, it was observed that
death as a result of diabetes had significantly declined in some countries. The main
reason was that poverty as a cause of reduced intake of food is a blessing in disguise.

Health
Optimum health is designed to occur at a time of maximum productive capacity.
After those productive years, the body declines, health problems become increasingly
more common, and survival is threatened. You can only lengthen your life, preserve
your functions, and retain a glowing attractive appearance by following an antiaging
program. Look at how your friends and relatives age. Some are crippled, wrinkled,
and gray haired, not as you first saw them. There are others who retain that sparkle of
youth in the way they look, feel, and function into the 70s, even 80s. The difference
is not due to a stroke of luck but rather is how they have taken care of their precious
bodies over the years.9
McDougall said, “The secret for healthy, successful aging is almost too simple to
believe—it’s a healthy diet, moderate exercise, and clean habits. But the results are
no less than a miracle.”9
Many people are conditioned to think that after 65 years, one should sit down,
relax, and watch the rest of the world with amusement and pity as it goes through the
motions of detestable jobs, demanding childrearing, and dreary household chores. As
Vijai P. Sharma wrote in his article, “I am immensely inspired by what Pearl S. Buck,
the author of The Good Earth fame and Nobel Prize winner, had to say on her 80th
birthday. Buck impresses me with her task-centeredness. She wrote this note sitting
at her worktable facing the window and saying, ‘I have much work to do and I enjoy
myself and what I do.’”10
Pearl Buck thought about old age. She said, “I do not know what people mean
when they speak of being old. I do not know because I do not know where life begins
and where it ends, if there is an end. For me, death is merely the entrance into further
existence.”10
Healthy and Successful Aging 189

LONGEVITY TECHNIQUES IN THE ORIENT

In Early China
The pursuit of longevity in early traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is more
concerned with “nourishing life” than with reestablishing physical health that is
already broken down. Even in the ancient medical text, the fundamental theme of
TCM in the pursuit of longevity is in search of the perfection of the body.11
According to TCM, life is composed of qi (breath, or life energy) and blood. Qi
is a force that manifests in respiration and that cannot be felt or seen, circulating
nonstop around the body. The circulation routes of the qi, the conduits (or meridians
as they are traditionally called in acupuncture texts) are well defined and put to use
by acupuncture physicians and aspiring immortals. Blood is an essential substance for
the body. It performs the physiological functions of constructing and nourishing the
tissues and organs of the body. Blood circulates ceaselessly in the vessels, internally
to the viscera and bowels and externally to the tissues, bones, and skin.
The Taoist encyclopedia Yunji gigian (Seven Slips from a Cloudy Satchel) contains
two exemplary texts on nourishing life by means of qi. There are two famous books
on this subject, Fugi jingyi lun (Discourse on the Essential Meaning of Absorption
of Qi) and Sheyang zhenzhong lun (Pillowbook of Methods for Nourishing Life).
The former was written by the ancient Taoist master, Sima Chengzhen (647–735),
while the latter is attributed to Sun Simiao (581–682), the eminent Taoist alchemist
and physician. Both texts say that qi is the main force on which to build attainment.
The qi is the exceptional gift intrinsic to all human beings that leads them to higher
accomplishments. So it is the cultivation of qi that allows adults to develop their
willpower and proceed in the direction of immortality.12
Approximately at the same time, Sun Simiao also wrote Qian Jin Yifang (Revised
Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Ounces of Gold) and many other medical books.
All Chinese have worshiped him as the “King of Medicine.” The most profound
medical philosophy in relation to longevity from Sun Simiao was documented in
Shenyang Zhenzhong Lun. In it, Sun Simiao stressed that most people think most
chronic disease begins only on the day it breaks out. As a matter of fact, the origins
of the disease reach back much farther and it developed gradually. He advises that the
prudent practitioners who are nourishing life and longevity must therefore eliminate
all diseases in their very beginning.
In addition, Sun also stresses moral aspects and mental discipline as fundamental
for the quest of longevity. He emphasizes that mental effort and discipline in daily
life is indispensable, otherwise all medical treatment remains ineffective and will not
bring permanent betterment.12
The above two texts written by both Sima Chengzhen and Sun Simiao have in
common that they deal with ways of avoiding illness and maintaining good health
for the pursuit of longevity.

In Early Japan
Japan began to receive a strong influence of Korean medicine in about the fifth
century, but Chinese medicine was transmitted directly from China to Japan only
190 The Healing Power of Ginseng

from the seventh century (Tang dynasty) onward. In the Nara period, numerous
Japanese monks went to China in order to study Buddhism as well as traditional
Chinese methods of healing. Famous Chinese monk, Jianzhen (689–763), also
went to Japan to spread the dharma. Nolens volens, these monks also brought with
them from China a rich knowledge of traditional Chinese13 pharmacology, medical
practices, and longevity techniques. Throughout the Nara and the first half of the
Heian periods—that is well into the 10th century—Chinese medicine of the Sui and
Tang dynasties occupied the position of official court medicine in Japan.
Longevity techniques are mentioned in different sections throughout Ishinpo
(Essential Medicine Methods), the oldest most extensive work on Japanese traditional
medicine compiled by the official acupuncturist at the imperial court, Tambe no
Yasuyori (912–995). Relating to the art of nourishing life, the longevity techniques
most strongly favored in Ge Hong’s Baopuzi (Book of the Master Who Embraces
Simplicity) deals with the fundamental principles of nourishing life. It explains that
the attainment of longevity means the healing of latent disease, while perfecting
the good qualities of one’s character is claimed to be effective for the prevention of
calamities.
The principles of nourishing life according to Baopuzi are as follows:

• Fundamental principles: Nourishing life and practicing meditation

• Cultivating the spirit: By nourishing the spirit one will not die
• Nourishing the body: Preserving one’s physical body according to the four
seasons
• Applying the breath: Be careful about environmental air one is breathing
• Gymnastics: Physical exercise to keep good health, energy, or breath
• Daily regimen: Proper deportment and activities of daily life
• Sleep: The correct way of sleep
• Proper language: Speak little, not in a loud voice
• Clothing: Dress properly
• Dwellings: Pure and simple, do not adorn or embellish them
• Various prohibitions: Never exhaust one’s essence and qi; do not overeat or
take too deep breaths

Following the philosophy of Tao, it is most important to nourish the spirit, and of
secondary importance to nourish the physical body. The spirit should be pure and
tranquil; the bone should be stable. This is the foundation of long life.

LONGEVITY AND CENTENARIANS’ MYSTERIOUS LONG

LIFE SECRETS
Have you ever imagined what it might be like to live to the age of 100 or over? The
Chinese call living to one’s maximum life Tian nian, meaning “living one’s full life
span” or maximum life span. The following text provides stories of centenarians who
give their opinions as to what they did or did not do to achieve this milestone.
A remarkable article entitled, “Every day is a gift when you are over 100,”
appeared in the January 1973 issue of National Geographic magazine. It dealt with
Healthy and Successful Aging 191

the oldest people in the world at the time, most of them over 100 years of age. In the
article, Alexander Leaf, of Harvard University, found that many people living in the
Caucasus of southern Russia were more than 100 years old.
If we can live healthily, it has been said that the maximum life span of the human
species is about 140 years. How would you feel if you could live happily and healthily
for over 100 years? Would you call it an extra gift from God? Gerontologists are
sometimes asked if they really think it is a good idea for people to live this long.
Obviously, the increased population of seniors would raise many socioeconomic
problems with regard to their health and well-being, as well as nursing care, welfare,
and disability costs. However, these problems would not be so unmanageable if the
aged seniors were kept healthy. If people lived longer but were isolated, sick, disabled,
and miserable, it would not be ideal.14
There are stories about long-lived people. Nobody can prove that they are all true.
Allegedly, 20,000 centenarians live in the rural areas on the mountains of the South
Soviet Union (now Russia), and some of them are even over 150 years old. Russian
scientists are presently engaged in investigating the factors that lead to healthy aging
and in discovering ways of prolonging life. These exceptionally long-lived people
have invariably lived humble lives, doing hard physical work or exercise, often
outdoors, from youth well into old age. Their diet is simple, as is their social life
involving families. One example is Shisali Mislinlow who lived to be 170 years old
and gardened in the Azerbaijan region in Russia. Mislinlow’s life was never hurried.
He said, “I am never in a hurry, so don’t be in a hurry to live, this is the main idea. I
have been doing physical labor for 150 years.”14
The people of the native Abkhasians of Caucasus mountains in Soviet Russia are
long lived, over 100 years, because they live a way of life that is close to nature. They
use all-natural substances, no artificial or synthetic chemicals. Their foods, fruits,
and vegetables are organically grown. They use herbs, such as herbal tea and herbal
medicine, honey, and garlic, and do not eat much meat. They also enjoy physical
activity in their advanced years.

ANTIAGING HERBS: PANAX GINSENG AND AMERICAN GINSENG

Many Chinese superior (first) grade herbs are tonic herbs; these tonic herbs, in
particular, have antiaging effects. In the ancient times, all traditional Chinese
medicine physicians were herbalists as well as nutritionists and acupuncturists.
They taught people the Tao or the way to live, what to eat, and what food should
be avoided for better health. Many famous physicians lived long lives. For example,
the herbalist Meng Shen, who wrote China’s first diet herbal, describing 227 herbs,
lived to be 92 (ad 621–713). The ancient physician, Wu Pu, who wrote the Wu Pu
Ben Cao, describing 441 herbs, lived over 100 years (ad 220–300). Sun Simiao,
the most famous physician in China, who wrote the Bei Ji Qian Jin Yao Fang and
Qian Jin Yi Fang, formularies together describing over 7,300 prescriptions, lived
101 years (ad 581–682). And Lan Mao, who wrote the famous Dian Nan Ben Cao,
describing 448 herbs, many indigenous to Yunnan province, lived to be 79 years
old (ad 1397–1476). Li Shi Zhen, the greatest herbalist of all time, author of the most
famous Materia Medica, Ben Cao Gang Mu, lived 75 years (ad 1518–1593).
192 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Chinese tonic remedies have adequate empirical proof of their effectiveness and
safety. These herbs are beneficial to weakness, debility, promote everyday health,
keep physiologically in balance of the body, and they are directly linked to longevity.
Commonly used antiaging herbs, based on TCM theory, are tonics for energy, or qi,
and blood, immune enhancement, antioxidants, and tonics for body’s essence or yin,
and tonics for organ function, or yang, of the body.
Since the early nineteenth century, attempts have been made to understand the
actions and properties of Chinese medicinal herbs through scientific research.
Nearly all the work has been conducted during the past 100 years, primarily in
laboratories in China, Japan, Russia, and Germany. It was also during this time
that most of the phytomedicines used in modern times were developed. Most of
the biomedical research into the effects and uses of Chinese medicinal herbs has
attempted to isolate their active ingredients and to understand their pharmacologic
effects, and numerous scientific papers have been published about ginseng root
(Pananx ginseng).1
As early as 2,000 years ago, the first official Chinese Materia Medica, Shen Nong
Ben Cao Jing, states the tonic and antiaging activities of Panax ginseng as follows:

“Tonic to the five viscera

quieting the spirit
establishing the soul
allaying fear
expelling evil effluvia
opening up the heart and brightening the eyes
benefiting understanding
invigorating the body and prolonging life
if it is taken constantly”

In the United States, people over 65 years of age are considered aged, and people
between 45 and 64 years are considered middle-aged. There are at present about
20 million Americans who are aged, and about 42 million Americans who are middle-
aged. These 62 million senior citizens (constitute approximately 31% of the total
population) are bound to have different physical and mental problems.15 What are the
most important factors regulating one’s life when old? The National Council on Aging
(NCOA) commissioned Louis Harris and Associates, Inc., to conduct a major national
survey aimed at gaining a better understanding of aging and the reality of old age in
the United States. The survey findings indicated that age seems to play a minor role
affecting life satisfaction, but poor health is the most serious problem in the aged.16
Although ginseng does not confer eternal life, it is, in fact, an excellent remedy
of tonification for the aging and the aged. The ancient Chinese doctors claimed:
“Ginseng restores exhausted power, making old people young.” It sounds unbelievable
to you and me. However, more and more scientific research reveals the secrets of
ginseng; ginseng indeed possesses these virtues. We know, among other effects, that
(1) ginseng has antistress and adaptogenic powers; (2) ginseng stimulates the synthesis
of protein, bone marrow DNA, and blood cells, thus functioning as a powerful
hematinic agent; (3) ginseng is a metabolic regulator for protein, carbohydrate, and
Healthy and Successful Aging 193

fat, including cholesterol; and (4) the tonic effect of ginseng keeps the organs (five
viscera) and endocrine glands in a harmonious working order. These properties are
absolutely essential in maintaining good health, thus making you feel young. We also
learned that ginseng contains certain unknown principles that are capable of delaying
degeneration of primary human amnion (PHA) cells in vitro. If the degeneration
effect of cells is also delayed in vivo, then ginseng is indeed capable of making old
people young, and we can no longer be skeptical about the Chinese herbal medicine
as being based on superstition.

AMERICAN GINSENG (RADIX PANAX QUINQUEFOLIUM)

American ginseng is only slightly different from the plant native to Korea and China
(Panax ginseng). American ginseng is also called sang, red berry, and five fingers
by the ginseng farmers.
American ginseng is commonly used in TCM by the Chinese to replenish the Vital
Essence (Yin), reduce the Internal Heat, promote the secretion of body fluids, for the
treatment of debility, spontaneous night sweating, and chronic fatigue. American
ginseng is a good antiaging medicinal herb.17

Chemical Contents
American ginseng root contains 6%–8% of total ginseng saponin, called panaquilins.
Additionally, many other ingredients are similar to those found in Chinese ginseng.
American ginseng root contains slightly more saponin but less proteinous and oily
substances. It also contains inorganic salts, sugars, phytosterol esters, terpene,
panacene, and fatty acids, as well as 18 different amino acids.
E. John Staba of the University of Minnesota and his research team in their
extensive analyses of American ginseng discovered that the ginseng root contains
panaquilins B, C, D, E1, E2, E3, G1, and G2. The ingredients panaquilin G1 and G2,
are not found in Panax ginseng. American ginseng contains about 17% sapongenin
panaxadiol but only 0.44% panaxatriol, a ratio of about 39:1. The contents of
sapongenin panaxadiol and panaxatriol in Chinese or Korean ginseng is about equal,
or a ratio of 1:1. According the traditional Chinese belief, it is speculated that the
higher ratio of panaxadiol to panaxatriol in the American ginseng root makes it cool,
while the Chinese ginseng root is hot in nature.14
No doubt ginseng root is a super tonic herbal remedy as well as an antiaging herb
known for thousands of years. There are many other Chinese tonic herbs that also
possess antiaging activities similar to those of Panax ginseng. They are American
ginseng, ci wu jia, (wu ji ashen or Siberian ginseng), Schisandra fruit, and astragalus
root, to name just a few. Modern research and scientific studies show that these
“tonic herbs” are also adaptogenic remedies defined in TCM. Adaptogenic herbs are
totally different from stimulants in Western pharmacology. Adaptogens are herbs
that possess a normalizing effect of the body toward various physiologic disorders.
Russian scientist I. I. Brehkman defines an adaptogen as “a substance causing a state
of nonspecific increased resistance (SNIR) of the organism to adverse stresses of
various origin.”18
194 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Chinese tonic medicinal herbs selected by the author as antiaging herbs are capable
of regulating and mediating the physiologic activities of the body; some of these herbs
are adaptogenics in nature and are able to enhance or regulate the immune system of
the body, others are herbal tonics to the qi, blood, yin or yang of the body, and some
are powerful antioxidants.17
No doubt, proper use of these antiaging ginseng herbs may lead to maintenance
of good health and prolonged life.

REFERENCES
1. Leaf, A., National Geographic Magazine, 1973, p. 93.
2. Veith, I., Ed. The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine, University of
California Press, Berkeley, CA, pp. 10–18.
3. Warshofsky, F. Modern Maturity—The Methuselah Factor, November/December 1999,
http://www.aarp.org?mmaturity/nov-dec99/methuselah.htm.5/15/2002
4. Zhou, J., Ed. Study and Treatment of Gerontologial Ailments, Huhehote, China,
Innermongolia Peoples’s Publishing Co., 1987, pp. 2–20.
5. Williams, R. J. Nutrition Against Disease, Bantam Books, New York, 1993, pp. 139–149.
6. Day, P., Rejuvenation, Longevity and Immortality, May 2002, http://www.meaningoflife.
i12.com/immortality.html
7. Cane, E. M., The Aging Process, 2002.
8. al-mahdi, A.-I., The Just Leader of Humanity. The Research about Longevity—
Chapter 9. https://www.al-islam.org/al-imam-al-mahdi-just-leader-humanity-ayatullah-
ibrahim-amini/chapter-9-research-about-longevity
9. The McDougall Newsletter, January/February 1999. “Successful Aging,” https://www.
drmcdougall.com/newsletter/jan_feb.99.1.html
10. Sharma, V.P., Aging with an Attitude, 202.
11. Baptist Health System, Herbal Medicine. 2003.
12. Kohn, L., Ed., Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques, University of Michigan
Press, Ann Arbor, 1989, pp. 263–296 (17).
13. Kohn, L., Ed., Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques, University of Michigan
Press, Ann Arbor, 1989, pp. 1–32.
14. Hou, J. P. and Jin, Y., The Healing Power of Chinese Herbs and Medicinal Recipes,
Haworth Press, Bingham, NY, 2005.
15. Botwinick, J., Geriatrics, 29: 124, 1974.
16. Beverley, E. V., Geriatrics, 30: 116, 1975.
17. Doug, K. et al., ed., Contemporary Clinical Chinese Herbal Medicine, (in Chinese)
Beijing China Chinese Medicine Press, 1998, pp. 505–553.
18. Brekhman, I. I., Man and Biologically Active Substances, Pergamon Press, New York,
1980, pp. 58–59.
Section VII
How to Take Ginseng and
Who Should Not Take It
 18 Take Ginseng with Care

Asian ginseng (Chinese and Korean) and American ginseng are believed to have no
side or toxic effect if used correctly. Ginseng has different forms: dry root, sliced and
boiled in water for a decoction with other herbs as in traditional Chinese medicine
(TCM) is the commonly used form. The root after steaming and then dried becomes
red ginseng.
In modern TCM, ginseng root is made in many different forms as ginseng
marketable products, such as ginseng tea, ginseng drinks, capsules, powders
in capsule, ginseng candies, or as an ingredient with other herbs for prescribed
compounds as in TCM practice.
American ginseng can be purchased as whole roots, powder, capsules, or a liquid
tincture. For whole roots, wild ginseng is the highest quality and also the most expensive.
Also available are organically grown cultivated roots, which are free from pesticides and
chemicals. The easiest way to prepare ginseng roots is to make a tea from them. Ginseng
roots are very hard and brittle. They should be sliced and simmered in water for 45
minutes or longer to extract the majority of ginsenosides. Experts recommend avoiding
metal pots, which can reduce its antioxidant properties. Some herbalists recommend
boiling ginger or licorice root with American ginseng to increase its effectiveness. For
each serving of tea, two or more teaspoons of ginger root are recommended.

HOW TO TAKE GINSENG

The common doses are as follows:

Asian ginseng root, usually 3–9 g for a decoction

American ginseng root, usually 3–6 g for a decoction
Siberian ginseng root, usually 9–30 g for a decoction

Precautions include the following:

• Do not give ginseng to a child.

• Women taking ginseng should consult an herbal medicine doctor first.
• Those taking Red-Asian or American ginseng should be more careful
because it may cause nervousness, or sleeplessness if taken in higher doses
or combined with another stimulant, such as caffeine, tea, or other drugs.
• Other side effects may occur in cases of overdose.
• High blood pressure
• Restlessness
• Anxiety
• Headache
• Nosebleed
• Nervousness

197
198 The Healing Power of Ginseng

• Diarrhea
• Vomiting
• Skin rash
• Depression
• Sleeplessness
• Mastalgia
• Euphoria
• Breast pain

Other cautions are as follows:

• Do not take ginseng on an empty stomach to avoid hypoglycemic (low blood

sugar) reactions, even in people with diabetes.
• People with high blood pressure should not take red ginseng.
• People with bipolar disease should not take ginseng because it may increase
the risk of mania.
• People with autoimmune disease such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, or
Crohn disease should take ginseng with care or consult a TCM doctor.
• Women with history of breast cancer should not take ginseng.
• Ginseng should be avoided for at least 7 days before having surgery because
Asian ginseng may act as a blood thinner, which causes an increased risk
of bleeding.

AMERICAN GINSENG
Pregnant women should use American ginseng only under a doctor’s orders and avoid
any products that contain Panax ginseng.
Consumers should be sure that the American ginseng product they purchase is
a reputable one. Because of the high price and demand of American ginseng, some
questionable products are on the market. Generally, wild American ginseng is of
higher quality than the cultivated plant, and the older and larger the root, the higher
the quantity of ginsenosides present. In addition, consumers should be careful not to
confuse American ginseng with Panax ginseng, which has been shown to produce
more serious adverse side effects. A 2002 report stated that the effects of Panax
ginseng seemed more likely when the herb was used in combination with other
products than when it was used alone.
Ginseng powder is also available and can be made into tea or taken with water
or juice. One-half to 1 teaspoon is recommended per serving. Extracts of American
ginseng are also available, in liquid or tablet form, some of which offer standardized
quantities of ginsenosides. Packages of standardized products should be labeled with
the appropriate dosage.
American ginseng is usually taken two to three times per day between meals. It
should not be taken continuously for a long period of time.
Ginseng root can also be made into a tincture using alcohol, as ginsenosides are
soluble and well-preserved in alcohol. Vodka or clear alcohol can be used, and the
ginseng roots should be chopped finely or put in a blender with the alcohol. Enough
Take Ginseng with Care 199

alcohol should be used to completely saturate and cover the roots, and the solution
should be kept in a sealed glass bottle for a month or longer. The solution should be
shaken frequently to promote the extraction process. The liquid can be strained from
the roots after distilling, and kept for up to 3 years. Half a teaspoon or more of the
solution can be taken as a daily serving.

Side Effects
In general, American ginseng is gentle, although side effects may occur when taken in
the wrong dosages, over too long a time, or by people whose constitutions, allergies,
or health conditions disagree with the herb. Also, products combining Korean ginseng
with American ginseng may increase the chances for side effects.1

REFERENCE
1. Hou, J. P. and Y. U. Jin, The Healing Power of Chinese Medicine and Formulated
Recipes, Haworth Press, New York, 2005.
 19 Possible Interaction of
Ginseng with Drugs

POSSIBLE INTERACTIONS
If you are currently taking any of the following medications, you should not use Asian
ginseng without first talking to a health-care provider.

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors (Blood Pressure Medications)

Asian ginseng may interact with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
used to lower high blood pressure. These medications include the following:

• Captopril (Capoten)
• Benazepril (Lotensin)
• Enalapril (Vasotec)
• Lisinopril (Prinivil, Zestril)
• Fosinopril (Monopril)
• Ramipril (Altace)
• Perindopril (Aceon)
• Quinapril (Accupril)
• Moexipril (Univasc)
• Trandolapril (Mavik)

Calcium Channel Blockers (Heart and Blood Pressure Medications)

Asian ginseng may make certain heart medications, including calcium channel
blockers, work differently than intended. These medications include the following:

• Amlodipine (Norvasc)
• Diltiazem (Cardizem)
• Nifedipine (Procardia)

Blood Thinners (Anticoagulants and Antiplatelets)

Asian ginseng may increase the risk of bleeding, especially if you already take blood
thinners, such as aspirin, warfarin (Coumadin), or clopidogrel (Plavix).

Caffeine
Ginseng may make the effect of caffeine stronger, possibly causing nervousness,
sweating, insomnia, or irregular heartbeat.

201
202 The Healing Power of Ginseng

Diabetes Medications, Including Insulin

Ginseng may lower blood sugar levels, increasing the risk of hypoglycemia or low
blood sugar.

Drugs That Suppress the Immune System

Asian ginseng may boost the immune system and may interact with drugs taken to
treat an autoimmune disease or drugs taken after organ transplant.

Stimulants
Ginseng may increase the stimulant effect and side effects of some medications taken
for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), including amphetamine and
dextroamphetamine (Adderall) and methylphenidate (Concerta, Ritalin).

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors

Ginseng may increase the risk of mania when taken with monoamine oxidase
inhibitors (MAOIs), a kind of antidepressant. There have been reports of interaction
between ginseng and phenelzine (Nardil) causing headaches, tremors, and mania.
MAOIs include the following:

• Isocarboxazid (Marplan)
• Phenelzine (Nardil)
• Tranylcypromine (Parnate)

Morphine
Asian ginseng may block the painkilling effects of morphine.

Furosemide (Lasix)
Some researchers think Asian ginseng may interfere with Lasix, a diuretic (water pill)
that helps the body get rid of excess fluid.

Other Medications
Asian ginseng may interact with medications that are broken down by the liver. To
be safe, if you take any medications, ask your doctor before taking Asian ginseng.

Veratrum Nigrum
The herb cannot be used simultaneously with ginseng.1–3
Possible Interaction of Ginseng with Drugs 203

REFERENCES
1. Adam, L. L. and Gatchel, F. J. “Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Application
and Implication for Cognitive Functioning in Elderly Population,” Alt. Ther., 7(2): 52–
69, 2000.
2. Ang-Lee, M. K., Moss, J., and Yuan, C. S., “Herbal Medicine and Perioperative Care,”
JAMA, 2: 208–216, 2001.
3. http://www.umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/herb/asian-ginseng
Glossary
Acupuncture:  The ancient practice, especially as carried on by the Chinese, of piercing
parts of the body with needles in seeking to treat disease or relieve pain.
Adaptogen:  A substance causing a state of nonspecific increased resistance (SNIR)
of the organism to adverse stresses of various origins.
Adenoma:  A benign tumor of glandular origin.
Adrenalectomy:  Surgical removal of an adrenal gland.
Aglycone:  The nonsugar portion of a glycoside.
Alkaloids:  Nitrogenous crystalline or oily compounds, usually basic in character,
such as atropine, morphine, quinine, etc.
Alternative (as a drug):  Gradually changing, or tending to change, a morbid state
of the functions to a healthy person.
Amnion cells:  Cells composing the thin, translucent wall of the fluid-filled sac for
the protection of the embryo.
Analog:  Part having the same function as another but differing in structure and origin.
Androgen: A male sex hormone or synthetic substance that can give rise to
masculine characteristics.
Anemia:  A condition in which there is a reduction of the number of red blood
corpuscles or of the total amount of hemoglobin in the bloodstream or both,
resulting in paleness, generalized weakness, etc.
Antagonism:  A mutually opposing action that can take place between organisms,
muscles, drugs, etc.
Antagonistic:  Showing antagonism; acting in opposition.
Anxiety:  A state of being uneasy, apprehensive, or worried about what may happen;
in psychiatry, an intense state of this kind, characterized by varying degrees
of emotional disturbance and psychic tension.
Aphrodisiac:  Any drug or other agent arousing or increasing sexual desire.
Apoplexy:  Sudden paralysis with total or partial loss of consciousness and sensation,
caused by the breaking or obstruction of a blood vessel in the brain; stroke.
Arthritis:  Painful inflammation of a joint or joints of the body, usually producing
heat and redness. The condition can be brought about by nerve impairment,
increased or decreased function of the endocrine glands, or degeneration
due to age.
Ataractic:  A tranquilizing drug; of or having to do with tranquilizing drugs or their
effects.
Atherosclerosis:  A thickening and loss of the elasticity in the inner walls of the
arteries and accompanied by the deposition of atheromas or fatty nodules.
Biological assay:  A means of estimating the strength or potency of a drug by using
some living organism or animal. The strength of the unknown sample is
compared with a known or standard drug.
Callus:  A mass of undifferentiated cells that develops over cuts or wounds on plants
as at the ends of stem or leaf cuttings.

205
206 Glossary

Cancer:  Common term for a neoplasm, or a tumor, that is malignant. A large portion
of human cancers may be caused by various chemicals, such as nitrites,
some steroids, asbestos, smoking, radiation, viruses, etc.
Carcinogen:  Any agent or substance that produces or causes cancer.
Carcinoma:  Any of several kinds of cancerous growths made up of epithelial cells.
Cardiovascular:  Referring to the heart and the blood vessels as a unified body
system.
Carminative:  Having the power to relieve flatulence and colic.
Castration:  The removal of the testicles; gelding.
Cerebrovascular:  Referring to the brain and the blood vessels as a unified body
system.
Chemotherapy: The prevention or treatment of infection by the systemic
administration of chemical drugs.
Cholesterol:  A sterol, or fatty alcohol, found especially in animal fats, blood, nerve
tissue, and bile and thought to be a factor in atherosclerosis.
Choline:  A viscous liquid ptomaine, found in many animal and vegetable tissues: a
vitamin of the B complex.
Chromatography:  A method of analysis in which the flow of the solvent or gas
promotes the separation of substances by differential migration from a
narrow initial zone in a porous sorptive medium. Four types generally
employed are column, paper, thin-layer, and gas.
Component:  An element or ingredient; any of the main constituent parts.
Constituent:  An essential part, component. The chemical entities contained in a
crude drug.
Consumption:  A disease that causes the body or part of the body to waste away;
especially tuberculosis of the lungs.
Convulsion:  A violent, involuntary contraction or spasm of the muscles.
Crude drugs:  Naturally occurring materials of animal, plant, and mineral origin
that have not been chemically processed or purified.
Debilitating disease:  Any disease that causes a weakening of a patient.
Debility:  Weakness, feebleness, languor of body.
Degeneration:  Deterioration of mentality; deterioration in structure or function of
cells, tissues, or organs, as in disease or aging.
Demulcent: Medicine or ointment that soothes irritated or inflamed mucous
membrane.
Depressant:  A drug or medicine that lowers the rate of muscular, nervous activity.
Depression: An emotional state of dejection usually associated with manic-
depressive psychosis.
Depressor:  A nerve, stimulation of which by an agent, lowers arterial blood pressure
by reflex vasodilation and by slowing the heart.
Diabetes:  An inheritable, constitutional disease of unknown cause, characterized by
the failure of the body tissues to oxidize carbohydrate at a normal rate. Its
most important factor is a deficiency of insulin.
Diastase:  An enzyme from malt that converts starch to maltose by hydrolysis.
Dispensatory:  A book containing a systematic discussion of medicinal agents,
including origin, preparation, description, uses, and modes of action.
Glossary 207

DNA (desoxyribonucleic acid):  A type of nucleic acid, found in animal and plant
cells, occurring in the nuclei; it contains phosphoric acid, D-2-desoxyribose,
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The substance from normal cells
appears to differ from that of cancer cells.
Dosage form:  The physical state in which a drug or drugs is dispensed, such as
tablets, capsules, or injectables, suitable for drug delivery to the patient.
Dose:  The amount of drug needed at a given time to produce a particular or clinically
desired activity or effect.
Dyspepsia:  Disturbed digestion, indigestion, impaired digestion.
Edema:  Excessive accumulation of fluid in the tissue spaces; due to disturbance in
the mechanisms of fluid exchange.
EEG (electroencephalogram):  A tracing showing the changes in electric potential
produced by the brain.
Eleutheroside:  A biologically active saponin glycoside, isolated from the root of
Siberian ginseng, having varied but similar, activities of ginseng glycosides.
Endocrine glands:  Any of the ductless glands, such as the adrenals, the thyroid, the
pituitary, whose secretions pass directly into the bloodstream.
Enzyme:  A catalyst of protein nature, which accelerates biological reactions but
remains apparently unchanged itself, when the reaction is completed.
Erythrocyte:  A red blood corpuscle; it is a very small, circular disk with both faces
concave, and contains hemoglobin, which carries oxygen to the body tissues.
Estrogen:  Any of a group of female hormones. The estrogens cause the thickening
of the lining of the uterus and vagina in the early phase of menstruation;
responsible for female secondary sex characteristics. Estradiol, estrone, and
estriol account for most of the estrogenic activity.
Excipient:  An inert substance or substances used to give a pharmaceutical dosage
form suitable for delivery.
Expectorant:  A remedy that promotes or modifies the amount of fluid or semifluid
matter from the lungs and air passages expelled by coughing and spitting.
Fatigue:  Inability to perform reasonable and necessary physical and/or mental
activity. Fatigue may be associated with systemic disorders such as anemia,
deficiency of nutrition, oxygen, addiction to drugs, endocrine gland disorders,
or kidney disorders in which there is a large accumulation of waste products,
or psychic disorders, etc. Excess fatigue causes exhaustion.
Flavonoid:  Any of the flavone derivatives, including citrin, hesperetin, hesperidin,
rutin, quercetin, and quercitrin, which may reduce capillary fragility in
certain cases.
Gastroenteritis:  Inflammation of stomach and intestines.
Genin:  The aglycone or nonsugar portion of glycosides in plants.
Ginsengenin:  The genin or aglycone of Panax ginseng extracted by alcohol.
Ginsenoside:  Japanese term referring to a number of ginseng saponin glycosides
isolated from the methanol extract of Panax ginseng root.
Glycoside:  Substance that on hydrolysis yields one or more sugars and genin, or
aglycone. The sugar portion is called glycone. The most important glycosides-
containing plants are digitalis, rhubarb, aloe, glycyrrhiza, ginseng, etc.
Glycosuria:  The presence of sugar in the urine.
208 Glossary

Gonadotropic:  A substance (hormone) that is gonad-stimulating.

Hematinic:  A blood tonic that increases the formation of hemoglobin and red blood
cells.
Hemodynamics:  The study of how the physical properties of the blood and its
circulation through the vessels affect blood flow and pressure.
Hemoglobin:  The red coloring matter of the red blood corpuscles, a protein yielding
heme and globin on hydrolysis; it carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues
and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
Hemolytic: Referring to the destruction of red blood cells and the escape of
hemoglobin.
Herbal:  Referring to a plant used for medicinal purposes or for its odor or flavor.
Histamine:  An amine produced by the decarboxylation of histidine and found in all
organic matter; it is released by the tissues in allergic reaction, lowers the
blood pressure by dilating blood vessels, stimulates gastric secretion, etc.
Histaminic: Causing the stimulation of the visceral muscles, dilation of the
capillaries, stimulation of the salivary, pancreatic, and gastric secretions.
Homeostasis:  The maintenance of steady states in the organism by coordinated
physiologic processes. Thus all organ systems are integrated by automatic
adjustments to keep within narrow limits disturbances excited by the
changes in the organism or in the surroundings of the organism.
Hormone:  Active principles secreted by endocrine glands: epinephrine, thyroxin,
insulin, estradiol, testosterone, etc.
Hyperglycemia:  Excess of sugar in the blood.
Hyperglycemic:  Referring to the condition, hyperglycemia.
Hypertension:  Excessive tension, usually synonymous with high blood pressure.
Hypertensive:  Referring to hypertension.
Hypnotic:  A remedy that causes sleep; inducing sleep.
Hypoglycemia:  The condition produced by a low level of sugar in the blood.
Hypoglycemic:  Referring to the condition hypoglycemia.
Hypotension:  Diminished or abnormally low tension, usually synonymous with low
blood pressure.
Hypotensive:  Referring to hypotension.
Impotence:  Inability of the male to perform sexual intercourse. Impotence may
result from physical causes such as structural abnormalities of the genital
organs; decreased activity of the thyroid, pituitary, or sex glands; anemia or
other debilitating diseases; alcoholism; or may be psychological in origin.
Inflammation:  The reaction of the tissues to injury. The essential process, regardless
of the causative agent, is characterized clinically by local heat, swelling,
redness, and pain.
Insomnia:  Sleeplessness; disturbed sleep; a prolonged condition of inability to sleep.
Intraperitoneal:  Within the peritoneum or peritoneal cavity.
In vitro:  In glass; referring to a process or reaction carried out in a culture dish, test
tube, etc.
In vivo:  In the living organism: used in contrast to in vitro.
Ketoacidosis:  Acidosis accompanied by an increase in the blood of such ketones as
β-hydroxybutyric, and acetoacetic acids.
Glossary 209

LD50 (lethal dose 50):  The dosage by which 50% of the experimental animals die.
Leukemia:  Any disease of the blood-forming organs, resulting in an abnormal
increase in the production of leukocytes often accompanied by anemia and
enlargement of the lymph nodes, spleen, and liver.
Leukocyte:  One of the colorless, more or less ameboid cells of the blood, having a
nucleus and cytoplasm.
Leukocytosis:  Increase in the leukocyte count above the upper limits of normal.
Leukopenia:  A decrease below the normal number of leukocytes in the peripheral
blood.
Longevity:  The length or duration of the life; used to indicate an unusually long life.
Malaise:  A general feeling of illness, lack of appetite, and decreased energy.
Mast cells:  A cell containing large, easily dye-stained granules found in connective
and other body tissues.
Materia Medica:  The division of pharmacology that treats the sources, descriptive,
and preparations of substances used in medicine.
Metabolism:  Sum of all biochemical processes involved in life, two subcategories
of metabolism are anabolism, the building up of complex organic molecules
from simpler precursors, and catabolism, the breakdown of complex
substances into simpler molecules, often accompanied by the release of
energy; metabolic reactions are usually catalyzed by enzymes.
Muscarinic:  Stimulation of the parasympathetic nerves and slowing of the heartbeat;
increasing the secretions of the salivary.
Nephritis:  Inflammation of the kidney.
Neurasthenia:  A group of symptoms ascribed to debility or exhaustion of the
nerve centers; fatigability, lack of energy, various aches and pains, and
disinclination to activity.
Neurogenic:  Of nervous origin; stimulated by the nervous system.
Neurosis:  A disorder of the psyche of psychic functions.
Normalization:  Reduction to normal or standard state.
Oncology:  The study or science of neoplastic growth (cancer).
Organism: Any living entity having differentiated members with specialized
functions that are interdependent and that is so constituted as to form a
unified whole capable of carrying on life processes.
Panaquilin:  Group of nine ginseng saponin glycosides successfully isolated and
identified from American ginseng root.
Panaxadiol:  A substance (genin) yielded from panaxosides after acid hydrolysis.
Panaxatriol:  A substance (genin) yielded from panaxosides after acid hydrolysis.
Panaxoside: Soviet term referring to a number of ginseng saponin glycosides
isolated from the methanol extracts of Panax ginseng roots.
Papavarine-like:  Having a local anesthetic or muscle-relaxing effect.
Paralysis:  Partial or complete loss or temporary interruption of a function, especially
of voluntary motion or of sensation in some parts or all of the body.
Pen-ts’ao:  The compendium dealing with crude drugs. The first Pen-ts’ao is called
Shen-nung Pen-ts’ao ching, formally published in the second century. The
most complete Pen-ts’ao is Pen-ts’ao Kang-mu, published by Li Shih-chen
in 1596.
210 Glossary

pH:  A chemical symbol used to express acidity and alkalinity in terms of the
hydrogen ion concentration. The pH values may range from 0 to 14; numbers
less than 7 indicating acidic, and numbers greater than 7 indicating basic.
Pharmacognosy:  The science dealing with the preparation, uses, and properties
of crude drugs. In a broad sense, pharmacognosy embraces the knowledge
of the history, distribution, cultivation, collection, selection, preparation,
commerce, identification, evaluation, preservation, and use of drugs and
other agents affecting the health of man and animals.
Phospholipid:  A type of lipid compound that is an ester of phosphoric acid and
contains, in addition, one or two molecules of fatty acid, an alcohol, and a
nitrogenous base, such as lecithin, cephalin, and sphingomyelin.
Phytosterol:  Any of several steroid alcohols found in plants.
Placebo:  A biologically inert substance, such as lactose, that is used as a sham drug.
The placebo has no inherent pharmacological activity but may produce a
biologic response.
Polyuria:  Excessive urination, as in some diseases.
Pressor:  Designating a nerve that, when stimulated, causes a rise in blood pressure;
a substance capable of raising blood pressure.
Psychasthenia:  A group of neuroses characterized by phobias, obsessions, undue
anxiety, etc.
Psychopharmacology:  The study of the actions of drugs on the mind.
Pulse:  Alternate expansion and contraction of artery walls as heart action varies
blood volume within the arteries. Usually, the pulse rate is determined by
counting the pulsations per minute in the radial artery at the wrist. Various
diseases may be indicated by changes in the rate, rhythm, and force of the
pulse.
Pulsology:  The study and science of pulse.
Pyretic:  Of, causing, or characterized by fever.
Rejuvenation:  A renewal of youth; a renewal of strength and vigor; specifically, a
restoration of sexual vigor.
Rf value:  The ratio of the distance traveled on the plate or paper by the test substances
to the distance traveled by the solvent front of the mobile phase, from the
point of application of the test substance.
Rheumatism: Any of various painful conditions of the joints and muscles,
characterized by inflammation, stiffness, etc., and including rheumatoid
arthritis, bursitis, neuritis, etc.
Rheumatoid arthritis:  A chronic disease whose cause is unknown, characterized
by inflammation, pain, and swelling of the joints accompanied by spasms in
adjacent muscles and often leading to deformity in the joints.
RNA (ribonucleic acid):  Nucleic acid occurring in cell cytoplasm and the nucleolus,
first isolated from plants, but later found also in animal cells, containing
phosphoric acid, D-ribose, adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil.
Sapogenin:  The nonsugar portion of ginseng saponin glycosides.
Saponin:  Characterized by forming colloidal solutions in water that foam upon
shaking, have a bitter, acrid taste, and are irritating to the mucous membrane;
hemolytic to blood cells.
Glossary 211

Sedative:  Quieting function or activity.

Shock: Clinical manifestations of defective venous return to the heart with
consequent reduction in cardiac output. It may be caused by inadequate
pumping by the heart, by reduction of the blood volume due to dehydration,
or to loss of blood or plasma, or by reduced blood pressure resulting from
dilation of the blood vessels.
Side effect:  Drug-induced symptom that may be undesirable.
Stigmasterol:  A sterol derived from the soybean.
Stimulant:  An agent that causes increased functional activity.
Stomachic:  One class of substances that may stimulate the secretory activity of the
stomach.
Stress:  Any stimulus or succession of stimuli of such magnitude as to tend to disrupt
the homeostasis of the organism.
Synergism:  When the response or action of one drug is enhanced by the other,
synergism occurs. The term potentiation has been used for synergism.
Synergistic:  Referring to synergism.
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC): Characterized by the application of dry,
finely powdered absorbent in a thin, uniform layer to a glass plate. This
plate is comparable to an open chromatographic column, and the separation
of the components in the test material is based on absorption, partition,
depending on the absorbents and the solvent used. Identification of an
unknown component is made by comparing its Rf value with that of the
known (standard) material.
Tonic:  An agent or drug given to improve the normal tone of an organ, or of the
patient generally.
Tonic effect:  Mentally or morally invigorating; stimulating.
Trypanosoma: Slender, elongate organisms with a central nucleus, posterior
blepharoplast, and an undulatory membrane, from which a free flagellum
projects forward.
Vitality:  Mental or physical vigor; energy.
Volatile oils: Essential oils that represent the odoriferous principles of plants:
peppermint oil, clove oil, rose oil, etc.
Index
A American ginseng dollar value
ginseng dealers, 72–75
Accupril, see Quinapril wild American ginseng, 71–72
ACE inhibitors, see Angiotensin-converting American ginseng farm
enzyme inhibitors climate, 88
Aceon, see Perindopril cultivated ginseng history in Marathon
Acidic malonyl compounds, 131 county, Wisconsin, 87–88
ACTH, see Adrenocorticotropic hormone cultural practices, 89–93
Acupoints, 14 economics of production and markets, 93
Acupuncture, 3, 7–8, 14 environment requirements, 88
analgesia, 4 growth habits, 88
Adaptogen, 104, 132, 147, 193 seed preparation and germination, 89
Adaptogenic activity, 139 soil, 88
Adaptogenic power of ginseng, 139–140 yield potential and performance results, 93
Adenophora remotifolia (Chi-ni), 22 Amino acids, 116
Adenophora tracheloides (Ti-ni), 22 Amlodipine, 201
Adenophora verticillata (Sha-shen), 22, 30 Amphetamine, 202
ADHD, see Attention deficit hyperactivity Analgesic effect, 8
disorder Anemia, 176
Adolescent, 186 Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors
Adrenalectomy, 144 (ACE inhibitors), 201
Adrenal, 147 Animal source, 3
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 143 Antiaging herbs, 191–193
Adulteration, 22 Antibiotics, 13, 150
Adulthood, 186 Anticoagulants, 201
Age-old unpopular panacea, 97–98 Antidiabetic effect of ginseng, 171–176
Aging, 160, 184–186 Antifatigue effect, 44
American ginseng, 193–194 of ginseng, 153–160
dream of eternal youth and longevity, Antimalarial herbal drug, 15
183–184 Antiplatelets, 201
environment, 187 Antistress effect of ginseng, 142–146
health, 188 Aphrodisiac
healthy and successful, 187 activity, 162–165
heredity, 187 remedies, 163
lifestyle, 188 Araliaceae, 17–18
longevity and centenarians’ mysterious long Arsenic (As), 117
life secrets, 190–191 Artemesia apiacea, 15
longevity story, 183 Artemisia, 15
longevity techniques in orient, 189–190 Arthritis, 8
normal human growth and aging life cycle, Asian ginseng, see Panax ginseng
186–187 Aspirin, 108, 201
nutrition, 188 Atherosclerosis, 170–171
Aglucone, 109, 154 Athletes, 150
Agricultural society, 5 Atropine, 10
Alloxan, 146 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
α-panaxin, 109 (ADHD), 202
Altace, see Ramipril
American ginseng, see Panax quinquefolius B
American ginseng business
in Chinese markets, 57–60 Baopuzi (Book of the Master Who Embraces
hunting story, 60–62 Simplicity) (Hong, Ge), 190

213
214 Index

Bei Ji Qian Jin Yao Fang (Simiao, Sun), 191 Childhood, 186
Benazepril, 201 China
Ben Cao Gang Mu (Compendium of Materia longevity techniques in Early China, 189
Medica) (Zhen, Li Shi), 191 Xinhua News Agency, 8
Bendazol, see 2-Benzylbenzimidazol China, ginseng in
Beng-ma ts’ao, see Tan-Shen classical ginseng preparations and secret
2-Benzylbenzimidazol, 139 prescriptions, 26–29
β-Sitosterol, 113 manroot, 22–24
Blistering fly, see Spanish fly miraculous roots as ginseng substitutes,
Blood, 189 29–32
Blood pressure Panax ginseng, 17–22
medications, 201 virtues of ginseng in Chinese medicine,
medications from ginseng, 201 24–26
regulation, 168–170 Chinese Herbal Materia Medica (CHMM), 122
Blood-root, see Shueh-shen Chinese herbal remedies, 9–10
Body’s cholesterol, 170–171 Chinese medicine, 3; see also Traditional
Breast cancer, 160 Chinese medicine (TCM)
Breathing (Qigong) therapy, 14 features and techniques, 7–9
ginseng virtues in, 24–26
C herbs, 192
Chinese Pharmacopoeia, 53
Caffeine, 166, 201 Chinese pulsology, 7
Calcium channel blockers, 201 Chinese style of healing
CAM, see Complementary and alternative Chinese herbal remedies, 9–10
medicine early medical philosophy, 5–7
Campanulaceous plants, 22 features and techniques of traditional Chinese
Canada, ginseng business in, 70 medicine, 7–9
Canon of Medicine, The, 4–5 Mao’s modern Chinese medicine, 11–13
Cantharides, see Spanish fly Pen-ts’ao, 10–11
Capoten, see Captopril people to accept alternative medicine
Captopril, 201 worldwide, 13–14
Carbohydrates, 114 TCM, 3–5
Cardiazol, 166 theory of TCM, 14–15
Cardiovascular system, Ginseng acting on, Chinese tonic
168–170 medicinal herbs, 194
Cardizem, see Diltiazem remedies, 192
Carmustine (BCNU), 160 Ching-lo, 7
Centenarians’ mysterious long life secrets, CHMM, see Chinese Herbal Materia Medica
190–191 Choline, 116
Centenarian years, 187 Choline chloride, 116
Central nervous system (CNS), 165–166 Chou-mian-huan-tan, 23
stimulants, 166 Chu-ma, see Tan-Shen
“Ch’ang-pai Shan”, 19 Chung-I, 3
Chemical Abstract, 98 Ci su ju in Chinese medicine, 50–51
Chemical constituents CITES, see Convention on International Trade in
of Asian ginseng, 107–108 Endangered Species
E. senticosus, 121–123 Classical ginseng preparations and secret
P. japonicus, 121 prescriptions, 26; see also Ginseng
P. quinquefolius, 118–119 Chen-Jen Pao-Ming Tan, 29
Chen-Jen Pao-Ming Tan, 29 Chih-Chung T’ang, 28
Chi-ni., see Adenophora remotifolia Sen-shen Kwie-pi Wan, 29
Chia tree, 20 Sze-Shuen T’ang, 28
Chieh-keng., see Platycodon grandiflorum Szu-Chun-tze T’ang, 27
Chikusetsu nin-jin, ginseng in, 47–48 Tsao-shen Wan, 29
Chikusetsu saponins III, IV, and V, 121 Climate for American Ginseng cultivation, 88
Chikusetzu ninjim, see Panax japonicus Clopidogrel, 201
(Japanese ginseng) CNS, see Central nervous system
Index 215

Cobalt (Co), 117 Dian Nan Ben Cao (Mao, Lan), 191
Coenzyme Q10, 183 Diastase, 117
Complementary and alternative medicine Diet therapy, 4, 14
(CAM), 14 Digitalis, 10
Complex-remedy therapy, 26 Diltiazem, 201
Condonopsis tangshen, 32 Diseases and control in ginseng, 90–91
Constituents, 107 Divine herb, see Shen-ts’ao
Convention on International Trade in Endangered DNA, see Deoxyribonucleic acid
Species (CITES), 70 Dried ginseng root, see Ta-li shen
Copper (Cu), 117 Dried white ginseng, see Pai-kan shen
Corporeal soul, 138 Drugs suppressing immune system, 202
Corticosteroids, 148 Dwarf ginseng, see Panax trifolium
Cosmetics and animal health products, 44
“Coughing”, 4 E
Coumadin, see Warfarin
Coumarins, 122 Early medical philosophy, 5
Counterirritation, 9 doctrine of five elements, 6–7
Crude extracts, 109 Tao, 5
Crude polysaccharide, 114 Yin and Yang therapy, 5–6
Cultivated ginseng in Marathon county, Economics of ginseng production and markets, 93
Wisconsin, 87–88 ED, see Erectile dysfunction
Cultivation Elderly period, 187
of ginseng, 79 Eleuthero, 49
of Korean ginseng, 40–41 Eleutherococcus, 49
“Cultivation of American Ginseng, The” Eleutherococcus senticosus (Siberian ginseng),
(Valter), 84 49–50, 103, 107–108, 149–150
Cultural practices for American ginseng constituents, 121–123
cultivation, 89 medical benefits, 147–148
diseases and control, 90–91 phytochemicals and constituents, 122–123
drying and storage, 93 Eleutherosides, 122
fertility and lime requirements, 90 A, B, C, D, E, and F, 121–123
harvesting, 91, 93 Enalapril, 201
insects and other predators and control, 91 Endangered Species Act (2007), 70
method and rate of seeding, 89–90 Endocrine systems, 17
pesticides labeled for nationwide use on Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 91
cultivated ginseng, 92 Enzymes, 117
seedbed preparation, 89 EPA, see Environmental Protection Agency
seeding date, 89 Ephedrine, 10
variety selection, 90 Erectile dysfunction (ED), 165
weed control, 90 Escherichia coli, 150
Cupping, 9 Essence spirit, 137
Essential amino acids, 116
D Eternal youth, 183–184
Ethereal soul, 138
Dammarane-type ginsenosides, 123 Evil qi elimination, 138
Dammarane saponins, 128 External medication, 8–9
Date ginseng pills, see Tsao-shen Wan
Daucosterin, 121 F
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 177
effect on, 177–178 Farmers’ Bulletin, 81, 83–84
Depressor effect, 169 Fatigue, 153
Dextroamphetamine, 202 FDA, see U.S. Food and Drug Administration
DHHS, see U.S. Department of Health and Fertilizers, 90
Human Services Five fingers, see American ginseng
Diabetes Fleshy cinnamon, see Jou-Kuei
ginseng for, 171–176 Fluorometholone, 160
medications, 202 Fluorouracil, 160
216 Index

Forest ginseng plants, 34 preparation of ginseng root, 21

Fosinopril, 201 preventing cancer, 160–162
Fresh ginseng roots, 48 safe tonic and antifatigue effect, 153–160
Fright palpitations, 138 secret principles, 119–120
Fugi jingyi lun (Discourse on the Essential seedlings, 82
Meaning of Absorption of Qi) skin, 179
(Chengzhen, Sima), 189 speeding up germination and growth, 84–85
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act, 91 stress and antistress activity, 140–146
Furosemide, 202 swimming performance, 155–157
symposium, 100–101
G tails, see Shen-shu
tea, 44
Genuine ancient Chinese ginseng, see Tang-shen tincture, see Ren-shen chiu
Germination-promoting agents, 85 tonic effect, 42–43
Ghost umbrella, see Kuei-kai tonic effect of ginseng, 153–160
Gibberella fujikoroi, 84 virtues in Chinese medicine, 24–26
Gibberellic acid, 84 for weight loss, 178–179
Ginseng, 13, 20, 68; see also Classical ginseng in wine, see In-sam-Ju
preparations and secret prescriptions for women’s health, 179
acting on cardiovascular system, 168–170 Ginseng business
adaptogenic power, 139–140 in Canada, 70
age-old unpopular panacea, 97–98 in Japan, 68–69
antidiabetic effect, 171–176 “Ginseng Culture” (Stockberger), 84
aphrodisiac action, 163–165 Ginseng interaction with drugs
blood pressure regulation, 168–170 ACE inhibitors, 201
capsules, 44 blood thinners, 201
caring, 197–199 caffeine, 201
characteristics of ginseng plant, 20–21 calcium channel blockers, 201
in China, 79 diabetes medications, 202
cinnamon pills, see Sen-shen Kwie-pi Wan drugs suppress immune system, 202
CNS, 165–166 morphine, 202
controls body’s cholesterol and other medications, 202
atherosclerosis, 170–171 stimulants, 202
cultivation in orient, 80–81 Ginseng root (Pananx ginseng), 37, 97, 128, 192
current regulation of ginseng products, 69 amino acids and peptides, 116
dealers, 72–75 components, 113–117
decoction, see Jen-shen t’ang enzymes, 117
extract, see Jen-shen Kao ginseng oil and phytosterol, 113
fatigue, 153 minerals and trace elements, 117
gap of scientific information, 98 nonprotein nitrogenous substances, 116
growing own plant, 79–80 organic acids, 116
growth in United States, 81–84 sugars and carbohydrates, 114
for hair growth, 179 vitamins, 117
hematinic effect, 176–178 Ginseng saponins, 110–115, 166
impotence and aphrodisiac activity, 162–165 in leaves and stems, 117–118
improvement or cure for indigestion, 178 medicinal effects, 131–132
improving mental efficiency and working Ginseng substitutes, miraculous roots as, 29
capacity, 167–168 Hsuan-shen, 30–31
information and scientific research, 97 K’u-Shen, 31
law, 41 Sha-Shen, 30
modern scientific research and publications, Tai-Tzu-Shen, 31
99–101 Tan-Shen, 31
normalizing effect, 146–147 Tang-shen, 32
oil, 113 Tzu-Shen, 31
pills, see Ren-shen Wan Ginsenin, 168
polysaccharides, 161 Ginsenocides, 104, 111, 127, 161, 168, 198
powder, see Ren-shen San composition, 113
Index 217

content comparison, 130–131 Hsu ginseng farms, 91

distribution in Panax ginseng, 129 Hung-shen (Yellow root), 23
ginsenoside F, 118 Hung shen (Red ginseng), 21, 23, 66–68, 131
ginsenoside R, 117 root, see Hong-sam
physical properties, 112 Hwang-sam (Yellow ginseng root), 43
Rb1, 104, 113 Hydrochloric acid (HCI), 111
Rb, Rc, and Rd, 112 Hypertension, 168
Rc, 127 Hypertrophy effect, 144
Rg1, 111, 113, 115, 127 Hypoglycemics, 172
Ro, 112–113, 116, 127 effect of ginseng, 175
similarities, 119
structural diversity, 120–121 I
Goat milk, see Yang-ru
Good Earth, The (Buck), 188 ICs, see Institutes and centers
“Green gold”, 57, 60 “Immortal” herb, 23
“Growing Ginseng” (Williams), 84 Immune system, 149–150
Growing ginseng, 80 Immunizing agents, 8
in United States, 81–84 Imperial ginseng, 47–48
Impotence, 162–165
H In-sam-Ju, 44
Index Medicus, 98
Haemophilus influenzae, 150 Indigestion, improvement or cure for, 178
Hair growth, ginseng for, 179 Indole-3-acetic acid, 85
Hai-yao Pen-ts’ao, 26 Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy), 109
Hai-yu, 23 Institutes and centers (ICs), 14
Harmless manroot, 140 Insulin, 172, 202
Harvesting, 91, 93 In vitro studies, 161
Hastening germination method, 84 In vivo studies, 161
HCI, see Hydrochloric acid Iron deficiency, 176
HDL, see High-density lipoprotein IR spectroscopy, see Infrared spectroscopy
Health, 188 Ishinpo (Essential Medicine Methods)
Health-care provision, 14–15 (Yasuyori, Tambe no), 190
Heart medications from ginseng, 201 Isocarboxazid, 202
Heavy alcohol drinking, 162
Hematinic effect of ginseng, 176–178 J
Hematoma, 9
Hemostatic proprietary herbal remedy, 51 Japan
Herbal drugs, 107 ginseng business in, 68–69
Herbal medicine, 4, 14, 17–22 ginseng in, 47–48
evolution, 9–10 longevity techniques in Early Japan, 189–190
Herbal remedies, 9, 13 Japanese ginseng, see Panax japonicus
Heredity, 187 Jen-hsien, 23
High-density lipoprotein (HDL), 171, 177 Jen-shen Kao, 26–27, 44
High-performance liquid chromatography– Jen-shen t’ang, 27
evaporative light scattering detector Jen-wei, 23
(HPLC-ELSD), 120 Jou-Kuei, 29
High-performance liquid chromatography–mass
spectrometry (HPLC-MS), 120 K
Homeostasis, 44
Honey ginseng, 44 Kinetin, 85
Hong-sam, 43 Korean ginseng, 39–43
HPLC-ELSD, see High-performance liquid business, 65–68
chromatography–evaporative light Korean red ginseng roots and products, 66
scattering detector Korean white ginseng roots, 67
HPLC-MS, see High-performance liquid modern Korean ginseng products, 43–44
chromatography–mass spectrometry remedial use of ginseng in Korea, 41–43
Hsuan-shen, 30–31 root, 117
218 Index

Kou-chi (Lycium Chinense), 29 Ming-I Pieh-lu, 25

K’u-kuo, see K’u-Shen Mitomycin, 160
Kú-shen, 30 Moaochasme savatieri, see Lu-jung
K’u-Shen, 31 Modern Chinese medicine (Mao), 11–13
K’u-shih, see K’u-Shen Modern Korean ginseng products, 43
Kuei-kai, 23 cosmetics and animal health products, 44
ginseng capsules, 44
L ginseng extract, 44
ginseng tea, 44
Lasix, see Furosemide honey ginseng, 44
LDL, see Low-density lipoprotein white ginseng root, 44
Levodopa, 163 Modern monopoly law, 41
Liao-tung shen, 19 Modern TCM, 197
Lifestyle, 188 Moexipril, 201
Lignans, 122 Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), 202
Lipid metabolism, ginsenosides effect on, 171 Monopril, see Fosinopril
Liquorice root, 107 Morphine, 10, 202
Lisinopril, 201 Moxibustion, 9, 14
Lomustine (CCNU), 160 Multisugar compounds, 114
Longevity, 183–184, 187–188
elderly period, 187 N
mysterious long life secrets, 190–191
techniques in orient, 189–190 Naphthal-epeacetic acid, 85
Lotensin, see Benazepril Nardil, see Phenelzine
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), 171 National Center for Complementary and
Lower-salt fertilizers, 90 Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), 13–14
Lu-jung (Moaochasme savatieri), 29 National Council on Aging (NCOA), 192
Lycium Chinense, see Kou-chi National Formulary (NF), 98
National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), 14
M National Institutes of Health (NIH), 13–14
Natural health food, 10
Macrophages, 149 Natural killer cells (NK cells), 149
Maltose, 114 NCCAM, see National Center for
Manchuria, 39 Complementary and Alternative
Manchurian ginseng, 19 Medicine
Man-essence, 17 NCOA, see National Council on Aging
Manganese (Mn), 117 Nei Ching, 6
Manroot, 17, 22–24, 71 Neuritis, 8
Man-shaped root, 17, 23 NF, see National Formulary
MAOIs, see Monoamine oxidase inhibitors NHIS, see National Health Interview Survey
Marijuana, 162–163 NIH, see National Institutes of Health
Market price of ginseng, 58–59 Nin-jin, 47
Marplan, see Isocarboxazid Ninjinshi (History of Ginseng) (Imamura), 164
Masculine subjects, 5 Nitrogen, 90
Massage, 4, 14 Nitrosourea, 160
Mass spectroscopy, 109 NK cells, see Natural killer cells
Materia Medica, 4, 9, 192 NMR spectroscopy, see Nuclear magnetic
Mavik, see Trandolapril resonance spectroscopy
Medical agents, 3 Nonessential amino acids, 116
Medicinal effects of ginseng saponins, 131–132 Nonprotein nitrogenous substances, 116
Mental efficiency, 167–168 Normal human growth and aging life cycle,
Meridians of bioenergy, 14 186–187
Methylphenidate, 202 Normalizing effect of ginseng, 146–147
Midlife, 186–187 North America, ginseng in, 33
Milwaukee Journal, The, 97 American ginseng, 33–37
Minerals, 117 American ginseng adventure, 37–38
source, 3 Norvasc, see Amlodipine
Index 219

“Nourishing life”, 189–190 Panax pseudoginseng, 108, 130–131

principles, 190 Panax quinquefolium, see Panax quinquefolius
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (American ginseng)
(NMR spectroscopy), 109 Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), 24, 33,
Nutrition, 188 33–37, 57, 62, 71, 81, 103, 107–108,
Nutrition Against Disease (Williams), 185 123, 128–131, 191–194, 197–199; see
also Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng)
O adventure, 37–38
American red ginseng, 121
OAM, see Office of Alternative Medicine chemical constituents, 118–119
Obesity, 172 general use, 104
Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM), 13–14 scientific research, 103–104
Oleanolic acid, 113, 127 Panax trifolium (Dwarf ginseng), 33, 108
Organic acids, 116 Panax vietnamensis, 123
Oriental medicine, 4, 49 Panaxynol, 113
Otane-ninjin, 47 Parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA), 163
Oteeragweh, 34 Paralysis, 8
Overmanuring, 90 Parnate, see Tranylcypromine
Pathological aging, 185
P PCPA, see Parachlorophenylalanine
Peak growth stage, 186
Pae-sam, 43–44 Pectin, 114
Pai-kan shen, 21 Pen-ts’ao, 9,–11
Panacene, 108–109, 113, 166 Pen-ts’ao Kang-mui, 26
Panacon, 108 Penicillin, 108
Pananx ginseng., see Ginseng root Peptides, 116
Panaquilins, 118 Perindopril, 201
A, B, C, D, E1, E2, E3, G1, G2, (c), and (d), 119 PHA, see Primary human amnion
similarities, 119 Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of
Panaquilins, 193 China, 169
Panaquilon, 108, 118 Phenelzine, 202
Panasenoside, 118 Phenylpropanoids, 122
Panax acids, 109 Physical stresses, 142
Panax acis, 166 Physiological aging, 185
Panaxadiol, 112, 127, 193 Phytophthora, 90
Panaxatriol, 110–112, 127, 154 Phytosterol, 113
Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng), 4, 17, 18, 47–49, Plain, dried ginseng, see Sheng-shai shen
68, 71, 79, 100, 103–104, 107–108, Platycodon grandiflorum (Chieh-keng), 22
123, 127–130, 164–165, 191–193, Plavix, see Clopidogrel
197–198, 201–202; see also Panax Polygonum bistorta, 31
quinquefolius (American ginseng) Polysaccharides, 122, 149
adulteration, 22 PPD, see Protopanaxadiol
characteristics of ginseng plant, 20–21 ppd, see 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol
chemical constituents, 107–108 PPT, see Protopanaxatriol
chemical research on, 108–110 ppt, see 20(S)-Protopanaxatriol
description of ginseng, 20 Pre-elderly period, 187
ginsenosides distribution in, 129 Primary human amnion (PHA), 193
preparation of ginseng root, 21 Prinivil, see Lisinopril
saponins, 128 Prosapogenin, 111
Panaxin, 109 Prostisol, 177
Panax japonicum, 108 Protein metabolism, effect on, 177–178
Panax japonicus (Japanese ginseng), 107 Protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides, 128
constituents, 121 Protopanaxadiol (PPD), 112, 120, 129–130
Panax notoginseng, 51–53, 107, 123–124 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (ppd), 123, 127
Panaxosides, 110, 154 Protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides, 128
panaxosides A, B, and C, 110–111, 113 Protopanaxatriol (PPT), 120, 129–130
similarities, 119 20(S)-Protopanaxatriol (ppt), 123, 127
220 Index

Pseudostellaria rhaphanorrhiza, 31 Sesquiterpenes, 127

Pyrazine derivatives, 127–128 Sexual failure, 162
Pythium, 90 Sha-shen, 30
Sha-shen, see Adenophora verticillata
Q Shen-nung Pen-ts’ao Ching, 23, 25
Shen-shu, 21
Qi (breath, or life energy), 189, 194 Shen-ts’ao, 22–23
Qian Jin Yi Fang (Revised Prescriptions Worth a Sheng-shai shen, 21
Thousand Ounces of Gold) (Simiao, Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, 192
Sun), 189, 191 Sheyang zhenzhong lun (Pillowbook of Methods
Quinapril, 201 for Nourishing Life) (Simiao, Sun), 189
Quinine, 10 Shigella paradysenteriae W., 146
Shueh-shen, 23
R Siberia, ginseng in, 48–51
Siberian ginseng, see Eleutherococcus senticosus
Radial artery, 7 Single-sugar compounds, 114
Radix notoginseng, 53 Sino-Japanese War, 59
Ramipril, 201 Skin, ginseng for, 179
Random-shaped root, 23 Snakeroot, see Rauwalfia cerpentina
Rauwalfia cerpentina (Snakeroot), 107 SNIR, see State of nonspecifically increased
Red berry, see American ginseng resistance
Red ginseng, see Hung shen Sodium benzoate, 166
Remedial use of ginseng in Korea, 41–43 Soil for American Ginseng cultivation, 88
Ren-shen, 17 Sophora angustifolia, 31
Ren-shen chiu, 29 Sour-date ginseng pills, see Chen-Jen Pao-Ming
Ren-shen san, 29 Tan
Ren-shen-san-ch’i, 53 Spanish fly, 163
Ren-shen Wan, 29 Spirit of the earth, see Tu-ching
Reserpine, 10 Staphylococcus aureus, 150
Respiratory tract infections, 50–51 State of nonspecifically increased resistance
Rhizoctonia, 90 (SNIR), 139, 193
Rhizome, 21 Steaming process, 121
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 177 Stigmasgterol, 113
effect on, 177–178 Stimulant, 197
RNA, see Ribonucleic acid action, 153
effect, 158
S Stimulant unit of action (SUA33), 154
Streptococcus pyogenes, 150
Safe tonic of ginseng, 153–160 Stress effect of ginseng, 140–141
Salicin, 108 examples, 141–142
Salvia miltiorrhiza, 31 stress-related diseases, 141
Sang, see Panax quinquefolius (American Strychnine nitrate, 166
ginseng) Sucrose, 114
San-sam (Wild mountain ginseng), 39 Sugars, 114, 122
Sapogenins, 109, 111, 120, 127 Sun-dried raw ginseng, 43
Sapongenin, 193 Surgical anesthesia, 3
Saponins, 110, 127 Su-sam, 43
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H, 123 Sweetened ginseng, see T’ang shen
glycosides, 110–111 Sze-Shuen T’ang, 28
from Panax Ginseng root, 128 Szu-Chun-tze T’ang, 27
Schinseng, 17–18
Scleral incision, 4 T
Scrophularia Oldhami, 30–31
Seed preparation and germination, 89 Ta-li shen, 21
Sen-shen Kwie-pi Wan, 29 Tah-Kwan Pen-ts’ao, 19
Senescense, 185 Tai-Tzu-Shen, 31
Senility, 131, 185 Tan-shen, 30–31
Index 221

Tang-shen, 19, 32, 39 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Tang dynasty, 190 (DHHS), 13–14
T’ang shen, 21 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 70
Tao, 5
Taoism, 5, 184 V
Taoist concept of transformation, 138
TCM, see Traditional Chinese medicine Vanadium (V), 117
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC), 109 Vasotec, see Enalapril
Thiopepa, 160 Veratrum Nigrum, 202
Ti-ni., see Adenophora tracheloides Vitamins, 117
Tian nian, 190 vitamin C, 143–144
TLC, see Thin-layer chromatography vitamin E, 158, 163
To-jin, 48
Tonic effect, 25 W
of ginseng, 153–160
Tonic herbs, 191, 193 Wall Street Journal, The, 97
Trace elements, 117 Warfarin, 201
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 3–5, 7, 14, Watery ginseng, see Su-sam
131–132, 137, 189, 193, 197 Weed control, 90
acupuncture, 7–8 Weight loss, ginseng for, 178–179
adaptogenic power of ginseng, 139–140 Western medicine, 3
antistress effect of ginseng, 142–146 Western missionary movement, 11–12
athletes and antibiotics, 150 White ginseng, 66, 131
body handles stress, 141 root, see Pae-sam
cupping and moxibustion, 9 Wild ginseng, 197
diagnosis, 7 wild American ginseng, 71–72
external medication, 8–9 Wild mountain ginseng, see San-sam
harmless manroot, 140 Women’s health, ginseng for, 179
immune system, 149–150 Working capacity, 167–168
normalizing effect of ginseng, 146–147 Wu-shen, 30
Siberian ginseng medical benefits, Wu Pu Ben Cao (Pu, Wu), 191
147–148
stress-related diseases, 141 Y
stress, 140–142
theory, 14–15, 192 Yakto, 80
Traditional herbal remedies, 9 Yang-ru, 30
Trandolapril, 201 Yeh-chih-ma, see Hsuan-shen
Transplanted ginseng cultivation, 58 Yellow ginseng root, see Hwang-sam
Tranylcypromine, 202 Yellow root, see Hung-shen
Triterpenoid saponins, 129–130 Yield potential, 93
Tsao-shen Wan, 29 Yin and Yang therapy, 5–6, 132
Tu-ching, 23 Yohimbine, 163
Tzu-Shen, 31 Youth, 186
Yunji gigian (Seven Slips from a Cloudy
U Satchel), 189

United States Dispensatory (USD), 98 Z

United States, growing ginseng in, 81–84
United States Pharmacopeia (USP), 98 Zestril, see Lisinopril
Univasc, see Moexipril Zhenshen, 49