Groups and Rings

1.1

UNIT 1.
Groups and Rings
1.1 Groups :
efinition - Properties
Definition: Group:
If G is a
non-empty set and o is
G.o) is called a
group, it t
a
binary operation on G, then
satisfies the
) Closure
following conditions
For all a, b E G, a ob E G.
(i) Associative For all a, b, c E G, ao
(boc) =
(a ob) oC.
(iü) ldentity There exists E G
e
with aoe = e oa =
for all a,
a E G.
(iv) Inverse For each a EG there is an element bEG
such that a ob = b oa =
e.
Note 1. (Z, +) (0, +), (R, +)
,
and (C, +) are
groups.
2. (N, +) and (Z, ) are not groups.
Definition Commutative (or) Abelian Group :
A group (G, o) is said to be an Abelian group
group if
a ob = b oa, V a, b E G .

Note: 1. (Z, +), (2, +), (R, +) and (C, +) are Abelian Groups
2. (Z,). (0, ), (R, -) and (C, ) not Abelian
are
Groups.
3. (Q,), (R',.) and (C",.) are Abelian Groups.
,R',C are non-zero elements of Q,R and C]
4.
4. If (R, +, .) is a ring, then (R, +) is an Abelian Group.

5.
S. If (F, +,) is a field, then (F, , ) is an Abelian Group.

6. AbelNorwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel

 Algebra and Number
Theory Groups and
1.2
on the group
operation will he eids cn
7. From hcre
nultiplicatively, unless it 1S given otherwise, so a b

becomes a b.
now

rational number
Z intcger, Q
8. Hence, thc
R»real number,
C >
complex number
Note: We

THEOREM 1. THEOREN
of G is unique. For cvery g
For every group G, the identity
Left-cancell
Proof Let e and e2 be two identity elements in G.
Proof Let

e12e2¬1= C1 l. e2 is the identityl .(1) Given:

We know th
e2C1 e1e2 = e2 . c1 is the identity] (2)

(1) & (2) C1 e2

Hence, the identity is unique.

THEOREM 2.|
For every group G, the inverse of each element of G is unique.

Proof: Let a EG
Suppose b and c be two inverses of a
Thus a
Then ab = ba = e .(1) [. b is the inverse of al which

ac= ca= e .. (2) [: c is the inverse of al THEOREN

For every
We know that, k be
[Right-cance
= b (ac)
by (2) Proof: Let
Given:
(ba) c by associativity]
Groups and Ringgs
1.3
=
ec
by (1)
= C

b = c

Hence, the
inverse is unique.

Note : We denote the inverse of a by a1

THEOREM 3.|
Ear every group , if a, b, c E G and ab = ac, then b =c

Left-cancellation property]
Proof: Let a, b, cE G
ab = ac
Given (1)
We know that, b = eb

= (aa)b
a a =e]
a(ab)
=a (ac)
by (1)
= (aa) c

ec

b = c

Thus ab =ac b =c
which is called the left-cancellation law.

THEOREM 4.
For
every group G, if a, b, cE G and ba =
ca, then b =
c
Right-caacellation law]
Proof Let a,
b, c E G
Given ba = Ca
(1)
 1.4
Algebra and Number Theory
b = be Groups
We know that,
= b (aa ') aa =e] Consid
= (ba) a

= (ca)a by (1)
c (aa)
= Ce

C
Similar
Tuus ba = ca > b =c
From
which is called the right-cancellation law.

Note
Problerss under Group and Abelian-group
Example 1.1.1||
If G is a group, prove that for all a, b EG then
Examp
) (a) =a (i) (ab) = b ial
Proof ) Givcn G is 2
gioup. Ver
(a)
Let a EG a" EG
Solution
aa = aa = e
C'a is inverse of a]
a is the inverse of a

a a
Proof (i) Given : G is a
group (i) Assoa
Let a, b EG
Sinc
Is m
Toprove: (ab) =
b-la1
(i) Exist
i.c., To prove (ab) (ba) =
(ba)ab) = e
The
Groupsand Rings 1.5
Consider
(ab) (6 *a)
=
a (bbl)a-l
a (e) a
= (ae) a

aa

= e
. (1)

(b -1a) (ab) e (2)

=

Similarly,

From (1)
& (2), we get (ab) (b *a ) =
(67'a) (ab) = e

(ab) = b'al
1. If it is a group, we need to determine its identity and
Note
the inverse of each of its element.

2 If it is not a group, we need to state the condition of

the definition that it violates.

Example 1.1.2|

Verify the set S =

-1, 1 is a group or not
(a) under muliplication; (b) under addition.
Solutio: Civen:S ={-1,1}
(a) (i Closure prcperty
-1.1 = -1¬S

1.(-1) = -1¬S

isclosed under-mulüplication.
() Associative properly
Sinc. there are only two elements in S, the associative proper y
1 maningless.

u) Exist.nce of
identity
The multiplicative identity 1ES. .ae =
ea =
a
1.e., e = 1
 1.6 Algebra and Number The
(iv) Existence of inverse

(-1).(-1) =
(-1).(-1) =
1

(1).(1)=(1).(1)= 1

The inverse of -1 is -1

The inverse of 1 is 1
has its inversc.
which shows that cach clement
own

group under multiplication.

Hence, S is a

(b) ) Closure property

-1+1 = 0ES

addition.
S is not closed under

S is not a group under addition.

Example 1.1.3
or not under addition.
={-1,0,1} is a group
Verily the set S
Solution : Given :S =
{-1, 0, 1}
(i) Closure property:
-1ES
-1 +0 =

0+1 1ES

1+(-1) = 0ES

S is closed under addition.

ii) Associative property
(0+ 1) (-1+ 0) + 1 = 0
-1) + =

clemcnts of S follow associative property.

ii) Existence of identity

The additive identity 0 E S

i.c., e= 0ES
Groups and Rings 1.7
Existence of inverse Here,
(iv)
(-1) +1 =
1+(-1) =
0 -1 is the inverse of
1+(-1) = (-1)+1 = 0 1 is tte inverse of -1
= 0
0+0 0 is the inverse of 0
which shows that the inverse of each element exist in S.

Hence, S is a group under addition.

Example 1.1.4|
set S not.
Verify that =
{10n | n E
Z under addition is a group or

Solution: Given S = 1 0 | n E Z}

) Closure property
Let n, n E Z

10n + 10n = 10 (m + n) E S since m +n EZ

' S is closed under addition.

(ii) Associative property

Let n, m,p E Z
10n+(10m + 10p) = 10n + 10(m +p)

10n +(m +p)]

=
10[(n+m) +p]
=
(10m + 10m) + 10p
Thus S is associative under addition.

ii) Existence of identity:

The additive identity 0 E S

1.e., e = 0ES

10n +0 = 0+ 10n = 101, Since 0 E Z

 1.8 Algebra and Number Th

(iv) Existence of inverse

Let kE Z be the inverse of 10n

10 +k =
0 [ 0 is identity of S

= 0 - 10 n
k

-10 n
= 10 (-n) ES

Hence, S is a group under addition.

Example 1.1.5|
Verify the sct of all one-to-one functions g:A A, where
A {1, 2, 3, 4} under function composition.
=

Solution
Let G be set of all one-to-one
a
functions,
8:AA where A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

) Closure property :
Let f,g:A >A are one-to-one functions
then fog:A >A is also one-to-one and
hence fog E G.
Thus G is closed under functions
composition.
(i) Associative property:
Let
f,g, h:A >A are one-to-one functions, then
fogoh) =fog) oh
Thus, G is associative.
ii) Existence of identity
Let e E G

8oe 8
Thus e =
lA
Groups and Rings
1.9
(iv) Exislcnce of invcrse

Lcl 8:A A

Let k be an invcrse ol &

gok = TA
then,

k =g
Thus, G follows propertics for a
group.
Hencc, G 1s a
group.

Example 1.1.6

Verify thc set S =F

,a &n E Z, n 2 0 is a group under
2
addition.

Solution: S =

a&n E Z, n 20
) Closure property

Let bES
22m
a a 2+ b 2"
+
2m t n
ES
2" 2m

T (a 2" +b 2"), (m +n) E Z for m, n z 0

S is closed under addition.

i) Associative property
b
Let
n m
ES
2P

a 2m+b2
++ 2m mtn

a 2 TP+b2nTP +c 2m *n
mnP (1)
 Alqotbn Nunbor Tht

lom () * (),

lewe, in aNNiative unler iddition,

( ) NisMence of iulentily

The additive nlentity 0 CS

lenee, 0 is identity of S.

(iv) ixistcnee of inverse

is the inverse of

lHence, S is a
group under addition.

Example 1.1.7||
Why is the set Z not a
group under subtraction ?
Solution
Here, subtraction is not an associative (closed) binary operalion
lor Z

Consider n
Cxanuple, 2, 3, 4 E Z. Then, we have
(3-2)-4
Groups and Rings 111

nd

3-2-4) 5
Since-3* >, associative property is not satistied

Hence, 2Z is not a group under subtraction

THEOREM 5.|
For any group G is abclian if and only if (ab)= a*b
for all a, b EG

Proof Given G is abclian (1)

To prove (ab) =ab

(ab) (ab) (ab)
=a(ba)b
Proof: If Part :

Given: G is a
abelian.
i.c., V a, b E G = ab = ba (1)

ab
To prove:(ab)
=

Proof (ab) = (ab) (ab)

a (ba) b
= a (ab)b by (1)
(aa) (bb)
= ab2

Only if Part
Given: a,b E G, (ab) =a b

Toprove G is abelian

Proof (ab) ab
(ab)(ab) (aa) (hb)
 Algebra and Number Th.
1.12 heGroups ans
ab ab= aa bb

and left canccllation

a (ba) b = u (ab) b T. right
ba = alb Henca

a b = baa

Hence, G is an abclian group. Example

Show that
THEOREM 6.| and for a

For any group G is abclian if and only if (ab)=a "bSolution:

for all a, bEG. (i) Closu
Proof If part : Let a

Given G is abclian.
i.C., V a,b E G > ab = ba
.(1) Supp
Toprove (ab) = ab-

Let (ab)= (ba) by (1)

=

ab [ V a, b EG »
(b«) =
ab
(ab)=al-1 This

Only if part
Given: V a, b EG, (ab)l =ab (i) Asso
(1)
To prove G is abclian. Let

i.c., To prove : ab = ba, To

Va,b EG
We know that,
(ab)= ba... (2) G is a group
(ba)= abl.. (3) : G is a groupl
From (1) & (2), we
get a b = b'al
(ba) = (ab) by (3) & (2)
Groups and Hings
1.13
ba = ab

ab = ba
Hence, G IS an abelian group.

Example 1.1.8|

show that (A,) i5 an abelian group where A

and for any a,b EA a«b=a +b + ab
=
{a E Q/a -1}

Solution:
) Closure property:
Let a,b EA, then az -1 and b * -1, a.bEA
.. a »b -1

Suppose a b = -1 thena +b +ab =-1

a +b + ab + 1 = 0

( a + 1 ) +b(a + 1) = 0

(a +1) (b +1) =
0
a = -1 (or) b = -1

This is a coutraliction.
a .b # -1

(i) Associative property:

Let a, b, c EA

Toprove: a.(b.c) =
(a.b).c
a.(b.c) = a. (b +c +bc)

= a + (b +c +bc) + a (b +c+ bc)

= a+ b +c +bc + ab + ac + abc . (1)

(a.b).c =
(a +b +cb).c
= (a + b + ab) + c + (a +b + ab) c
 1.14 Algebra and Number Tho
he Groups and
= a + b + ab +c+ ac + bc + ahec

= a + b + c + ab + bC +ac + abc Note Le

abc.
get a . (b.c)
=
(a.b).c
From (1) & (2) we Pr

(iii) Existence of identity :

Example
Va EA, 3 eEA
Define
a.e a
Verify
a+e + ae = a
Solution :

0
e (1 +a)
=

(i) Closur
e = 0 as the identity. Since a -1
Let x,
(iv) Existence of inverse X oy

Va EA, 3b (the inverse of a) EA

(Z,
a.b =e (i) Associ

Let x,
a + b + ab = 0
T e =0
To pre
b + ab =-a
xo (y o
b (1 +a) = -a

b
1+a
(x oy)
The inverse of a =

(-a) (1 +a), [a* -1]

(v) Abelian property
To prove V a,bEA * a .b = b.a
From
a.b = a + b + ab
(1)
b.a =
b +a +ba (iil) Existe
=a +b + ab .(2) Let x
From (1) & (2), we get a .b =
b.a Let e

(A,.) is an abelian group.

Groups and Rings 1.15

Note Let G = {q E Q,q * -1}. Define the binary operalion

o on G by x oy = x +y + y

Prove that (G, o) is an abelian group.

Example 1.1.9|
+y + 1.
Define the binary operation o on Z by x oy =x

Verify that (Z, o) is an abelian group.

Solution

() Closure property
Let x, y E Z,

X oy =
x+y+ 1EZ

(Z, o) is closed under o

(i) Associative property

Let x,y, z EZ

To prove : xo (y oz) =
(x oy) oz

Xo y oz) = Xo (y +z + 1)

= x+(y +z + 1) +1

x+y+z + 2 .(1)

x oy) oz
=
(x +y + 1) oZ
= +y +1+z +1

x+y+z +2 (2)

From (1) & (2), we get

Xo (y oz)
=

(r oy) oz

(111) Existcnce of identity

Let xE
Let eE Z, be the identity of Z