Math Handbook for

Wastewater Treatment Plant

Operators
Math Fundamentals and
Problem Solving

First Edition

Bob Larsen

Outskirts Press, Inc.

Denver, Colorado
 The opinions expressed in this manuscript are solely the opinions of the author and do not
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he either owns or has the legal right to publish all material in this book.

Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Math Fundamentals and Problem Solving
All Rights Reserved
Copyright © 2010 Bob Larsen

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 Contents

Foreword................................................................................................................................... vii

Chapter 1: Basic Math Functions and the Calculator

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................1
Selecting a Calculator.....................................................................................................................3
Fractions and Decimals .................................................................................................................3
Using a Calculator ..........................................................................................................................5
Basic Rules for Calculations ...................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 1 Review Problems ................................................................................................... 15

Chapter 2: Basic Math Principles

Rounding ...................................................................................................................................... 17
Significant Figures ....................................................................................................................... 18
Powers of Numbers.................................................................................................................... 21
Percentage .................................................................................................................................... 22
Ratios and Proportions .............................................................................................................. 23
Average and Median Values ...................................................................................................... 24
Scientific Notation ...................................................................................................................... 26
The Metric System ...................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 2 Review Problems ...................................................................................................... 31

Chapter 3: Working with Equations

What is an Equation?.................................................................................................................. 33
Parts of an Equation ................................................................................................................... 34
Rearranging Equations ............................................................................................................... 34
Similar Units ................................................................................................................................ 39
Chapter 3 Review Problems ...................................................................................................... 41
iv Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Chapter 4: Linear, Area and Volume Computations

Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 43
Linear Computations..................................................................................................................... 43
Area Computations ....................................................................................................................... 46
Volume/Capacity Computations ................................................................................................ 48
Chapter 4 Review Problems ......................................................................................................... 55

Chapter 5: Conversions
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 57
Length Conversions ...................................................................................................................... 58
Area Conversions........................................................................................................................... 59
Volume/Capacity Conversions ...................................................................................................60
Weight Conversions ...................................................................................................................... 61
Pressure Conversions .................................................................................................................... 62
Flow Conversions .......................................................................................................................... 63
Temperature Conversions ............................................................................................................ 64
Metric Conversions ....................................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 5 Review Problems ......................................................................................................... 67

Chapter 6: Wastewater System Concepts

Water Usage and Wastewater Flows ........................................................................................... 69
Wastewater Contaminants ............................................................................................................ 72
Laboratory Analyses ...................................................................................................................... 74
Concentration and Dosage ........................................................................................................... 80
Density and Specific Gravity........................................................................................................ 82
Velocity and Flow .......................................................................................................................... 83
Detention Time .............................................................................................................................. 86
Headloss and Pumping Systems ..................................................................................................88
Chemical Dosage and Chemical Feed Rate ............................................................................... 92
The “Pounds Formula” ................................................................................................................ 93
 Contents v

Surface Overflow Rate and Weir Overflow Rate .................................................................... 99

Horsepower and Efficiency ......................................................................................................101
Electricity and Power Costs .....................................................................................................105
Process Efficiency ......................................................................................................................109
Chlorine Demand ......................................................................................................................111
Administrative Duties ...............................................................................................................112
Chapter 6 Review Problems .....................................................................................................115

Chapter 7: Wastewater Treatment Systems

Screenings Removal ...................................................................................................................123
Grit Removal ..............................................................................................................................124
Primary Treatment .....................................................................................................................126
Activated Sludge .........................................................................................................................129
Oxidation Ditches ......................................................................................................................144
Trickling Filters ..........................................................................................................................150
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs) ..................................................................................158
Ponds and Lagoons ...................................................................................................................164
Tertiary Sand Filtration .............................................................................................................174
Disinfection ................................................................................................................................177
Land Application of Wastewater .............................................................................................181
The “Pounds Formula” - Revisited .........................................................................................183
Sludge Thickening ......................................................................................................................185
Sludge Digestion ........................................................................................................................192
Sludge Dewatering .....................................................................................................................196
Controlled Discharge of Wastewater ......................................................................................203
Chapter 7 Review Problems .....................................................................................................205

Chapter 8: Problem-Solving Methods

General ........................................................................................................................................215
Problem Solving Steps ..............................................................................................................216
vi Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Appendix A – Answers to Review Problems....................................................................... 219

Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems ................................................... 227

Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems ................................................... 249

Appendix D – Common Formulas ........................................................................................ 303

Appendix E – Conversion Tables.......................................................................................... 311

Appendix F – Abbreviations .................................................................................................. 317

 Foreword
Wastewater treatment system operators are responsible for protecting the quality of our
water resources. Their duties include monitoring and adjusting wastewater treatment
system processes, maintaining facilities and equipment and monitoring the quality of the
effluent discharged from treatment facilities to assure compliance with state and federal
regulations. Operators are also required to provide construction and inspection services
for repairs to and expansions of wastewater treatment facilities and sewer systems. The
duties performed by wastewater system operators need to be properly documented and
recorded for future reference.

In the performance of these duties, the wastewater system operator uses mathematics to
calculate process parameters and to make operational decisions. Math is also used in
performing system maintenance, recordkeeping and budgeting. It is necessary for the
wastewater system operator to have an understanding of math fundamentals along with
the technical concepts associated with wastewater treatment system operations.

After reading the material and solving the problems presented in this Handbook, the
wastewater system operator should be able to;

ƒ use a calculator to perform basic math functions,

ƒ understand the basic math principles that are commonly used in wastewater
system calculations,
ƒ identify equations, rearrange equations and solve for unknowns,
ƒ perform linear, area and volume calculations,
ƒ convert the units of measurements commonly used in wastewater system
operations,
ƒ understand the basic concepts of wastewater treatment processes, and
ƒ solve problems that are commonly encountered in wastewater treatment system
operations.

This Handbook can be used as a reference to prepare the wastewater system operator
for the math problems given on licensing examinations.
Chapter 1

BASIC MATH FUNCTIONS AND THE CALCULATOR

Introduction
The basic math functions are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
These functions are typically represented on a calculator by the following symbols.

ƒ Addition +
ƒ Subtraction î
ƒ Multiplication x
ƒ Division ÷

Other symbols are commonly used for the multiplication and division functions. These
symbols are shown below.

ƒ Multiplication “brackets” ()() expressed as (2) (3)

Multiplication “dot” • expressed as 2 • 3

ƒ Division “Slash” ⁄ expressed as 8 ⁄ 2 or 8

2

The use of the calculator has changed the way math is learned and applied to solve
problems. It is no longer necessary to memorize multiplication tables, to solve simple
math problems in our head or do problems “by hand”. All we need to do is learn how to
use the calculator effectively. Whether this is a good or bad situation is subject to
discussion.

1
2 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

In this Handbook, the calculator is used to manipulate math functions to solve

wastewater system problems.

The math education you have had in the past may have involved solving math problems
by hand without using the calculator, as shown in the following example.

Example 1-1
Add the following numbers without using a calculator. 2,234.907, 345.01, 13.04,
135.7 and 1,980.

ƒ Line up the numbers keeping the decimal point in the same column.

2,234.907
345.01
13.04
135.7
1,980.

ƒ Add zeros to the right hand side of the numbers so the columns to the right of the
decimal point have the same number of digits.

2,234.907
345.010
13.040
135.700
1,980.000

ƒ Starting from the right, add the columns. If a column adds up to a number greater
than nine, “carryover” the number to the top of the next column on the left.

1 211
2,234.907
345.010
13.040
135.700
1,980.000
4,708.657
 Basic Math Functions and the Calculator 3

This example shows that solving problems by hand is tedious and subject to error. Using
a calculator to add a group of numbers is faster and usually more accurate.

When using this Handbook, have a calculator on hand and perform the example
calculations as they are presented. Using a calculator effectively is not as easy as it may
seem. Pressing the wrong number or function keys and/or misreading the location of the
decimal point are common problems. Calculator skills can be improved with practice.

Selecting a Calculator
Calculators are available in many types and sizes. For wastewater system operators, a
calculator with the four basic functions plus a square root function (¥) is the usually best
option. Calculators with a square function (x2) and a pi function (ư) are useful but not
necessary. Programmable calculators can be helpful for solving repetitive problems but
are not normally permitted for use at licensing exams.

It is convenient to use a calculator with reasonably sized keys and viewing area. Credit
card sized calculators can be difficult to use and the display hard to read.

Even simple calculators have functions that are not typically used. The M keys perform
memory calculations; the percentage key (%) calculates percentages, and the plus/minus
key (+/î) “toggles” between plus and minus values. These function keys can cause
confusion. Use them with caution or not at all.

Fractions and Decimals

Numbers can be presented in two basic formats, fractions and decimals.

Fractions
A fraction has two components, a numerator and a denominator, and is expressed as
follows:
Numerator
2
3 Denominator
4 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

The numerator and denominator are whole numbers and, as shown above, the
numerator (2) is divided by the denominator (3). Therefore, a fraction represents a
division function. Fractions are useful when solving problems using ratios and
proportions. However, adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions can be
cumbersome.

Fractions can be added or subtracted only if the denominators have the same number. If
the denominators are not the same, the fractions must be changed to provide a similar
common denominator before addition or subtraction can be performed. Two fractions
can be multiplied by multiplying the numerators and the denominators of each fraction.
Two fractions can be divided by reversing the numerator and denominator of the
fraction you are dividing by and then multiplying the two fractions.

The good news is that most problems can be solved by converting numbers given in
fractions to a decimal format and then using the calculator to solve the problem.

Decimals
A decimal has numbers in a horizontal line, separated by a dot or decimal point.
Numbers in decimal format are expressed as follows.

Separator Decimal Point

2,123.987
Whole Number Fraction of the Number

The whole number (2,123) and the fraction of the number (987) can have any
combination of digits (or characters). The number 2,123.987 has seven digits. The
comma between the 2 and the 1 is called a separator.

The terms used to describe the digits of a number expressed in decimal format are
shown below.
 Basic Math Functions and the Calculator 5

2, 1 2 3 . 9 8 7

Decimal Point

Thousandths
Hundredths
Thousands

Hundreds

Tenths
Units
Tens
For example, the third number to the left of the decimal point (1) is referred to as the
hundreds digit and the first number to the right of the decimal point (9) is referred to as
the tenths digit.

When using a calculator, the numbers entered and the numbers displayed after a
calculation are always expressed in decimal format.

Most math problems the operator will perform can be calculated in decimal format. If a
number is given as a fraction, it should be converted to decimal format before using a
calculator. This conversion is made by simply dividing the numerator by the
denominator.

Using a Calculator
The procedures for performing the basic math functions, addition (+), subtraction (î),
multiplication (x) and division (÷), on a calculator are described below.

Addition
Addition using a calculator is performed as follows:

Step 1. Enter the first number.

Step 2. Enter the + key.
Step 3. Enter the number to be added.
Step 4. Enter the = key.
6 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 1-2
Add the numbers 345 and 78.35.

Step 1. Enter 345.

Step 2. Enter the + key.
Step 3. Enter 78.53.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The answer displayed is 423.53.

If three or more numbers are to be added, it is not necessary to enter the = key after each
addition. The intermediate answers are displayed each time the + key is entered.

Example 1-3
Add the numbers 123.34, 45, 346.5 and 1,020.23.

Step 1. Enter 123.34.

Step 2. Enter the + key.
Step 3. Enter 45.
Step 4. Enter the + key. The intermediate answer displayed is 168.34.
Step 5. Enter 346.5.
Step 6. Enter the + key. The intermediate answer displayed is 514.84.
Step 7. Enter 1020.23.
Step 8. Enter the + key (or the = key). The final answer displayed is 1535.07.

Note that the final answer is displayed after the + key is entered in Step 8. The = key
could be entered instead of the + key in this step with the same result. Also, note that
when the number 1,020.23 is entered the “thousands” separator (the comma between the
1 and the 0) is not entered. Separators are not entered when using the calculator. Some
calculators show the separator in the display and some do not.

Subtraction
Subtraction using a calculator is performed similarly to addition. However, the number
that you are subtracting from is entered first.
 Basic Math Functions and the Calculator 7

Example 1-4
Subtract the numbers 12.27 and 34.1 from 78.

Step 1. Enter 78.

Step 2. Enter the î key.
Step 3. Enter 12.27.
Step 4. Enter the î key. The intermediate answer displayed is 65.73.
Step 5. Enter 34.1.
Step 6. Enter the î key (or the = key). The final answer displayed is 31.63.

Addition and Subtraction

A string of numbers can be added and subtracted on a calculator since subtraction is the
same as adding a negative number. When adding and subtracting a string of numbers, it
is suggested that the = key be used after each intermediate calculation. A string of
numbers can be added and subtracted without using the = key, but this method can
sometimes be confusing.

Example 1-5
From the number 1,245.63, add 62, subtract 546.230, subtract 346.2 and add 545.45.

Step 1. Enter 1245.63.

Step 2. Enter the + key.
Step 3. Enter 62.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer displayed is 1307.63.
Step 5. Enter the î key.
Step 6. Enter 546.230.
Step 7. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer is 761.4.
Step 8. Enter the î key.
Step 9. Enter 346.2.
Step 10. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer is 415.2.
Step 11. Enter the + key.
Step 12. Enter 545.45.
Step 13. Enter the = key. The final answer is 960.65.
8 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

When entering a decimal number in a calculator when the fraction of the number ends in
0, for example 546.230 in the above example, the trailing zeros do not need to be entered.

Multiplication
Multiplication using a calculator is performed similarly to addition.

Step 1. Enter the first number.

Step 2. Enter the x key.
Step 3. Enter the number to be multiplied by.
Step 4. Enter the = key.

Example 1-6
Multiply 23.94 by 5.3.

Step 1. Enter 23.94.

Step 2. Enter the x key.
Step 3. Enter 5.3.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The answer 126.882 is displayed.

If three or more numbers are to be multiplied, it is not necessary to enter the = key after
each multiplication calculation. Note in the example below that the intermediate answers
are displayed each time the multiplication key is entered.

Example 1-7
Multiply the number 12.12 by 45 then by 0.32 and finally by 1,020.23.

Step 1. Enter 12.12.

Step 2. Enter the x key.
Step 3. Enter 45.
Step 4. Enter the x key. The intermediate answer displayed is 545.4.
Step 5. Enter .32 (the zero before the decimal point does not need to be entered).
Step 6. Enter the x key. The intermediate answer displayed is 174.528.
Step 7. Enter 1020.23.
Step 8. Enter the x key (or the = key). The final answer displayed is 178058.7
 Basic Math Functions and the Calculator 9

The final answer is displayed after the x key is entered in Step 8. The = key could be
entered in this step with the same result.

Division
Division using a calculator is performed very similarly to multiplication. The number to
be divided is entered first.

Step 1. Enter the number to be divided.

Step 2. Enter the ÷ key (on most calculators “÷” is the division symbol key).
Step 3. Enter the number the first number will be divided by.
Step 4. Enter the = key.

Example 1-8
Divide the number 54.3 by 4

Step 1. Enter 54.3.

Step 2. Enter the ÷ key.
Step 3. Enter 4.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The answer 13.575 is displayed.

If three or more numbers are to be divided in sequence, it is not necessary to enter the =
key after each division. The intermediate answers are displayed each time the ÷ key is
entered.

Example 1-9
Divide the number 525 by 5, then divide by 2, then divide by 3.4 and then divide by 6.

Step 1. Enter 525.

Step 2. Enter the ÷ key.
Step 3. Enter 5.
Step 4. Enter the ÷ key. The intermediate answer displayed is 105.
Step 5. Enter 3.4.
Step 6. Enter the ÷ key. The intermediate answer displayed is 30.882352.
Step 7. Enter 6.
Step 8. Enter the ÷ key (or the = key). The final answer displayed is 5.1470586.
10 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Similar to the previous calculations, the final answer is displayed after the ÷ key is
entered in Step 8. The = key could also be entered in this step with the same result.

Note that in Step 6, the “whole number” has two digits (30.) and the “fraction of the
number” has six digits (.882352) for a total of eight digits. In Step 8 the whole number
has one digit (5.) and the fraction of the number has seven digits (.1470586) for a total of
eight digits.

Most hand held and small desktop calculators display a maximum of eight digits. Some
calculators have displays showing twelve or more digits.

The math calculations displayed on a calculator are accurate only within the limits of the
display. For an eight-digit display calculator, if a calculation results in an answer over
99999999, an error message is displayed. If a calculation results in an answer under
0.0000000, the calculator will typically display 0. Therefore, an eight-digit calculator is
accurate only within the values of 0.0000001 and 99999999. When performing
wastewater system calculations, it is often necessary to use very small or very large
numbers and sometimes the limits of a calculator can be exceeded. If a calculator exceeds
its limits, the numbers can be expressed in scientific notation before performing the
calculation. Scientific notation is discussed in Chapter 2.

Multiplication and Division

Numbers can be multiplied and divided on a calculator concurrently as long as there are
no addition or subtraction functions present.

Example 1-10
Multiply the number 7 by 19 and divide the result by 24 multiplied by 6.4. This
problem can be written as:
7 x 19
24 x 6.4
Step 1. Enter 7.
Step 2. Enter the x key.
Step 3. Enter 19.
Step 4. Enter the ÷ key. The intermediate answer displayed is 133.
Step 5. Enter 24.
Step 6. Enter the ÷ key. The intermediate answer displayed is 5.5416666.
Step 7. Enter 6.4.
 Basic Math Functions and the Calculator 11

Step 8. Enter the ÷ key. The final answer is 0.8658854.

This example may also be solved in three separate calculations as shown below.

Calculation 1 (Multiply 7 by 19)

Step 1. Enter 7.
Step 2. Enter the x key.
Step 3. Enter 19.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer displayed is 133. (Write down this
intermediate answer.)

Calculation 2 (Multiply 24 by 6.4)

Step 1. Enter 24.
Step 2. Enter the x key.
Step 3. Enter 6.4.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer displayed is 153.6. (Write down this
intermediate answer.)

Calculation 3 (Divide the results of Calculation 1 by the results of Calculation 2.)

Step 1. Enter 133.
Step 2. Enter the ÷ key.
Step 3. Enter 153.6.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The final answer displayed is 0.8658854.

Square Root
The square root key on a calculator is used to calculate the square root of a number.
The square root is the opposite of squaring a number or multiplying a number by itself.
For example, 2 x 2 = 4. So the square root of 4 is 2. The symbol for square root is ¥.

To find the square root of a number on most basic calculators, enter the number and
then the square root key (¥ or ¥ ). The method for determining the square root of a
number may be different on more advanced or programmable type calculators.

Example 1-11
Find the square root of 6.34.

Step 1. Enter 6.34.

12 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Step 2. Enter the ¥ key. The answer displayed is 2.5179356.

Basic Rules for Calculations

When performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and division calculations, use the
following rules for the “order of operations”.

1. Multiplication and division calculations should be performed before

addition and subtraction calculations.

2. If there are brackets present, the calculations in the brackets should be

performed first.

3. If there are exponents present, the calculations in the brackets should be

performed before the exponents. (Exponents are discussed in Chapter 2.)

In general do the calculations in the parentheses first, then the exponents, then
multiplication and division and then addition and subtraction. If parentheses are
enclosed within other parentheses, calculate from inside to outside. The “order of
operations” can be summarized below.

First Parentheses
Second Exponents
Third Multiplication and Division
Fourth Addition and Subtraction

Example 1-12
Solve the following problem.

7x6í2

ƒ Perform the multiplication function first.

7 x 6 = 42
ƒ Then subtract 2 from 42.
 Basic Math Functions and the Calculator 13

42 – 2 = 40

Example 1-13
Solve the following problem.

7 x (6 í 2)

ƒ Perform the subtraction shown in the brackets.

(6 î 2) = 4
ƒ Then multiply 7 times 4.
7 x 4 = 28

Example 1-14
Solve the following problem.

(23.45 x 12.12) + (12.3 x 45.33) + (56.78 – 34.72) (2.5)

ƒ Perform the calculations within the three brackets.

(23.45 x 12.12) = 284.214

(12.3 x 45.33) = 557.559
(56.78 – 34.72) = 22.06

ƒ Perform the multiplication calculation remaining on the right hand expression.

(22.06) (2.5) = 55.15

ƒ Add the remaining three numbers.

284.214 + 557.559 + 55.15 = 896.923

Example 1-15
Solve the following problem.

(8 + 4) 2 í 2
14 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Perform the calculation in the parentheses.

(8 + 4) = 12

ƒ Perform the exponent calculation.

122 = 144

ƒ Perform the subtraction.

144 – 2 = 142
 Chapter 1

BASIC MATH FUNCTIONS AND THE CALCULATOR

Review Problems

Solve the following problems using a calculator. Provide all answers in decimal format.
(The answers are given in Appendix A.)

1. 23.45 x 45.56 í 23.82

2. 23.45 x (45.56 í 23.82)

3. 98.3 í 34.8
2

4. ¥34.2 í 6.89 x 2.1

5. 6 4
5 7

6. ¥3.45 í 1.285
9.1

15
Chapter 2

BASIC MATH PRINCIPLES

Rounding
Numbers are rounded to make them easier to work with. The calculator can display
many digits, both to the right and the left of the decimal point. Rounding simplifies
numbers and makes calculations using numbers easier.

The general rules for rounding are presented below.

ƒ If the digit you are rounding to is followed by 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, round the

number up. For example, 48 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 50.

ƒ If the digit you are rounding to is followed by 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, round the

number down. For example, 43 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 40.

When rounding numbers, first identify the digit are you rounding to. Whole numbers,
the numbers to the left of the decimal point, can be rounded to the nearest units digit,
the nearest tens digit, the nearest hundreds digit, the nearest thousands digit and so on.

Example 2-1
Examine the number 5,337.

ƒ 5,337 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 5,340.

ƒ 5,337 rounded to the nearest hundreds digit is 5,300.
ƒ 5,337 rounded to the nearest thousands digit is 5,000.

17
18 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

As seen in the example, when rounding whole numbers the digits to the right of the digit
you are rounding to become zeros.

Example 2-2
Review the following rounding examples.

ƒ 65 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 70.

ƒ 5,828 rounded to the nearest hundreds digit is 5,800.
ƒ 10,754 rounded to the nearest thousands digit is 11,000.

Rounding fractions of numbers, the numbers to the right of the decimal point, is similar
to rounding whole numbers. Fractions of numbers are rounded to the nearest tenths
digit, the nearest hundredths digit, the nearest thousandths digit and so on.

Example 2-3
Review the following rounding examples.

ƒ 12.9145 rounded to the nearest tenth digit is 12.9.

ƒ 1.8627 rounded to the nearest hundredth digit is 1.86.
ƒ 2.4578 rounded to the nearest thousandth digit is 2.458.

When rounding fractions of numbers, the trailing zeros can be dropped.

Rounding reduces the accuracy of mathematical calculations. However, most

wastewater system calculations do not require a high degree of accuracy. The operator
should be aware of the accuracy required when making rounding decisions.

Significant Figures
When performing mathematical calculations, it is sometimes necessary to present the
answer with the correct significant figures. Significant figures are the number of
meaningful or accurate digits in a number.
 Basic Math Principles 19

Significant figures, also called significant digits, and rounding are related concepts.
When several measurements are used in calculations, the answer cannot be more
accurate than the least accurate measurement. The answer should be rounded to reflect
the accuracy of the measurements.

There are several rules for identifying the number of significant figures in a
measurement.

1. The zeros contained within a number are “significant”.

2. Leading zeros are not “significant”.

3. Trailing zeros are not “significant” unless a decimal point is included.

Example 2-4
Review the following significant figure examples.

ƒ 5,001 has 4 significant figures. (Zeros contained within a number are significant.)
ƒ 0.00012 has 2 significant figures. (Leading zeros are not significant.)
ƒ 0.00120 has 3 significant figures. (The trailing zero is significant because a decimal
point is included. The leading zeros are not significant.)
ƒ 1.0023 has 5 significant figures. (Zeros contained within a number are significant.)
ƒ 200 has 1 significant figure. (Trailing zeros are not significant because there is no
decimal point.)
ƒ 200. has 3 significant figures. (Trailing zeros are significant because a decimal point is
included.)
ƒ 200.00 has 5 significant figures. (Trailing zeros are significant because a decimal point
is included.)

When adding and subtracting measurements of different accuracies, the answer can be
no more accurate than the least accurate measurement. The rule determining significant
figures for addition and subtraction calculations is stated below.

When adding and subtracting measurements, the answer cannot have more
decimal places than the least accurate measurement.
20 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 2-5
Three different maintenance crews repaired three sections of sewers. The following
repair lengths were reported to the City maintenance department; 1,202.2 feet,
562.25 feet and 360.4 feet. What was the total length of sewer system repairs
reported to the correct significant figures?

ƒ Add the three repair lengths. The answer is 2,124.85 feet.

ƒ The least accurate measurements of the three lengths are 1,202.2 feet and 360.4 feet.
The decimal point shows the accuracy of these measurements at the tenths digit.

ƒ Rounding to the nearest tenths digit, the answer to the correct significant figure is
2,124.9 feet.

When multiplying and dividing measurements of different accuracies, the answer can be
no more accurate than the least accurate measurement. The rule determining significant
figures for multiplication and division is stated below.

When multiplying and dividing measurements, the answer cannot have more
significant figures than the least accurate measurement.

When multiplying and dividing numbers of different accuracies, the same rule applies;
the answer can be no more accurate than the least accurate number. The answer should
not contain more significant figures than the least accurate number.

Example 2-6
A chemical feed tank is measured and the length is 4.5 feet and the width is 2.25
feet. Determine the area of the tank using the equation, Area = Length x Width.
Express the area in correct significant figures.
ƒ Multiply the length by the width. The answer is 10.125 square feet.
ƒ The length (4.5 feet) has two significant figures and the width (2.25 feet has 3
significant figures. The length is the least accurate measurement.
ƒ The area, expressed in two significant figures, is 10. square feet.
 Basic Math Principles 21

Powers of Numbers
The expression “raising the number to a power” means multiplying the number by itself
for a specified number of times. The “power” number indicates how many times the
number is multiplied by itself.

The term for raising a number to a power is expressed as follows.

Xy
Where:
X is the number that is being multiplied, and
y
is the number of times the number is multiplied by itself.

Example 2-7
Review the following examples of powers of numbers.

ƒ 22 equals 2 times 2 and can be written as:

2 x 2, or
2 • 2, or
(2) (2)

ƒ 42 equals 4 times 4 and can be written as:

4 x 4, or
4 • 4, or
(4) (4)

ƒ 33 equals 3 times 3 times 3 and can be written as:

3 x 3 x 3, or
3 • 3 • 3, or
(3) (3) (3)
22 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Percentage
Percentage is used to express parts of a whole. If a 1,000-gallon capacity storage tank
contains 500 gallons it is said to contain one-half, or 50 percent of the whole tank
capacity.

A percent is expressed using the percent symbol (%). Percentage is written as a number
followed by the percent symbol.

Percentage can be calculated by multiplying a number by 100 and attaching the percent
symbol. When using a percentage in an equation, the percentage is typically expressed in
decimal format.

When converting a number from a percentage format to a decimal format, the

decimal point is moved two spaces to the left and the percent symbol is deleted.
This is equivalent to dividing by 100.

Example 2-8
Convert the following percentages to numbers in decimal format.

ƒ 50% converts to 0.50.

ƒ 120% converts to 1.2.
ƒ 0.33% converts to 0.0033.

When converting a number in decimal format to a percentage format, the decimal

point is moved two spaces to the right and the percent symbol is attached. This is
equivalent to multiplying by 100.

Example 2-9
Convert the following numbers in decimal format to percentages.

ƒ 7.5 converts to 750%.

ƒ 0.65 converts to 65%.
ƒ 1.0 converts to 100%
ƒ 0.01 converts to 1%
 Basic Math Principles 23

A percentage key is usually provided on most calculators. However, this key is not
required for calculations and its use can be confusing.

Ratios and Proportions

A ratio is a comparison of two numbers. Ratios are typically expressed using a fraction
or a colon.

Example 2-10
The following expressions are called ratios.

1 or 1:2
2
3 or 3:4
4

A proportion is an equation with a ratio on each side. It is also a statement which says
the two ratios are equal.

Example 2-11
Proportions illustrated.

1 is proportional to 2
2 4
or

1 2
2 = 4

If three numbers in a proportion are known, the forth number can be determined by
using cross products. A cross product is defined as the numerator of one ratio times the
denominator of the other ratio.

In a proportion, there are two cross products and these cross products are always
equal.
24 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 2-12
Is the following proportion valid?
4 8
7 = 14

ƒ The proportion is shown below with the cross products connected with arrowed
lines.

4 8
7 = 14

ƒ The cross products are:

4 x 14 = 56, and 8 x 7 = 56

ƒ Since the cross products are equal, the proportion is valid.

Example 2-13
Solve for Y in the following proportion.
5 Y
6
=
18

ƒ The cross products are equal, therefore:

5 x 18 = 90 and Y x 6 = 90

ƒ To solve for Y, divide 90 by 6. Y = 15

Average and Median Values

Average and median values are used to evaluate a series or group of numbers.

The average of a group of numbers is determined by adding the numbers and dividing
the sum by the number of numbers in the group. The average is also referred to as the
mean or arithmetic mean.
 Basic Math Principles 25

Example 2-14
Find the average of the following group of eight numbers.

34, 67, 32, 100, 104, 62, 12 and 89

ƒ The sum of these numbers is 500.

ƒ Divide 500 by 8. The average is 62.5.

The median is the “middle value” of a group or series of numbers. The median of a
group of numbers is determined by placing the numbers in order, from smallest to
largest, and selecting the middle value.

Example 2-15
Find the median of the following group of five numbers.

27, 12, 6, 32 and 3

ƒ Arrange the numbers in order from smallest to largest.

3, 6, 12, 27, 32

ƒ Since 12 is the middle value of this group, it is the median.

If there are an even quantity of numbers in the group, finding the median value is
different since there is no single number in the middle. In this case the middle pair, the
two numbers in the middle, is identified and the average of these two numbers is the
median.

Example 2-16
Find the median of the following group of eight numbers.

54, 34, 12, 16, 80, 30, 9 and 22

26 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Arrange the numbers in order from smallest to largest.

9, 12, 16, 22, 30, 34, 54, 80

ƒ The middle pair of this group is 22 and 30.

ƒ Calculate the average of this middle pair by adding 22 and 30 and dividing the sum
by 2. The median is 26.

Averages and medians are commonly used by wastewater system operators to record
operational data, to predict future operating conditions and to maintain an appropriate
inventory of wastewater treatment chemicals.

Scientific Notation
Performing math functions on a calculator with very large numbers or very small
numbers may not be possible. Computations on a calculator are limited by the number
of digits the calculator can display.

Example 2-17
Perform the multiplication problem shown below on a calculator. (It is assumed that
the calculator has an 8-digit display.)

10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = ?

ƒ The calculator display shows 1.0000000 and an error message.

For problems using very large or very small numbers, the numbers can be expressed in
scientific notation prior to using a calculator. Scientific notation is a shorthand way of
writing very large or very small numbers. A number expressed in scientific notation
format is written as the product of a decimal number between 1 and 10, called the
coefficient, and a power of 10 called the exponent.

For example, 2.34 x 103 is a number expressed in scientific notation format.

 Basic Math Principles 27

The general term for a number expressed in scientific notation is shown below.

Coefficient x 10Y
Where:
Coefficient = a decimal number between 1 and 10.
Exponent = Y = the power of 10 or the number of times 10 is
multiplied by itself.

Example 2-18
Consider the number 12,230,000.

ƒ This same number expressed in scientific notation format is;

1.223 x 107

where the term 1.223 is the coefficient and 7 is the exponent.

Example 2-19
Consider the number 0.000023.

ƒ This same number expressed in scientific notation format is;

2.3 x 10-5

where the term 2.3 is the coefficient and -5 is the exponent.

The above examples illustrate the following rules for expressing numbers in scientific
notation format.

1. The exponent equals the number of spaces the decimal point is moved.

2. If the decimal point is moved to the left, the exponent is positive. If the
decimal point is moved to the right, the exponent is negative.

When multiplying and dividing numbers in scientific notation format the following rules
apply.
28 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

1. When multiplying numbers in scientific notation format multiply the

coefficients and add the exponents.

2. When dividing numbers in scientific notation format divide the

coefficients and subtract the exponents.

Example 2-20
Multiply 12,450,900 by 85.

ƒ If these numbers were multiplied on a calculator, an error message would appear.

ƒ Express the numbers in scientific notation format.

12,450,900 equals 1.24509 x 107

85 equals 8.5 x 101

ƒ (1.24509 x 107) x (8.5 x 101) = (1.24509 x 8.5) x (107 + 1) = 10.583265 x 108

ƒ 10.583265 x 108 equals 1,058,326,500

Example 2-21
Divide 0.025 by 1,360,000.

ƒ If these numbers were divided on a calculator, a zero would appear indicating an

error.

ƒ Express the numbers in scientific notation format.

0.025 equals 2.5 x 10-2

1,360,000 equals 1.36 x 106

ƒ (2.5 x 10-2) ÷ (1.36 x 106) = (2.5 ÷ 1.36) x (10-2 - 6) = 1.8382352 x 10-8

ƒ 1.8382352 x 10-8 equals 0.000000018382352

 Basic Math Principles 29

The Metric System

The metric system is a system of units and measurements based on multiples of 10.
The metric system is use widely throughout most of the world but used infrequently in
the US. The metric system is also referred to as the International System of Units (SI).

Most calculations performed by wastewater system operators are in the English or US

system of measurements (i.e. inches, feet, miles, pounds, gallons, etc.). Metric units,
however, are commonly used in the laboratory and often for calculating chemical
dosages and identifying contaminant concentrations.

Common units of length measurement in the metric system are the millimeter (mm), the
centimeter (cm), the decimeter (dm), the meter (m) and the kilometer (km). The
relationships among these length measurements are shown below.

ƒ 1 centimeter = 10 millimeters
ƒ 1 decimeter = 10 centimeters
ƒ 1 meter = 100 centimeters
ƒ 1 kilometer = 1,000 meters

Common units of volume measurement in the metric system are the milliliter (mL), the
cubic centimeter (cc), the liter (L) and the cubic meter. The relationships among these
volume measurements are shown below.

ƒ 1 milliliter = 1 cubic centimeter

ƒ 1 liter = 1,000 milliliters
ƒ 1 cubic meter = 1,000 liters

Common units of mass measurement in the metric system are the microgram (Ƭg), the
milligram (mg), the gram (g) and the kilogram (kg). The relationships among these mass
measurements are shown below.

ƒ 1 milligram = 1,000 micrograms

ƒ 1 gram = 1,000 milligrams
ƒ 1 kilogram = 1,000 grams

The metric system also has the following special relationships.

30 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ 1 milliliter of water weighs 1 gram and has a volume of 1 cubic centimeter at

a temperature of 4° C.
ƒ 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram and has a volume of 1 cubic decimeter at a
temperature of 4° C.
 Chapter 2

BASIC MATH PRINCIPLES

Review Problems

(The answers are given in Appendix A.)

1. Round the number 5,234.6734

a) to the nearest hundreds digit
b) to the nearest tenths digit
c) to the nearest hundredths digit
d) to the nearest thousands digit

2. Add the following measurements and show the sum in the correct significant
figures.
1,025.3 inches, 13.24 inches and 78.6 inches

3. A wastewater utility has a total annual budget of $345,000. The utility spends
approximately $28,000 per year on chemicals. What percentage of the annual
budget is spent on chemicals?

4. Express the following numbers in scientific notation format.

a) 1,259
b) 34,560
c) 100,240
d) 0.004567

5. Solve for x in the following proportion.

4 = 13.5
x 6

31
Chapter 3

WORKING WITH EQUATIONS

What is an Equation?
An equation is a statement written in numbers and symbols that has two sides
connected by an equal sign. An equation can also be referred to as a formula. The equal
sign indicates that the value represented by the numbers and symbols on the left side of
the equation is the same as the value represented by the numbers and symbols on the
right side of the equation.

The equation below is used to calculate the area of a rectangle.

Area = Length x Width

This equation states that the area of a rectangle is equal to the length of the rectangle
times the width of the rectangle. The length and width are the rectangles measurements.

Most equations show the both the measurements and the units of the measurements.
The area of a rectangle equation written with the measurements and the units of the
measurements is shown below.

Area (feet2) = Length (feet) x Width (feet)

Equations can include a variety of mathematical functions including addition (+),

subtraction (î), multiplication (x), division ( ⁄ or ÷), powers of numbers (xY), square
root (¥) and others.

The equation shown below is used to convert temperature in Celsius degrees (ºC) to
Fahrenheit degrees (°F).
°F = °C x 1.8 + 32

33
34 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

This equation contains two mathematical functions, multiplication (x) and addition (+).

Parts of an Equation
Equations can have variables, constants and unknowns. A variable is a measurable
quantity that can change in value. A constant is a previously determined value that does
not change. An unknown is a value that is not known and needs to be found by
calculation.

The equation shown below is commonly referred to as the pounds formula and is used
frequently in wastewater system calculations.

Mass Flow (pounds/day) = Flow (million gallons/day) x Dosage (milligrams/liter) x 8.34

The variables in this equation are Mass Flow, Flow and Dosage. The value 8.34 is a
constant. The units of measurement for the variables are shown in parentheses.

Solving an equation means finding the value of the unknown by calculation. Equations
can have several variables and constants. In order to solve an equation for an unknown,
all of the other variables and constants in the equation must be known.

For example, in the pounds formula shown above, there are a total of four variables and
constants. The constant of 8.34 is known. If the variable Mass Flow is an unknown and
needs to be calculated the two other variables, Flow and Dosage, must be known.

Rearranging Equations
Introduction

To solve for an unknown in an equation, it is frequently necessary to rearrange the

equation. Rearranging an equation consists of isolating the unknown on one side of the
equation and putting all of the other variables and constants on the other side of the
equation. The general rule for rearranging equations is stated below.

If the same mathematical operation is performed on each side of the equation the
equation remains unchanged.
 Working with Equations 35

The value of the left side of an equation is always equal to the value on the right side of
the equation. If you perform the same mathematical operation on both sides of the
equation as stated in the above rule, the value on the left side will remain equal to the
value on the right side.

Equations with Addition and Subtraction

For equations having addition and subtraction, the equations are rearranged by adding or
subtracting the same number or symbol from each side of the equation.

A number to add or subtract is chosen to “cancel out” a number on one side of the
equation.

Example 3-1
Examine the equation 15 = A + 5 + 4.

Rearrange this equation to solve for A, the unknown.

Step 1. Subtract 4 from both sides of the equation.

15 = A + 5 + 4 can be rewritten as:

15 î 4 = A + 5 + 4 î 4, or 11 = A + 5

Step 2. Subtract 5 from both sides of the equation.

11 = A + 5 can be rewritten as
11 î 5 = A + 5 î 5, or 6 = A

A shortcut rule for rearranging equations with addition and subtraction is presented
below.

When moving a number or symbol from one side of the equation to the other side
of the equation, change the sign. If the sign is plus (+), change to minus (î) and
if the sign is minus (î), change to plus (+).

The diagram below illustrates the previous problem solved using this shortcut rule.
36 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

15 î 5 î 4 = A + 5 + 4

In the above diagram, the + 5 and + 4 on the right side of the equation are moved to the
left side and the signs are changed from + to î.

The equation can be rewritten as follows:

15 î 5 î 4 = A, or 6 = A

Equations with Multiplication and Division

For equations having multiplication and division, the equations are rearranged by
multiplying or dividing the same number or symbol on each side of the equation.

The specific number to multiply or divide is chosen to “cancel out” a number on one
side of the equation.

Example 3-2
Examine the equation 300 = V x 25 x 8.34.

Rearrange this equation to solve for V, the unknown.

Step 1. Divide both sides of the equation by 25.

300 = V x 25 x 8.34 can be rewritten as:

300 = V x 25 x 8.34 or 12 = V x 8.34

25 25

Step 2. Divide both sides of the equation by 8.34.

12 = V x 8.34 can be rewritten as:

 Working with Equations 37

12 = V x 8.34 or 1.44 = V
8.34 8.34

Note that the “strikethroughs” indicate the numbers “cancel out”.

A shortcut rule for rearranging equations with multiplication and division is presented
below.

When moving a number or symbol from one side of the equation to the other side
of the equation, move it from the top of one side to the bottom of the other side or
move it from the bottom of one side to the top of the other side.

The diagram below shows the previous problem solved using this shortcut rule.

300 = V x 25 x 8.34
8.34 x 25

In the above diagram, the numbers 25 and 8.34 on the top of the right side of the
equation are moved to the bottom of the left side of the equation.

The equation can be rewritten as follows:

300 = V or 1.44 = V
8.34 x 25

Equations with Addition/Subtraction and Multiplication/Division

For equations having addition and subtraction along with multiplication and division the
same general rules for rearranging equations are valid.

In rearranging these types of equations, care must be taken in performing the

mathematical operations. In general, the addition and subtraction functions are
rearranged before the multiplication and division functions.
38 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 3-3
The equation for converting to Fahrenheit degrees (°F) to Celsius degrees (°C) is
shown below. Rearrange the equation to solve for Celsius degrees (°C).

°F = °C x 1.8 + 32

Step 1. Subtract 32 from both sides of the equation.

°F î 32 = °C x 1.8 + 32 – 32 or
°F î 32 = °C x 1.8

Step 2. Divide both sides of the equation by 1.8.

°F î 32 = °C x 1.8 or
1.8 1.8

°F î 32 = °C
1.8

Example 3-4
The equation for calculating the volume of a cylinder is V = 0.785 x D2 x H where;

V = volume of the cylinder

D = diameter of the cylinder, and
H = height of the cylinder.

If the volume (V) is 70.65 cubic feet and the diameter (D) is 3 feet what is the height
(H) of the cylinder?

ƒ The equation for calculating the volume of a cylinder has four parts; three variables
(V, D and H) and one constant (0.785).

ƒ Three of the four parts are known (V, D and 0.785) and one part is unknown (H).

ƒ To rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown (H) on one side, divide both sides
of the equation by 0.785 and by D2.

Rearranging V = 0.785 x D2 x H results in,

 Working with Equations 39

V = 0.785 x D2 x H = H
0.785 x D2 0.785 x D2

ƒ Plug into the equation the known values for V and D and solve for H.

H= V = 70.65 feet3 = 10 feet

2 2 2
0.785 x D 0.785 x 3 feet

Similar Units
The measurements and symbols in equations must be expressed in similar units. In
wastewater system problems, it is often necessary to change or convert measurements
from one unit to another unit before an equation can be solved.

Example 3-5
A rectangle has a width of 2 feet and a length of 48 inches. Determine the area of the
rectangle in the units of square feet.

ƒ The equation for the area of a rectangle is;

Area (feet2) = Length (feet) x Width (feet)

ƒ Change the length units of the rectangle from 48 inches to 4 feet to have units similar
to the width.

ƒ Plug the length and width into the equation and calculate the area.

Area (feet2) = 4 feet x 2 feet = 8 feet2

Example 3-6
A sewer has a diameter of 18 inches. Determine the cross-sectional area of the
sewer in the units of square feet.
40 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ The cross-section of a sewer is a circle. The equation for the cross-sectional area of a
circle is;
Area (feet2) = 0.785 x D2 where D = Diameter of the circle

ƒ To calculate the area of the circle in square feet, first change the units of the diameter
from 18 inches to 1.5 feet.

ƒ Plug the known sewer diameter into the equation and calculate the area.

Area (feet2) = 0.785 x (1.5 feet)2 = 1.77 feet2

 Chapter 3

WORKING WITH EQUATIONS

Review Problems

(The answers are given in Appendix A.)

1. Rearrange the following equation to solve for °F.

°C = (°F í 32)
1.8

2. Solve the following equation for the unknown A.

23 + 12.5 = 2 + 65.7 í A

3. Solve the following equation for the unknown V.

500 = V x 34 x 8.34

4. Solve the following equation for the unknown Y.

Y = (34.8 í 12.9) + 67
7.9

5. Solve the following equation for the unknown Z.

56,000 = 23.4 x (Z – 2.5)

41
Chapter 4

LINEAR, AREA AND VOLUME COMPUTATIONS

Introduction
Wastewater treatment systems include facilities that have a wide variety of shapes and
sizes. These objects can be one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional.

One-dimensional or linear objects include the length of a sewer, the depth of water in a
treatment tank and the length of a sedimentation tank overflow weir. Two-dimensional
objects relate to area and include the exterior surface of a sludge storage tank, the surface
area of a trickling filter and the surface area of a lagoon. Three-dimensional objects are
those that have volume and include treatment process tanks and lagoon treatment
systems.

Linear Computations
One-dimensional objects are referred to as linear. The length of a sewer is a linear
dimension.

Perimeter is a special linear dimension for a closed two-dimensional figure. The

perimeter of any closed two-dimensional figure is defined as the distance around the
outside of the figure.

Example 4-1
A rectangle is 4 feet long and 2 feet wide. What is the perimeter of the rectangle?

ƒ The rectangle is shown below with the known length and width dimensions.

43
44 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Length = 4 feet

Width = 2 feet Width = 2 feet

Length = 4 feet

ƒ The linear distance around the perimeter of the rectangle can be calculated by adding
each length and width dimension as shown below.

4 feet + 4 feet + 2 feet + 2 feet = 12 feet

ƒ The perimeter can also be calculated using the following equation.

(2 x 4 feet) + (2 x 2 feet) = 8 feet + 4 feet = 12 feet

The above example shows that the perimeter of a rectangle is equal to twice the length
plus twice the width, or

Perimeter = (2 x Length) + (2 x Width)

The distance around the outside of a circle is called the circumference. Circumference
is a special term for the perimeter of a circle. The circumference can be determined by
multiplying the diameter of the circle by a constant called Pi, the Greek letter.

The symbol for Pi is ư. Pi is a constant with a value of approximately 3.14159. Pi is a

number that has a non-repeating, non-terminating decimal. This means that the numbers
to the right of the decimal point are repeated indefinitely and randomly. For most
wastewater system calculations, using a value of 3.14 for Pi is appropriate.

The parts of a circle are shown in the following diagram.

 Linear, Area and Volume Computations 45

Circle
Radius (R)

Circumference (C)
Diameter (D)

The equation for determining the circumference (C) of a circle is:

C = ư x D or C = 3.14 x D

The diameter of a circle is equal to two times the radius, or

D=2xR

If the radius is known, it must be changed to diameter by multiplying by two before

using the circumference equation.

Example 4-2
If a circle is has a diameter of 12.00 inches, what is the circumference of the circle?

ƒ The circle is shown below with the known diameter.

Circumference (C) = ?

Diameter (D) = 12.00 inches

ƒ The circumference is calculated by solving the following equation.

C = ư x D = 3.14 x D = 3.14 x 12.00 inches = 37.68 inches

46 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Area Computations
Area is a measurement defining the size of a figure in a plane or on a surface. The
equations used to calculate the areas of objects depend on the shape of the object. The
most common objects used in wastewater system calculations are the rectangle and the
circle.

Rectangles

The area of a rectangle is calculated by multiplying the length times the width. The
equation for calculating the area of a rectangle is shown below.

Area = Length x Width

Example 4-3
A rectangle is 6 feet long and 3 feet wide. What is the area of the rectangle?

ƒ The rectangle is shown below with the known length and width dimensions.
Length = 6 feet

Width = 3 feet

ƒ The area of the rectangle is equal to 6 feet times 3 feet or 18 square feet. Using the
equation,

Area = Length x Width = 6 feet x 3 feet = 18 square feet (ft2)

Note that the units for area are square feet, abbreviated as ft2. When multiplying
numbers that have units, the units along with the numbers are also multiplied.
 Linear, Area and Volume Computations 47

Circles

The area of a circle is defined by the following equation.

Area = ư/4 x D2 or

Area = 0.785 x D2
where:
ư = 3.14
D = the diameter of the circle

The area of a circle can also be calculated using the following equation.

Area = ư x R2
where:
ư = 3.14
R = the radius of the circle

When solving wastewater system problems, equations showing the diameter are generally
easier to use than equations showing the radius since the dimensions of sewers and
circular process tanks are usually given as diameters.

Example 4-4
A circle has a diameter of 12 inches. Calculate the area of the circle in square inches
(in2).

ƒ The circle is shown below with the known diameter.

Circumference (C)

Diameter (D) = 12 inches

48 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ The area of the circle is calculated by solving the following equation.

Area = ư/4 x D2 = 0.785 x D2

or

Area = 0.785 x 12 inches x 12 inches = 113 square inches (in2)

The units for the area of the circle in this example are in square inches. In wastewater
system problems, it is common for the area to be calculated in square feet (ft2) to be
consistent with other units of measurements in the problem. To calculate the area of the
circle in square feet the diameter of 12 inches must be changed or converted to 1 foot.
The area in units of square feet can then be determined using the area of a circle
equation.

Area = ư/4 x D2 = 0.785 x D2

or

Area = 0.785 x 1 foot x 1 foot = 0.785 square feet (ft2)

Volume/Capacity Computations
General
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. Volume has two definitions that
are important to understand when performing wastewater system calculations. These
definitions are presented below.

1. Volume is the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object,

often expressed in “space” units such as cubic feet (ft3).

2. Volume is the liquid capacity of a container, often expressed in “liquid”

units such as gallons.
 Linear, Area and Volume Computations 49

Volume can be expressed as a space measurement (cubic feet) or as a liquid

measurement (gallons). When solving wastewater system problems it is often necessary
to change a volume measurement from cubic feet to gallons or from gallons to cubic
feet.

One of the most important concepts in wastewater system calculations is the following
volume relationship between cubic feet and gallons.

1 cubic foot (ft3) = 7.48 gallons (gals)

Rectangular Objects

The volume of a rectangular object is calculated by multiplying the length times the
width times the height. Three-dimensional rectangular objects in wastewater systems
include activated sludge tanks, clarifiers and sludge storage tanks. The equation for
calculating the volume of a rectangular object is shown below.

Volume = Length x Width x Height

where:

Length = the length of the rectangular object

Width = the width of the rectangular object
Height = the height of the rectangular object

Since the length times the width equals the area, the equation for calculating the volume
of a rectangular object can also be expressed as follows.

Volume = A x H
where:

Area = the area of the rectangle

Height = the height of the rectangular object

Example 4-5
A treatment tank measures 60 feet long, 35 feet wide and 20 feet high. What is the
volume of the tank in cubic feet?
50 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ The treatment tank is shown below with the known dimensions.

35 feet
20 feet

60 feet

ƒ The volume of the treatment tank is calculated as follows.

Volume = Length (ft) x Width (ft) x Height (ft)

or

Volume = 60 ft x 35 ft x 20 ft = 42,000 ft3

Example 4-6
What is the volume of this treatment tank in gallons?

ƒ As shown previously, 1 cubic foot = 7.48 gallons

ƒ If the treatment tank volume of 42,000 ft3 is multiplied by 7.48 gals/ft3, the volume
of the treatment tank in gallons can be determined.

42,000 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 314,160 gals

ft3

Cylinders
In wastewater systems, pipes and circular tanks have the shape of cylinders. The volume
of a cylinder is calculated by using the following equation.

Volume = ư/4 x D2 x H or

Volume = 0.785 x D2 x H
 Linear, Area and Volume Computations 51

where:
ư = 3.14
D = the diameter of the cylinder
H = the height (or length) of the cylinder

By examining the above equation, it can be seen that volume of a cylinder equals the area
of a circle multiplied by the height. The equation is shown below.

Volume = Area x Height

where:
Area = the area of a circle
Height = the height (or length) of the cylinder

Volume of cylinder calculations are commonly used in wastewater system problems

since cylinders can represent treatment units, storage tanks and sewers. A sewer can be
thought of as a cylinder in the horizontal position. For sewers, the height (H) becomes
the length (L) in the volume of a cylinder equation.

Example 4-7
A force main sewer is 8 inches in diameter and 1,200 feet long. What is the volume
of the force main in cubic feet? What is the capacity of the force main in gallons?

Length = 1,200 feet

Diameter = 8 inches

ƒ The equation for calculating the volume of a cylinder is shown below.

Volume = 0.785 x D2 x L

ƒ The length dimension of the force main is given in feet and the diameter dimension
of the force main is given in inches. Before using the equation, these dimensions
must be in the same units. The diameter is converted from inches to feet as shown
below.
52 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

8 inches x 1 foot = 0.667 foot

12 inches

ƒ The volume of the force main in cubic feet can now be determined by plugging the
known values for diameter and length into the volume of a cylinder equation.

Volume = 0.785 x D2 x L = 0.785 x 0.667 ft x 0.667 ft x 1,200 ft = 419 ft3

ƒ Since 1 cubic foot of volume equals 7.48 gallons, the capacity of the force main in
gallons can be calculated as follows.

419 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 3,134 gallons

ft3

Spheres and Cones

Process treatment units and storage tanks are sometimes in the shape of spheres and
cones. The equations for calculating the volume of these shapes are presented below.

Diameter (D)

Volume = ư x D3
6

Sphere

Diameter (D)

Volume = 0.785 x D2 x H
3

Cone Height (H)

 Linear, Area and Volume Computations 53

The volume of a cone is equal to one-third the volume of a cylinder with the same height
and diameter.

Example 4-8
A sludge storage tank has a cylindrical top and a cone bottom as shown in the
diagram below. What is the volume of the tank in gallons?
Diameter = 20 feet

Sludge
Storage Tank Height CYLINDER = 100 feet

Height CONE = 22 feet

ƒ The volume of the sludge storage tank, in cubic feet, is determined by calculating the
volumes of the cylinder and the cone using the equations given above and then
adding the two volumes.

ƒ The total volume in cubic feet can be changed to gallons using the relationship 1 ft3
= 7.48 gallons.

Volume CYLINDER = 0.785 x D2 x H = 0.785 x 20 ft x 20 ft x 100 ft = 31,400 ft3

Volume CONE = 0.785 x D2 x H = 0.785 x 20 ft x 20 ft x 22 ft = 2,303 ft3

3 3
Volume TANK = Volume CYLINDER + Volume CONE

Volume TANK = 31,400 ft3 + 2,303 ft3 = 33,703 ft3

Volume TANK = 33,703 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 252,100 gallons

1 ft3
54 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 4-9
A sphere-shaped storage tank has a diameter of 25 feet. What is the volume of the
tank in gallons?

Diameter (D) = 25 feet

Storage Tank

ƒ Calculate the volume of the sphere-shaped storage tank in cubic feet using the
volume of a sphere formula.

Volume SPHERE = ư x D3 = 3.14 x (25 ft)3 = 3.14 x 25 ft x 25 ft x 25 ft = 8,177 ft3

6 6 6

ƒ The volume of the sphere in cubic feet can be changed to gallons using the
relationship 1 ft3 = 7.48 gallons.

Volume SPHERE = 8,177 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 61,160 gallons

1 ft3
 Chapter 4

LINEAR, AREA AND VOLUME COMPUTATIONS

Review Problems

(The answers are given in Appendix A.)

1. Find the perimeter of a rectangle 23.4 feet long and 12.2 feet wide.

2. Find the diameter in feet of a circular storage tank having a circumference of

392.5 feet.

3. Calculate the volume in cubic feet of a storm sewer 4 feet in diameter and 1,350
feet long.

4. Calculate the number of gallons in a force main sewer having a diameter of 18

inches and a length of 1,800 feet.

5. A storage tank has a cylindrical top and a conical bottom. The top portion has a
diameter of 18 feet and a height of 75 feet. The conical bottom has a height of 10
feet. Find the volume of the tank in gallons.

6. A cylindrical storage tank has a volume of 300,000 gallons. If the height is 32

feet, what is the diameter of the tank in feet?

7. Calculate the number of cubic yards excavated from a trench with dimensions of
250 feet long, 20 feet wide and 9 feet deep.

55
Chapter 5

CONVERSIONS

Introduction
Properties such as distance, time, velocity, volume, flow and temperature can be
expressed in different units or measurements. When a property is changed from one unit
to another unit, for example changing a temperature measurement from degrees
Fahrenheit to degrees Centigrade, it is said that Fahrenheit is converted to Centigrade.

An equation typically requires measurements and units to be similar before the equation
can be solved. Therefore, conversions are frequently necessary prior to solving equations
to make units and measurements similar or consistent.

For some conversions, such as the Fahrenheit to Centigrade temperature conversion,

special equations are used. Most conversions, however, can be performed using basic
math principles.

The operator may refer to tables or reference books when conversions are required. In
addition, a list of conversion factors is provided for certification exams. It is not
necessary for the operator to memorize all conversions. However, familiarity with the
following fundamental wastewater system conversions is recommended.

ƒ 1 foot of head (water) = 0.433 psi

ƒ 1 cubic foot = 7.48 gallons
ƒ 1 gallon of water = 8.34 pounds
ƒ 1 milligram per liter (mg/L) = 1 part per million (ppm)

57
58 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Length Conversions
Length measurements include inches (in), feet (ft), yards (yd) and miles (mi). Common
length conversions are listed below.

ƒ 12 in = 1 ft
ƒ 3 ft = 1 yd
ƒ 5,280 ft = 1 mi

Most everyone is familiar with these basic length conversions. The examples below
show how math principles are used to calculate length conversions.

Example 5-1
A force main sewer has a diameter of 8 inches. Convert the diameter units to feet.

8 inches = 8 inches x 1 foot = 0.667 foot

12 inches

In this example, an equation has been created showing that 8 inches is equal to 8 inches
multiplied by the expression 1 foot divided by 12 inches. Since 1 foot equals 12 inches,
the expression 1 foot divided by 12 inches is equivalent to one. Therefore, the diameter
of 8 inches is multiplied by an expression that equals one. Basic math principles state
that when a value is multiplied by one, the value does not change.

The line through the inches units in the above example indicates that these units
“cancel” each other out. This convention will be used in the examples and problems
presented in this Handbook.

The above example illustrates the following rule for conversions.

When converting from one unit to another unit, multiply the unit by an
expression that equals one. When a number or expression is multiplied by one,
its value does not change.

This method for converting from one unit to another unit is referred to as the unit
factor method or dimensional analysis.
 Conversions 59

Example 5-2
The width of a trench measures 154 inches. Convert the width of the trench from
inches to yards.

ƒ To convert inches to yards, the inches are multiplied by two expressions that are
equal to one; 1 foot/12 inches and 1 yard/3 feet.

154 inches = 154 inches x 1 foot x 1 yard = 4.28 yards

12 inches 3 feet

Using this rule for converting requires a bit of reasoning in determining the expressions
that need to be applied. To “get rid of” a specific unit, put the unit on the bottom (or
denominator) of the expression. In the example above, the units of “inches” needed to
be eliminated so the expression required “inches” to be on the bottom.

Also, in this example the final units (yards) need to be on the top (or numerator) of the
expression.

Area Conversions
Area measurements include square inches (in2), square feet (ft2), acres (ac) and square
miles (mi2). Common area conversions are listed below.

ƒ 1 ft2 = 144 in2

ƒ 1 ac = 43,560 ft2
ƒ 1 mi2 = 640 ac

The rule for conversions, multiplying the unit to be converted by an expression or

expressions equal to one, is shown in the following examples.

Example 5-3
A pipe has a cross-sectional area of 113 in2. What is the cross-sectional area of the
pipe in ft2?
113 in2 = 113 in2 x 1 ft2 = 0.785 ft2
144 in2
60 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 5-4
A drainage basin has an area of 235,890 ft2. What is the area of the drainage basin
in acres?

253,890 ft2 = 253,890 ft2 x 1 acre = 5.83 acres

43,560 ft2

Example 5-5
A drainage basin has an area of 1.0 square mile. How many acres does the drainage
basin contain?

ƒ First calculate how many square feet are contained in one square mile. One mile is
equal to 5,280 ft. Therefore, the area of a one-mile square drainage basin in square
feet can be calculated as follows.

1 mi2 = 5,280 ft x 5,280 ft = 27,878,400 ft2

ƒ The conversion from ft2 to acres can now be made as shown below.

27,878,400 ft2 = 27,878,400 ft2 x 1 acre = 640 acres

43,560 ft2

Volume/Capacity Conversions
Volume measurements include cubic inches (in3) and cubic feet (ft3). A gallon (gal) is
also a volume or capacity measurement. For calculations involving drainage areas and
spray irrigation systems the volume term of acre-feet (ac-ft) is frequently used. Common
volume conversions are listed below.

ƒ 1 ft3 = 1,728 in3

ƒ 1 ft3 = 7.48 gals
ƒ 1 ac-ft = 43,560 ft3

Review the following conversion examples.

 Conversions 61

Example 5-6
A pipe has an internal volume of 2,390 in3. What is the volume in ft3?

2,390 in3 = 2,390 in3 x 1 ft3 = 1.38 ft3

1,728 in3

Example 5-7
What is the capacity of the pipe in the above example in gallons?

1.38 ft3 = 1.38 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 10.32 gals

1 ft3

Example 5-8
A total of 12.39 million gallons (mg) of rain falls on a drainage basin. How many acre
feet (ac-ft) of rain falls on the drainage basin?

12.39 mg = 12.39 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 12,390,000 gals

1 mg

12,390,000 gals = 12,390,000 gals x 1 ft3 x 1 ac-ft = 38.03 ac-ft

7.48 gals 43,560 ft3

Weight Conversions
The most common weight measurement used in wastewater systems is pounds (lbs).
Metric mass units of milligrams (mg), grams (gm) and kilograms (kg) are also commonly
used in wastewater system calculations.

Weight and mass are related but different. Mass is the amount of material in an object
and is the same everywhere in the universe. Weight is the force exerted by an object and
is a function of gravity. Although not theoretically accurate, for wastewater system
calculations weight and mass can be considered equal.
62 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Common weight conversions are listed below.

ƒ 1 lb = 454 g
ƒ 1 kg = 1,000 g
ƒ 1 lb = 0.454 kg

The volume to weight conversion commonly used in wastewater system calculations is

shown below.

ƒ 1 gallon (of water) = 8.34 pounds

This conversion is only valid for water. Liquids with densities and specific gravities
different than water have different volume to weight conversions.

Example 5-9
A water storage tank contains 2,000 gallons. How many pounds of water does the
tank contain?

2,000 gals = 2,000 gals x 8.34 lbs = 16,680 lbs

1 gal

Example 5-10
How many kilograms does this water storage tank contain?

16,680 lbs = 16,680 lbs x 0.454 kg = 7,573 kg

1 lb

Pressure Conversions
Pressure is an important measurement for water and wastewater system operators and is
widely used in monitoring operations.

Pressure is typically measured in pounds per square inch (psi) and head of water
(feet). The conversion factor for psi and head of water is presented below.

ƒ 1 foot of head = 0.433 psi, or

 Conversions 63

ƒ 1 psi = 2.31 feet of head

Example 5-11
The pressure inside a water main is 56 psi. What is the “head” in feet?

56 psi = 56 psi x 1 foot = 129 feet

0.433 psi

Example 5-12
A column of water is 215 feet high. What is the pressure in psi at the bottom of the
column?

215 feet = 215 feet x 0.433 psi = 93 psi

1 foot

Flow Conversions
Wastewater system problem solving requires an understanding of the different units for
measuring flow and the ability to convert from one unit of flow to another.

Flow measurements include gallons per day (gpd), million gallons per day (mgd), gallons
per minute (gpm), cubic feet per second (cfs or ft3/sec) and gallons per hour (gph).
Common flow conversions are listed below.

ƒ 1 cfs = 449 gpm

ƒ 1 cfs = 0.646 mgd
ƒ 1 mgd = 694 gpm
ƒ 1 mgd = 1.55 cfs
ƒ 1 gpm = 1,440 gpd

These flow conversions are typically available in reference books and are provided for
the operator licensing exams. If flow conversion factors are not readily available, they
can be calculated by remembering that 1 cubic foot equals 7.48 gallons and applying the
appropriate time conversions.
64 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 5-13
Convert 1 cubic foot per second (cfs or ft3⁄sec) to million gallons per day (mgd).

1 cfs = 1 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 60 sec x 60 min x 24 hours = 646,272 gals

sec 1 ft3 1 min 1 hour 1 day day

646,272 gals = 646,272 gals x 1 mg = 0.646 mg

day day 1,000,000 gals day

Therefore, 1 cfs = 0.646 mgd

Temperature Conversions
Two scales are commonly used to measure temperature; degrees Fahrenheit (ºF) and
degrees Centigrade (ºC). Fahrenheit is the standard scale used in the US and Centigrade
is the metric scale. In the Centigrade scale, water freezes at 0º and boils at 100º. In the
Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32º and boils at 212º.

The relationships between Fahrenheit and Centigrade measurements are related by the
following equations. These equations are used to convert from one temperature scale to
the other.
ºC = (ºF – 32)
1.8

ºF = (ºC x 1.8) + 32

Example 5-14
Convert 22 ºC to ºF.

ƒ Plug 22 ºC into the Fahrenheit to Centigrade equation and solve for ºF.

ºF = (ºC x 1.8) + 32
ºF = (22 x 1.8) + 32
ºF = 39.6 + 32
ºF = 71.6
 Conversions 65

Example 5-15
Convert 212 ºF to ºC.

ƒ Plug 212 ºF into the Centigrade to Fahrenheit equation and solve for ºC.

ºC = (ºF – 32)
1.8
ºC = (212 – 32)
1.8
ºC = 180
1.8
ºC = 100

Metric Conversions
The metric system is a system of units and measurements based on factors of 10. Metric
measurements are commonly used in the laboratory where mass is expressed in grams
(g) or kilograms (kg) and volume or capacity is expressed in milliliters (mLs) or liters (L).
Chemical dosages are commonly expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L).

Common metric and U.S. conversions are shown below.

Length
ƒ 1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm)
ƒ 1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 meters (m)
ƒ 1 mile (mi) = 1.6093 kilometers (km)

Area
ƒ 1 square meter (m2) = 10.764 square feet (ft2)
ƒ 1 square miles (mi2) = 2.59 square kilometers (km2)

Volume/Capacity
ƒ 1 gallon (gal) = 3.785 liters (L)
ƒ 1 gallon (gal) = 3,785 cubic centimeters (cc)
66 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Mass
ƒ 1 pound (lb) = 454 grams (g)
ƒ 1 pound (lb) = 0.454 kilograms (kg)
ƒ 1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams (g)

Using these relationships, metric to US and US to metric conversions can be performed.

Example 5-16
Convert 786 grams to pounds.

786 grams = 786 g x 1 lb = 1.73 lbs

454 g

Example 5-17
Convert 235 square feet (ft2) to square meters (m2).

1 ft = 0.3048 m

1 ft2 = (0.3048)2 m2 = 0.0929 m2

235 ft2 = 235 ft2 x 0.0929 m2 = 21.83 m2

1 ft2

Example 5-18
Convert 1.2 gallons to milliliters.

1.2 gals = 1.2 gals x 3.785 L x 1,000 mL = 4,542 mL

1 gal 1L
 Chapter 5
CONVERSIONS

Review Problems

(The answers are given in Appendix A.)

1. Convert í 40 °F to ºC.

2. Convert 123.67 ft3 to gallons.

3. Convert 1.5 cfs to gpd.

4. Convert 2.5 mgd to cfs.

5. Convert 0.0056 pounds to grams.

6. Convert 234 million gallons to acre-feet.

7. Convert 62 psi to feet of head.

8. Convert 3,456 gallons of water to pounds of water.

67
Chapter 6

WASTEWATER SYSTEM CONCEPTS

Water Usage and Wastewater Flows

Water Usage
The volume of water produced by a water utility and the amount of water consumed by
the systems’ users are commonly expressed in terms of gallons per capita per day
(gpcd). The term “per capita” means per person. The equations used for calculating
gpcd are shown below.

gpcd (produced) = water produced (gpd) ÷ total population served

gpcd (consumed) = water consumed (gpd) ÷ total population served

The volume of water produced is typically measured at the utility’s water treatment plant
and/or storage tanks. The volume of water consumed is measured at the customer’s
water meter. The difference between the water consumed by the users and the water
produced by the utility provides an estimate of the water lost in the system.

In the gpcd equations, the water produced and water consumed can be calculated for the
total of all user groups or can be calculated for the individual user groups; typically
designated as residential, commercial or industrial.

The volume of water produced or consumed is commonly used as an estimated of

wastewater produced. As discussed below, other factors need to be considered when
estimating total wastewater flows.

Wastewater Flows
Total wastewater flow includes the following components;

69
70 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Sanitary (or domestic) Flow,

ƒ Commercial Flow,
ƒ Industrial Flow,
ƒ Infiltration, and
ƒ Inflow.

Sanitary flow consists of the wastewater generated by people at their homes, place of
work, or commercial establishments. Commercial and industrial flow consists of the
wastewater generated by the processes used at commercial establishments and industries.

Infiltration is groundwater entering the sewer system through joints, cracks or other
defects in sewers and manholes. Infiltration is commonly estimated or measured in
terms of gallons per day per inch of diameter per mile of sewer. As a sewer ages,
infiltration will increase.

Inflow is stormwater runoff entering the sewer system during precipitation events
through surface manhole defects and catch basins from storm drains that are connected
to the sewer system. Building sump pumps connected to the sewer system have the
potential to increase inflow. In a new sanitary sewer system with no storm drains or
sump pumps connected, inflow should be negligible.

Estimating wastewater flows for proposed systems is difficult. Wastewater flows at

existing facilities can be estimated using flow meter and pumping records at the
wastewater treatment plant and pumping stations.

Example 6-1
A water utility serving residential, commercial and industrial users produces the
average daily volumes of water listed below. The system serves a total population of
8,400. Determine the total water produced by the utility in gpcd.

ɹ Residential 1,760,000 gpd

ɹ Commercial 280,000 gpd
ɹ Industrial 400,000 gpd

ƒ Determine the total water produced in gpd by adding the average daily volumes of
water for the residential, commercial and industrial classes.

Total Water Produced = Residential + Commercial + Industrial

 Wastewater System Concepts 71

Total Water Produced = 1,760,000 gpd + 280,000 gpd + 400,000 gpd

= 2,440,000 gpd

ƒ Divide the total water produced per day by the population as shown in the gpcd
equations.

gpcd (produced) = water produced (gpd) ÷ total population served

gpcd (produced) = 2,440,000 gpd ÷ 8,400 people = 290 gpcd

Example 6-2
A water utility has an average daily water use of 1,030,000 gpd. The commercial
class accounts for 22% of the total water used. If the system has a population of
5,600, what is the gpcd water use for the commercial class?

ƒ Determine the gpcd water use for all user classes

gpcd (consumed) = water consumed (gpd) ÷ total population served

gpcd (consumed) = 1,030,000 gpd ÷ 5,600 people = 184 gpcd

ƒ Determine the gpcd water use contributed by the commercial class.

gpcd for commercial class = gpcd for all classes x % commercial water use
gpcd for commercial class = 184 gpcd x 0.22 = 40.5 gpcd

Example 6-3
Calculate the projected average daily flow in million gallons per day for a new
wastewater treatment plant given the following information.

ɹ Equivalent Population Served 12,250

ɹ Average Water Use 82 gpcd
ɹ Average Commercial/Industrial Wastewater Flow 425 gpm
ɹ Feet of 8-inch Diameter Sewer 855,000
ɹ Infiltration Rate 225 gpd/inch/mile
72 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Calculate the sanitary wastewater flow. Assume that the sanitary flow equals the
water used. Rearrange the gpcd formula and solve for water consumed. Convert to
million gallons per day.

gpcd (consumed) = water consumed (gpd) ÷ total population served

water consumed (gpd) = gpcd (consumed) x total population served
water consumed (gpd) = 82 gpcd x 12,250 persons = 1,004,500 gpd
1,004,500 gpd = 1,004,500 gpd x 1 mg/1,000,000 gals = 1.005 mgd

ƒ Convert the commercial/industrial flow from gpm to mgd.

425 gpm = 425 gals/min x 60 min/hr x 24 hrs/day = 612,000 gpd

612,000 gpd = 612,000 gpd x 1 mg/1,000,000 gals = 0.612 mgd

ƒ Calculate the volume of infiltration. Convert the length of sewers from feet to miles.
Convert gallons per day to million gallons per day.

855,000 feet = 855,000 feet x 1 mile/5,280 feet = 161.9 miles

Infiltration (gpd) = Diameter (inches) x Length (miles) x Rate (gpd/inch/mile)
Infiltration (gpd) = 8 inches x 161.9 miles x 225 gpd/inch/mile
Infiltration (gpd) = 291,420 gpd
291,420 gpd = 291,420 gpd x 1 mg/1,000,000 gals = 0.291 mgd

ƒ Add the sanitary flows (estimated as water consumed), commercial/industrial flows

and infiltration.

Average Daily Flow = Sanitary Flow + Commercial/Industrial Flow + Infiltration

Average Daily Flow = 1.005 mgd + 0.612 mgd + 0.291 mgd = 1.908 mgd

Wastewater Contaminants
Wastewater treatment processes remove contaminants from the wastewater. The two
main groups of contaminants are solids and organic substances. Total suspended solids
(TSS) and 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) are the key contaminants
monitored by regulatory agencies to evaluate treatment plant performance. Nitrogen and
phosphorus, nutrients that contribute to excessive growth of aquatic life in receiving
waters, are also common contaminants in wastewater. For an existing treatment plant,
 Wastewater System Concepts 73

these contaminants can be determined by sampling and analysis. The wastewater

contaminant load from domestic users for a proposed treatment plant can be estimated
using “textbook” values for per capita contribution. The term “per capita” means per
person. The following values are typically used for estimating TSS and BOD5.

TSS = 0.20 pounds of TSS per day per capita, or

TSS = 0.20 lbs of TSS/capita/day

BOD5= 0.17 pounds of BOD5 per day per capita, or

BOD5= 0.17 lbs of BOD5/capita/day

Wastewater contaminants from nonresidential sources such as restaurants, motels and

shopping centers can be estimated by using “population equivalents”. For example, one
motel room could be estimated as equal to 2.5 persons. Wastewater contaminants from
industrial facilities vary considerably and are examined on a case-by-case basis.

Wastewater contaminants can also be expressed as concentrations. The following table

presents a range of concentrations for common wastewater contaminants for typical
sanitary wastewater.

Wastewater Contaminant Typical Concentration Range

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 200 mg/L to 400 mg/L
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) 100 mg/L to 250 mg/L
Total Nitrogen 25 mg/L to 50 mg/L
Total Phosphorus 5 mg/L to 10 mg/L

Example 6-4
A proposed wastewater treatment plant will serve a population of 6,200. Using the
pounds per capita values given above and the information provided below for
commercial establishments; determine the TSS and BOD5 loads that the proposed
wastewater treatment plant will receive.

Number of Population Equivalent

Commercial Type Unit
Units (PE)/Unit
Motels Rooms 112 2.5
Restaurants Seats 76 0.5
74 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Determine the total population equivalents for the commercial establishments.

No. of Units x Population Equivalent (PE)/Unit = Population Equivalent (PE)

Motels = 112 rooms x 2.5 PE/rooms = 280 PEs
Restaurants = 76 seats x 0.5 PE/seat = 38 PEs
Total Commercial PEs = 280 PEs + 38 PEs = 318 PEs

ƒ Add the commercial population equivalents to the population.

Population + Commercial PEs = 6,200 PEs + 318 PEs = 6,518 PEs

ƒ Multiply the total PEs by the per capita values for TSS and BOD5

TSS = 0.20 lbs of TSS/capita/day x 6,518 = 1,304 lbs of TSS/day

BOD5 = 0.17 lbs of BOD5/capita/day x 6,518 = 1,108 lbs of BOD5/day

Laboratory Analyses
General
The laboratory analysis of wastewater samples is necessary to obtain information to
evaluate the performance of a wastewater treatment facility, to troubleshoot operational
problems and to complete the reporting forms required by state and federal regulatory
agencies.

Wastewater analyses can also be used to determine if the wastewater treatment facility is
operating within its design parameters. By monitoring influent wastewater characteristics,
the operator can estimate when plant upgrades or expansions may be required.
Wastewater residuals are analyzed to evaluate the performance of solids treatment
systems. Toxic substances found in sludge may limit ultimate disposal options.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water & Wastewater should be referenced to
determine the specific procedures for wastewater and wastewater sludge analyses.

Settleable Solids and Settleability Tests

Settleable solids are the amount of raw wastewater solids that will settle over a specific
time. The settleable solids test measures the volume of solids that settle to the bottom of
 Wastewater System Concepts 75

a one-liter Imhoff cone in 60 minutes. The volume of the settleable solids is typically
measured as milliliters per liter. The settleable solids test can be used to monitor
sedimentation processes and can provide an estimate of the volume of sludge being
collected in the sedimentation tanks.

Settleability tests are used in activated sludge systems to evaluate process operations.
Typically, the mixed liquor is settled for 30 minutes in a 1,000 mL graduated cylinder.
The sludge volume index (SVI) and the sludge density index (SDI) can be calculated to
evaluate process performance. These parameters are further discussed in Chapter 7.

Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

Total suspended solids (TSS) include all the particles suspended in water which will not
pass through a filter. TSS is determined by weighing the residue that remains after a
sample is filtered through a standard glass-fiber filter and dried in an oven at 103°C for
one hour. The formula to calculate TSS is presented below.

TSS (mg/L) = (A – B) x 1,000 mg/g

Sample Volume (Liters)
where:
A = weight of filter + weight of dish + weight of residue - after drying,
in grams

B = weight of filter + weight of dish, in grams

Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS)

Volatile suspended solids (VSS) are the solids lost on ignition in a muffle furnace at a
temperature of 550°C. VSS is an approximation of the amount of organic matter present
in the solid fraction of wastewater and is used to evaluate and monitor wastewater
treatment processes. The formula to calculate VSS is presented below.

VSS (mg/L) = (A – B) x 1,000 mg/g

Sample Volume (Liters)
where:

A = weight of filter + weight of residue from TSS test + weight of crucible, in grams

B = weight of filter + weight of residue + weight of crucible - after ignition, in grams

76 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 6-5
Calculate the VSS of a mixed liquor suspended solids sample given the following
laboratory data.

ɹ Sample Volume = 750 mLs

ɹ Weight of filter and residue from TSS test = 2.03 grams
ɹ Weight of crucible = 21.12 grams
ɹ Weight of filter, residue and crucible after ignition = 21.89 grams

ƒ Calculate A and B for the VSS equation.

A = weight of filter + weight of residue from TSS test + weight of crucible

A = 2.03 g + 21.12 g = 23.15 g

B = weight of filter + weight of residue + weight of crucible (after ignition)

B = 21.89 g

ƒ Plug the known values into the VSS equation.

VSS (mg/L) = (A – B) x 1,000 mg/g = (23.15 g – 21.89 g) x 1,000 mg/g

Sample Volume (Liters) 0.75 L

VSS (mg/L) = 1,680 mg/L

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of oxygen required by aerobic
bacteria to decompose or stabilize the organic material in wastewater. BOD is used as a
measure of wastewater strength.

The BOD of a sample is determined by measuring the dissolved oxygen (D.O.) at the
beginning and at the end of the test. By convention, the BOD sample is incubated at a
temperature of 20°C for a period of 5 days and the results recorded in units of mg/L of
BOD5. The general formula for calculating BOD5 is presented below.

BOD5 (mg/L) = Initial D.O. (mg/L) – Final D.O. (mg/L)

Sample Volume (mL)/Total Diluted Volume (mL)
 Wastewater System Concepts 77

The total diluted volume is the volume of the BOD bottle. Since most BOD tests are
performed with 300 mL bottles, the formula can be rewritten as follows.

BOD5 (mg/L) = [Initial D.O. (mg/L) – Final D.O. (mg/L)] x 300

Sample Volume (mL)

In the BOD test, the sample volume is related to the strength of the sample tested. A
BOD test on a wastewater treatment plant effluent will require a larger sample than a
raw wastewater BOD test. Typically, several BOD tests are performed on a sample and
the results averaged. In working with unfamiliar wastewaters, trial-and error analyses may
be required in order to determine an appropriate range of sample volumes. A D.O.
depletion of at least 2 mg/L is desired for a valid test.

In some analyses, including disinfected samples and effluents from tertiary treatment
plants, there may not be sufficient bacteria in the sample for oxygen depletion to be
accurately determined. In these cases the sample needs to be “seeded” with additional
microorganisms. Other sources including “Standard Methods” should be referenced to
give details regarding seed correction procedures and the related mathematics.

Example 6-6
Determine the BOD5 of a wastewater sample given the results of the three analyses
shown below. 300 mL BOD bottles were used.

Sample Volume Initial D.O. Final D.O.

4 mL 9.3 mg/L 6.0 mg/L
8 mL 8.4 mg/L 2.3 mg/L
10 mL 8.6 mg/L 1.0 mg/L

ƒ Using the BOD5 test formula shown above, determine the BOD5 for each of the
three dilutions.

Dilution 1 - BOD5 (mg/L) = (9.3 mg/L – 6.0 mg/L) x 300 = 248 mg/L
4 mL
Dilution 2 - BOD5 (mg/L) = (8.4 mg/L – 2.3 mg/L) x 300 = 229 mg/L
8 mL
Dilution 3 - BOD5 (mg/L) = (8.6 mg/L – 1.0 mg/L) x 300 = 228 mg/L
10 mL
78 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Calculate the average of the three dilutions.

248 mg/L + 229 mg/L + 228 mg/L = 235 mg/L

3

Nitrification in the BOD Bottle

In the BOD test, there can be two stages of decomposition occurring; first stage or
carbonaceous demand and second stage or combined carbonaceous and nitrogenous
demand. This BOD demand is illustrated in the following figure.

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND CURVE

Second Stage – Combined Carbonaceous and Nitrogenous Demand

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Potential for Nitrifying

Organisms in BOD Bottle

First Stage –Carbonaceous Demand

5 Day BOD

0 15 30
Time in Days

The BOD5 test is intended to measure only the carbonaceous demand. Under most
conditions in wastewater treatment systems, nitrogenous oxygen demand typically begins
after about 6 or more days. However if sufficient ammonia and nitrifying bacteria are
present in the BOD5 sample, the nitrogenous oxygen demand can be exerted in the
BOD bottle resulting in erroneously high BOD5 values.
 Wastewater System Concepts 79

When nitrification is anticipated in BOD5 testing, a chemical can be added to prevent

nitrification from occurring. When a nitrification inhibitor is used the test results are
reported as carbonaceous BOD5 or CBOD5.

Diluting Solutions
In the laboratory, concentrated stock solutions are commonly diluted to less
concentrated solutions for use in analyzing wastewater samples.

When solutions are diluted from one concentration to another concentration, they are
related by the following equation.

V1 x C1 = V2 x C2
where:

V1 = Volume of original or stock solution

C1 = Concentration of original or stock solution
V2 = Volume of diluted or working solution
C2 = Concentration of diluted or working solution

When using this equation, the concentration of the solution can be in any units including
milligrams per liter, percent, molar and normal. However, the concentrations, C1 and C2,
must be in the same units. The units for the volumes, V1 and V2, must also be the same.

Example 6-7
450 mLs of HCl with a 12 N concentration is available in the lab. How many mLs of
this solution are required to make an 8 N concentration of HCl?

ƒ Use the above equation, V1 x C1 = V2 x C2, where

V1 = Volume of original solution = 450 mLs

C1 = Concentration of original solution = 12 N
V2 = Volume of diluted solution = unknown
C2 = Concentration of diluted solution = 8 N

ƒ Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown V2 on one side of the equation, plug
in the known values for V1, C1 and C2 and solve for V2.
80 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

V2 = V1 x C1 = 450 mLs x 12 N = 675 mLs

C2 8N

ƒ Therefore, the 450 mLs of 12 N solution diluted to 675 mLs will result in a 8 N
solution.

Example 6-8
An operator has a stock solution of acid that is 8 N. He needs to prepare one liter of a
0.25 N solution of the acid. How much acid and distilled water should be mixed to
make one liter of the desired 0.25 N solution?

ƒ Use the above equation, V1 x C1 = V2 x C2, where

V1 = Volume of stock solution = unknown

C1 = Concentration of stock solution = 8 N
V2 = Volume of working solution = 1 liter
C2 = Concentration of working solution = 0.25 N

ƒ Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown volume of the stock solution (V1) on
one side.

ƒ Plug in the known values for V2, C1 and C2 and solve for V1.

V1 = V2 x C2 = 1 liter x 0.25 N = 0.031 Liters or 31 mLs

C1 8N

ƒ Therefore, mix 31 mLs of the stock 8 N solution with 969 mLs (1,000 mLs – 31
mLs) of distilled water to make 1 liter of a 0.25 N solution.

Concentration and Dosage

Concentration is a measure of how much of a given substance is combined with
another substance. In wastewater system applications, the amount of chemicals added to
a wastewater treatment process can be defined in terms of concentration. The amount of
contaminants in a wastewater treatment plant effluent can also be quantified as a
concentration.
 Wastewater System Concepts 81

Concentration can be expressed in a variety of units including pounds per gallon

(lbs/gal), milligrams per liter (mg/L), parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb).

Example 6-9
Concentration can be expressed in several ways.

ƒ If 3 pounds of lime are mixed in 60 gallons of water, the concentration of the

mixture is 3 pounds divided by 60 gallons or 0.05 lbs/gal.

ƒ If 5 milligrams of polymer are mixed with 2 liters of water, the concentration of the
mixture is 5 milligrams divided by 2 liters or 2.5 mg/L.

ƒ If 28 pounds of a contaminant such as arsenic is found in 1,000,000 pounds of a

water supply, the concentration of arsenic is 28 pounds divided by 1,000,000 pounds
or 0.000028 pounds/pound.

ƒ If 10 gallons of sodium hypochlorite are added to 5 million gallons of water, the

concentration of the mixture is 10 gallons divided by 5,000,000 gallons or 0.000002
gallon/gallon.

As seen in the last example, the term 0.000002 gallon/gallon is very small and can be
cumbersome to use in math calculations. This concentration, however, can also be
expressed in parts per million (ppm) by multiplying by one million. The concentration
can then be expressed as 2 ppm, which means 2 gallons of sodium hypochlorite for every
one million gallons of water. When expressing a concentration in parts per million the
units of the substance that is added must be the same as the units of the substance that it
is added to. In this case, the common unit is gallons.

When chemicals such as alum, lime, chlorine and polymer are added to wastewater
treatment processes, the concentration is typically referred to as the dose or dosage of
the chemical. Dosage is usually expressed in metric terms as mg/L. A dosage of 1 mg/L
means that one milligram of a substance exists in one liter of water.

In the metric system, one liter of water is equal in weight to one kilogram. One kilogram
equals 1,000 grams and one gram equals 1,000 milligrams. Therefore, one liter equals
1,000,000 milligrams. A concentration of 1 mg/L is equivalent to 1 milligram per
82 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

1,000,000 milligrams or 1 part per million (ppm). The conversion of 1 mg/L to 1 ppm is
shown in the following example.

Example 6-10
Convert 1 mg/L to ppm.

1 mg = 1 mg x 1 L x 1 kg x 1 gm = 1 mg = 1 ppm
L L 1 kg 1,000 gms 1,000 mg 1,000,000 mg

Density and Specific Gravity

The density of a substance is a measure of its mass per unit volume. The greater the
density of a substance, the greater it’s mass per unit volume. A dense substance, such as
iron, has less volume than an equal mass of a less dense substance such as water.

The density of water is 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. The density of water can also be
expressed as 8.34 pounds per gallon. Some substances used in wastewater systems have a
higher density than water, such as liquid sodium hypochlorite, and some have a lower
density than water, such as anhydrous ammonia.

Specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of water.
Therefore, the specific gravity of water by definition is 1.0. Substances that are lighter
than water have specific gravities less than 1.0 and will float in water. Substances having
specific gravities exceeding 1.0 are heavier than water and will sink in water. The
relationship between density and specific gravity is shown in the following equation.

SG SUBSTANCE = Density SUBSTANCE

Density WATER

Example 6-11
The specific gravity (SG) of a sodium hypochlorite solution is 1.07. What is the
density of sodium hypochlorite in lbs/ft3?

ƒ The specific gravity of sodium hypochlorite is defined by the following equation.

 Wastewater System Concepts 83

SG SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE = Density SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE

Density WATER

ƒ Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown density of sodium hypochlorite.
Density SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE = SG SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE x Density WATER

ƒ Plug the known values for the specific gravity of sodium hypochlorite and the
density of water into the equation.

Density SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE = 1.07 x 62.4 lbs/ft3 = 66.8 lbs/ft3

Velocity and Flow

Velocity is a function of the speed of an object and its direction. In wastewater systems,
velocity is defined as the speed of water as it travels through a treatment process unit or
process piping. The equations discussed below assume the process unit or piping is
flowing at full capacity or volume. The flow and velocity in process piping or gravity
sewers that are not flowing at full capacity are determined by other methods.

Velocity is usually expressed in the units of feet per second, commonly written as ft/sec
or fps.

Flow is defined as the quantity or volume of water that travels through a cross-sectional
area over a specific period of time. The general equation for flow is shown below.

Q=AxV
where:
Q = flow
A = cross-sectional area
V = velocity

The concept of flow through a pipe is illustrated in the following figure.

84 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Area 1 time 2 Area

Velocity (V)

Water travels through the pipe at a velocity of V from Point 1 to Point 2. While traveling
from Point 1 to Point 2, it takes a specific time. During this time, the water passes
through or “displaces” a specific volume (Vol) of pipe. Therefore, flow can also be
considered as volume displaced over a period of time or volume divided by time. The
equation is shown below.
Q = Vol
T
where:
Q = flow
Vol = volume
T = time

Flow can be expressed in many units. The most common units of flow are cubic feet per
second (cfs or ft3/sec), gallons per minute (gpm) and million gallons per day (mgd).

Example 6-12

Determine the flow in cfs in an 8-inch diameter force main that is transporting
wastewater at a velocity of 2 fps.

Flow =?
Diameter = 8 inches
Velocity = 2 ft/sec

ƒ The equation for flow is Q = A x V where Q equals flow, A equals the cross-
sectional area of the pipe and V equals the velocity of the water.
 Wastewater System Concepts 85

ƒ Determine the cross-sectional area of the force main using the area of a circle
formula. Since the flow and the velocity are expressed in “feet” units, convert the
diameter of the force main from inches to feet before using the area of a circle
formula.

8 in = 8 in x 1 foot = 0.667 foot

12 in

Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 0.667 ft x 0.667 ft = 0.349 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for velocity and area in the flow formula.

Q = A x V = 0.349 ft2 x 2 ft/sec = 0.70 ft3/sec

Example 6-13
Determine the velocity in fps in a 24-inch force main sewer that is transporting
wastewater at a flow of 8,455 gpm.

Velocity =?
Diameter = 24 inches

Flow = 8,455 gpm

ƒ The equation for flow is Q = A x V where Q equals flow, A equals the cross-
sectional area of the pipe and V equals the velocity of the water.

ƒ Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown velocity.

Q=AxV or V=Q
A

ƒ Determine the area of the sewer. Since the velocity is in “feet” units, convert the
diameter of the sewer from inches to feet before using the area of a circle formula.
86 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

24 in = 24 in x 1 foot = 2 feet
12 in

Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 2 ft x 2 ft = 3.14 ft2

ƒ Convert the flow from gallons per minute to cubic feet per second to make the flow
units consistent with the units for velocity and area.

8,455 gpm = 8,455 gal x 1 ft3 x 1 min = 18.84 ft3/sec

min 7.48 gals 60 sec

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and area into the rearranged flow formula.

V = Q = 18.84 ft3/sec = 18.84 ft x ft x ft/sec = 6 fps

A 3.14 ft2 3.14 ft x ft

Detention Time
Detention time is the amount of time that a volume of water will remain in a space.
The space may be a pipe, a treatment tank, a wastewater lagoon, a sludge storage tank or
any other object that has volume. Detention time is a key parameter used by wastewater
system operators to evaluate and monitor treatment systems.

The general equation for detention time is shown below.

DT = Vol
Q
where:
DT = detention time
Vol = volume
Q = flow

Note that the detention time equation is similar to the flow equation discussed in the
previous section.

The concept of detention time is illustrated in the following figure.

 Wastewater System Concepts 87

Q Vol Q

1 time 2

A flow of water, shown as Q, flows through a rectangular basin with a volume of Vol.
The time it takes to travels from Point 1 to Point 2 is called the detention time. The
detention time, calculated by dividing the volume by the flow, assumes that each drop of
water in the basin travels at the same velocity. In reality, the water drops do not travel at
the same velocity due to unequal influent flow distribution, basin size and shape,
temperature variations and other environmental and structural factors. Therefore, the
calculated detention time is often referred to as the theoretical detention time. Due to
these factors, some drops of water will reach the end of the basin before the calculated
detention time. This is called short-circuiting.

Detention time can be expressed in the units of seconds, minutes, hours and days.

In solving wastewater systems problems, do not confuse velocity with volume.

Velocity and volume can both be abbreviated by the letter V.

Example 6-14
A circular primary clarifier has a diameter of 250 feet and a depth of 12 feet. At a flow
of 20 mgd, what is the detention time in hours?

Q = 20 mgd

Depth = 12 feet Q = 20 mgd

Diameter = 250 feet

ƒ The equation for detention time is DT = V/Q where DT equals detention time, V
equals the volume of the tank and Q equals the flow through the tank.
88 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ The primary clarifier has the shape of a cylinder. Its volume can be calculated by
using the equation for the volume of a cylinder.

Volume = 0.785 x D2 x H

Volume = 0.785 x 250 ft x 250 ft x 12 ft = 588,750 ft3

ƒ Convert the volume units from cubic feet to million gallons to be consistent with the
units of flow.

588,750 ft3 = 588,750 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 4,403,850 gals

1 ft3

4,403,850 gals = 4,403,850 gals x 1 mgd = 4.404 mg

1,000,000 gals

ƒ Plug the known valves for volume and flow into the detention time formula.

DT = Vol = 4.404 mg = 0.22 day

Q 20 mg/d

ƒ Convert the units of detention time from days to hours.

DT = 0.22 days x 24 hours = 5.28 hours

1 day

Headloss and Pumping Systems

Components of Headloss
Under dynamic conditions in a piping system, pressure is reduced due to headloss.
Headloss represents the energy expended by the water as it moves through the piping
system. Headloss can also be defined as the reduction in total head as the water moves
through the system. Headloss has the following components.

ƒ Friction headloss
ƒ Minor headloss
 Wastewater System Concepts 89

ƒ Velocity headloss

Friction headloss is the energy lost due to the friction between the water and the walls
of the pipe. The rougher the walls, the higher the friction head loss. Wall roughness is a
function of the pipe material, pipe age and scaling and corrosion conditions. At a given
flow, friction head loss increases as the pipe length increases and decreases as the pipe
diameter increases. Friction headloss can be calculated by using the Hazen-Williams
formula or from hydraulic tables found in standard hydraulic handbooks.

Minor headloss represents energy lost due to changes in direction and velocity caused
by bends, fittings, valves or other structural components. Minor headlosses can be
caused by elbows, reducers, increasers and valves. Minor headlosses are usually, but not
necessarily, a minor portion of total system headloss. Minor head losses can be calculated
using formulas and coefficients available in standard hydraulic handbooks.

Velocity headloss represents the energy in the water due to its motion. Velocity head is
defined by the following equation.

Velocity Head = V2 ⁄ 2g

where:
V = velocity
g = 32.2 ft/sec2 (acceleration due to gravity)

Velocity headloss is small when compared to total head loss and is usually a small factor
in wastewater system hydraulic calculations.

Example 6-15
Determine the pressure in psi at Point B in the system below given the following
information.

ɹ Friction headloss from Point A to Point B is 21 feet

ɹ Minor headloss and velocity headloss are negligible
ɹ Pipe rises in elevation 30 feet from Point A to Point B
90 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

150 ft P

30 ft
Q B

ƒ The pressure head at Point B equals the pressure head at Point A minus the change
in elevation minus the friction headloss.

Pressure head at B = Pressure head at A î elevation loss î friction loss

Pressure head at B = 150 ft î 30 ft î 21 ft = 99 feet

ƒ Convert the pressure head in feet to psi.

99 feet = 99 feet x 0.433 psi = 42.9 psi

1 foot

Pumping Systems
In pumping systems, the total head is defined as the energy required pumping the water
from the source to the discharge point. Total head is also referred to as total dynamic
head (TDH). Total head is the sum of the following.

ƒ Static head
ƒ Friction headloss
ƒ Minor headloss
ƒ Velocity head

In equation form total dynamic head can be written as follows.

TDH = Static Head + Friction Headloss + Minor Headloss + Velocity Head

 Wastewater System Concepts 91

Example 6-16
A pump at elevation 10 feet delivers flow to an effluent storage tank at elevation 120
feet. Determine the total dynamic head given the following conditions.

ɹ Headloss due to friction = 22 feet

ɹ Velocity Head = 1 foot
ɹ Minor Headloss = 8 feet

ƒ Calculate the static head.

Static Head = Effluent Storage Tank Elevation – Pump Elevation

Static Head = 120 feet î 10 feet = 110 feet

ƒ Plug the known values into the Total Dynamic Head equation.

TDH = Static Head + Friction Headloss + Minor Headloss + Velocity Head

TDH = 110 ft + 22 ft + 8 ft + 1 ft = 141 feet

Example 6-17
A pump runs continuously for a period of 18 hours and delivers a total of 2,340
gallons. What is the capacity of the pump in gallons per minute?

ƒ The capacity or the flow (Q) delivered by the pump, can be found by using the
following basic flow formula.

Flow (Q) = Volume

Time
ƒ Plug the known values for volume and time into the flow formula.
Flow (Q) = Volume = 2,340 gals = 130 gals/hr
Time 18 hours

ƒ Convert the units of flow from gals/hr to gpm.

130 gals/hr = 130 gals x 1 hr = 2.17 gpm
hr 60 min
92 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Chemical Dosage and Chemical Feed Rate

General
In wastewater treatment systems, chemicals are added to assist in the removal of
contaminants, to thicken and dewater wastewater solids and to disinfect the final effluent.
Some of the more common chemicals are listed below.

ƒ Lime
ƒ Ferric Chloride
ƒ Polymers
ƒ Sodium Bicarbonate
ƒ Ammonia
ƒ Chlorine

Wastewater treatment chemicals are available in three physical forms; gasses, liquids and
solids. Solid chemicals can be provided in powder, granular or tablet form. The units of
the chemicals can be in weight or mass, such as pounds or grams, or in volume, such as
gallons or cubic feet. Chemicals are also available in different strengths or purities. A
chemical is said to have 100% purity if the entire amount of chemical added is being used
by the process in performing its function. If a chemical has 50% purity, then only one-
half of the chemical added is being used by the process. In performing calculations
involving chemicals, the units of measurement and the purity of the chemical are key
considerations.

Chemical Dosage
Dosage is amount of a chemical added. Dosage is typically expressed as a concentration
in terms of mg/L or ppm.

Example 6-18
If 2 gallons of algaecide are added to clean a tank containing 26,000 gallons of
water, the dosage is two gallons per 26,000 gallons. The dosage can be expressed
in several forms as shown below.

ƒ 2 gallons per 26,000 gallons, or

ƒ 2 gallons/26,000 gallons, or
ƒ 0.0000769 gallons/gallon
 Wastewater System Concepts 93

From this example, it can be seen that dosage can be expressed as a fraction or as a
decimal. It can also be seen that dosages can be very small when expressed in decimal
format.

In wastewater system problems, dosage is usually expressed as a concentration in the

units of parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L). As discussed earlier, ppm
and mg/L are equal expressions.

In the previous example, the dosage of 2 gallons per 26,000 gallons can also be expressed
as a concentration in ppm or mg/L. To convert a number in decimal format to ppm or
mg/L, the number is multiplied by one million. The conversion of 0.0000769 to ppm is
shown below.

0. 0000769 x 1,000,000 = 76.9 ppm or mg/L

Chemical Feed Rate

Chemical feed rate refers to the quantity or volume of chemical being added to the
process over a certain time. Chemical feed rate can be expressed in several units
including:

ƒ pounds per day (lbs/day)

ƒ gallons per day (gpd)
ƒ gallons per hour (gph), and
ƒ grams per minute (g/min)

Chemical feed rate has units similar to flow when the volume is expressed in gallons,
such as gallons per day. Chemical feed rate can be considered as a “flow” of chemicals.

The “Pounds” Formula

The pounds formula is one of the most important equations that wastewater system
operators use. This equation defines the relationship among volume, flow, pounds and
dosage.

The pounds formula can be expressed in two versions, as a “mass” or as a “mass flow”.
The mass format represents a static or non-flowing condition, such as adding chlorine to
disinfect a storage tank or a water main. The mass flow format represents a flow
condition, such as adding chemicals to the flow entering a treatment tank or the pounds
94 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

of solids entering an aeration tank per day. These two formats of the pounds formula are
shown in the equations below.

Equation (1)

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

where:
Mass = pounds
Volume = million gallons
Dosage (or Concentration) = milligrams per liter (or ppm)

Equation (2)

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

where:
Mass Flow = pounds per day
Flow = million gallons per day
Dosage (or Concentration) = milligrams per liter (or ppm)

Equation (1) is used to solve “static” problems where there is no flow of water, such as
disinfecting a storage tank or determining the pounds of solids under aeration in the
activated sludge process.

Equation (2) is used to solve problems where water is flowing, such as adding polymer to
a wastewater treatment process.

The constant 8.34 in the pounds formula equations represents the specific gravity of
water. Therefore, the pounds formula equations presented above assume that the
solution being evaluated is pure water. This assumption is not valid when evaluating
solutions that have specific gravities greater than pure water, for example liquid and
semi-solid sludges. In these cases, the specific gravity may need to be included in the
calculation. This concept is further discussed in Chapter 7.

Example 6-19
Determine the pounds of available chlorine required to disinfect a 200,000-gallon
storage tank to a chlorine concentration of 50 mg/L.
 Wastewater System Concepts 95

Chlorine Concentration = 50 mg/L

Chlorine
Volume = 200,000 gallons Supply
or 0.20 mg

Storage Tank

ƒ Calculate the pounds of chlorine required by using the “Mass” version of the pounds
formula or Equation (1).

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

ƒ Convert the volume units of the tank from gallons to million gallons.

200,000 gals = 200,000 gals x 1 mg = 0.20 mg

1,000,000 gals

ƒ Plug the known values for volume and dosage into the pounds formula to solve for
the unknown pounds of available chlorine.

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

lbs of Cl2 = 0.20 mg x 50 mg/L x 8.34 = 83.4 lbs

Example 6-20
Polymer is added to a treatment process at a rate of 125 lbs/day. If the flow is 2 mgd,
what is the dosage of polymer added in mg/L?

Polymer Added = 125 lbs/day, Dosage = ?

Flow = 2 mgd

Treatment Process

ƒ Calculate the dosage of polymer using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds
formula or Equation (2).

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

96 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Rearrange the formula to isolate the unknown dosage on one side of the equation.

Dosage (mg/L) = Mass Flow (lbs/day)

Flow (mgd) x 8.34

ƒ Plug the known values for mass flow and flow into the equation and solve for the
dosage of polymer.

Dosage (mg/L) = 125 lbs/day = 7.5 mg/L

2 mgd x 8.34

Some chemicals, such as sodium hypochlorite, are not 100% pure or active when added
to wastewater treatment processes. When the chemical used is less than 100% pure, the
“mass” pounds formula (Equation 1) and the “mass flow” pounds formula (Equation 2)
are modified to account for the percent purity of the chemical.

Equation (1) - Modified for Chemical Feed Applications

Chemical Feed (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

where:
Chemical Feed = pounds of chemical required
Volume = million gallons
Dosage = milligrams per liter (or ppm) of chemical added
% Purity = the percent purity of the chemical expressed as a decimal

Equation (2) – Modified for Chemical Feed Applications

Chemical Feed Rate (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

where:
Chemical Feed Rate = pounds per day of chemical required
Flow = million gallons per day
Dosage = milligrams per liter (or ppm) of chemical added
% Purity = the percent purity of the chemical expressed as a decimal
 Wastewater System Concepts 97

Example 6-21
How many pounds of sodium hypochlorite at 15 percent strength are required to
disinfect a water storage tank? The desired chlorine dosage is 50 mg/L. The tank has
a volume of 1.35 million gallons.

Pounds of 15 % sodium
Chlorine Concentration Required hypochlorite added =?
in Tank = 50 mg/L
Volume = 1.35 mg

Chemical
Water Storage Tank Feed Pump

ƒ Since the sodium hypochlorite solution used for disinfection is not 100% pure, the
modified version of the “Mass” pounds formula is used to take into consideration
the purity of the solution.

Chemical Feed (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

ƒ Plug the known values for volume and dosage into the pounds formula to solve for
the unknown pounds of sodium hypochlorite.

Sodium Hypochlorite (lbs) = 1.35 mg x 50 mg/L x 8.34 = 3,753 lbs

0.15

The pounds formula can also be used for solving problems relating to contaminants
removed from wastewater treatment processes.

Example 6-22
A primary sedimentation tank removes biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) from the
wastewater prior to the activated sludge system. Determine the pounds per day of
BOD5 that will go to the aeration tank given the information in the following diagram.
98 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

BOD5 Concentration = 120 mg/L

BOD5 Pounds per Day (lbs/day) = ?

To Aeration Tank
Flow = 20 mgd Primary Sedimentation
Tank

ƒ Use the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula to solve the problem.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

where:
Mass Flow = pounds per day of BOD5 to the aeration tank
Flow = million gallons per day = 20 mgd
Concentration of BOD5 = 120 mg/L

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and concentration into the pounds formula to solve
for the unknown pounds per day of BOD5.

BOD5 (lbs/day) = 20 mgd x 120 mg/L x 8.34 = 20,000 lbs/day

Example 6-23
In a wastewater treatment plant, sludge from the primary sedimentation tank is
pumped to a sludge lagoon for storage prior to being sent to a landfill for ultimate
disposal. Determine the tons of dry solids removed from the lagoon per year given
the information in the following diagram. (The specific gravity of the sludge is
assumed to be 1.0.)

Flow = 150,000 gpd

TSS Concentration = 45,000 mg/L

To Landfill
Primary Sedimentation
Tank Basin
Sludge Removed in
Sludge Lagoon Tons per Year
 Wastewater System Concepts 99

ƒ Use the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula to solve the problem.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

where:
Mass Flow = pounds per day of TSS deposited in the lagoon
Flow = 150,000 gpd = 0.15 mgd
Dosage (or Concentration) of TSS = 45,000 mg/L

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and dosage into the pounds formula to solve for the
unknown pounds per day of TSS.

TSS (lbs/day) = 0.15 mgd x 45,000 mg/L x 8.34 = 56,300 lbs/day

ƒ Convert the TSS units from pounds per day to tons per year.

56,300 lbs = 56,300 lbs x 365 days x 1 ton = 10,270 tons/year

day day year 2,000 lbs

Surface Overflow Rate and Weir Overflow Rate

Surface Overflow Rate and Weir Overflow Rate are operational parameters of
wastewater process tanks that provide solids settling. (Surface Overflow Rate is also called
Surface Loading Rate or Hydraulic Loading Rate.)

The following diagram shows a Sedimentation Tank.

Overflow Weir
Length

Sedimentation Tank
Influent (QIN)
Width

Sedimentation
Tank
Sedimentation Tank
Effluent (QOUT)
100 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Under normal operations, the Sedimentation Tank Influent (QIN) flows into the tank.
The water travels through the tank and eventually flows over an overflow weir at the end
of tank. The flow is collected and directed out of the tank as Sedimentation Tank
Effluent (QOUT).

The Surface Overflow Rate is expressed in terms of flow per surface area of the tank.
Since the surface area of a rectangular sedimentation tank equals the tank length times
the tank width, the equation for Surface Overflow Rate for rectangular sedimentation
tanks can be written as follows.

Surface Overflow Rate = Tank Influent Flow (QIN) = Tank Influent Flow (QIN)
Tank Surface Area Length x Width

For circular sedimentation tanks, the surface area is calculated by using the area of a
circle formula. The Surface Overflow Rate for circular sedimentation tanks can be
written as follows.

Surface Overflow Rate = Tank Influent Flow (QIN) = Tank Influent Flow(QIN)
Tank Surface Area 0.785 x D2

The Weir Overflow Rate is expressed in terms of flow per length of the weir. The Weir
Overflow Rate can be written as follows.

Weir Overflow Rate = Tank Influent Flow (QIN)

Length of Weir

For rectangular sedimentation tanks, the overflow weir is typically at the effluent end of
the tank. For some designs, the overflow weir is approximately equal to the width of the
tank.

For circular sedimentation tanks, the overflow weir is a circle and is typically located
adjacent to the outside edge of the tank. In these cases, the weir length for circular tanks
can be approximated by using the circumference of a circle formula.

The Surface Loading Rate and the Weir Overflow Rate are typically expressed in gpd/ft2
and gpd/ft, respectively. The Surface Loading Rate can also be expressed in gpm/ft2.
 Wastewater System Concepts 101

Example 6-24
Calculate the Surface Loading Rate and the Weir Overflow Rate of the following
Sedimentation Tank.
Tank Length = 100 feet
Overflow Weir
Tank Influent (QIN) =
1,200,000 gpd
Tank Width = 60 feet

Sedimentation
Tank Tank Effluent (QOUT) =
1,200,000 gpd

The Surface Loading Rate and the Weir Overflow Rate can be determined using the
equations previously shown.
Surface Loading Rate = Tank Influent Flow (QIN) = 1,200,000 gpd = 200 gpd/ft2
Length x Width 100 ft x 60 ft
Weir Overflow Rate = Tank Influent Flow (QIN) = 1,200,000 gpd = 20,000 gpd/ft
Length of Weir 60 ft

Horsepower and Efficiency

Horsepower, abbreviated as hp, is a unit of measurement used to express the rate of
work or power. The electrical motors used to operate pumps and other wastewater
system equipment are rated in horsepower units.

Horsepower can be expressed as Motor hp (or Input hp), Brake hp (or Shaft hp) and
Water hp.

Work or power can also be expressed as watts or kilowatts. The relationship among
watts, kilowatts and horsepower is shown below.

ƒ 1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts

ƒ 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1,000 watts
ƒ 1 horsepower (hp) = 0.746 kilowatts
102 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

The following diagram shows a pump driven by a motor that pumps treated water to a
storage tank.

Pumped Water

Electrical
Supply Storage
PUMP Tank

MOTOR
Water hp

Treatment Brake hp
Plant
Motor hp

The diagram indicates that the Motor hp is measured at the electrical input of the motor,
the Brake hp is measured at the output shaft of the motor and the Water hp is measured
at the outlet of the pump.

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output to the input of any system, expressed as a
percentage (%).

In the diagram, the output of the motor is the Brake hp and the input of the motor is the
Motor hp. The efficiency of the motor is expressed by the following equation.

Motor Efficiency (%) = Brake hp x 100

Motor hp

Similarly, the efficiency of the pump can be expressed by the following equation.

Pump Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100

Brake hp

Another term used in water pumping applications is Wire-to-Water Efficiency. Wire-

to-water efficiency is defined as the efficiency of the pumping process from the input of
the motor (at the wire) to the output of the pump (at the water).
 Wastewater System Concepts 103

Wire-to-water efficiency of a pumping system is expressed by the following equations.

Wire-to-Water Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100

Motor hp

Wire-to-Water Efficiency (%) = Motor Efficiency (%) x Pump Efficiency (%)

Example 6-25
Determine the motor efficiency, pump efficiency and wire-to-water efficiency of the
following pumping system.

Water hp = 8

Storage
MOTOR Tank

PUMP

Motor hp = 10
Brake hp = 9
Treatment
Plant

ƒ Motor Efficiency (%) = Brake hp x 100 = 9 x 100 = 90 %

Motor hp 10

ƒ Pump Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100 = 8 x 100 = 89 %

Break hp 9

ƒ Wire-to-Water Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100 = 8 x 100 = 80 %

Motor hp 10

Wire-to-Water Efficiency can also be determined by multiplying the Motor Efficiency by

the Pump Efficiency.

Wire-to-Water Efficiency = Motor hp x Pump hp = 90 % x 89 % = 0.90 x 0.89 = 0.80 = 80 %

104 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

To calculate motor, pump or water horsepower when the efficiencies are known, first
select the appropriate efficiency equation and then rearrange the equation to solve for the
unknown horsepower.

Example 6-26
The motor in the diagram below has an efficiency of 80%. If the Break hp is 12, what
is the Motor hp?

MOTOR
Storage
PUMP Tank

Motor Eff. = 80%

Motor hp = ? Brake hp = 12

Treatment
Plant

ƒ The equation for motor efficiency is;

Motor Efficiency (%) = Brake hp

Motor hp

ƒ Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown Motor hp on one side of the equation
and plug in the known values for Brake hp and motor efficiency.

Motor hp = Brake hp = 12 = 12 = 15 hp
Motor Efficiency (%) 80% 0.80

There are also horsepower and efficiency equations based on pumping rate and head.
These equations are not commonly used by operators but are sometimes found on
operator licensing exams. (These equations are typically provided with the certification
exam materials.)

These equations are shown below.

 Wastewater System Concepts 105

Motor hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960 x Pump Efficiency x Motor Efficiency

Brake hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960 x Pump Efficiency

Water hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960

In the above equations, the motor efficiency and pump efficiency are expressed in
decimal format. Also, the flow is in units of gallons per day.

Example 6-27
A pump with an efficiency of 92% pumps a flow of 2,350 gpm from the treatment plant
to an effluent storage. The total head of the pumping system is 34 feet. What is the
Break hp?

ƒ Using the Break hp equation, plug in the known values for motor efficiency, flow and
total head.

Brake hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet) = 2,350 gpm x 34 feet = 21.9 hp

3,960 x % Pump Efficiency 3,960 x 0.92

Electricity and Power Costs

Electrical Measurements
The basic measurements in electricity are the amp, the ohm and the volt.

The amp or ampere is a measure of electric current and the flow of electrons. Amperage
can be compared to water flowing in a sewer. The symbols for amps are I or A.
106 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

The ohm is a measure of the resistance to the flow of electrons. Resistance can be
compared to headloss in sewer system. The symbol for ohms is the Greek letter omega
or ƙ.

The volt is the force or pressure that exists between two points. Voltage can be
compared to pressure in a force main sewer. The symbols used for volts are V, E, or
EMF.

Amperage, resistance and voltage are related by the following equation.

Volts = Amps x Ohms

If two of the measurements are known, the third one can be calculated.

Example 6-28
An electrical circuit with a resistance of 65 ohms is powered by a 120 volt energy
source. What is the current flowing in the circuit?

ƒ Rearrange the voltage equation shown above to isolate the unknown amps on one
side of the equation.
Amps = Volts
Ohms

ƒ Plug in the known values for volts and ohms to solve for the unknown current in
amps.

Amps = Volts = 120 volts = 1.85 amps

Ohms 65 ohms

Power Cost Calculations

Wastewater system process decisions are frequently made based on costs. The size and
capacity of pumps and process equipment, the number of units in operation and the total
hours of operation impact electrical usage and power costs.

Electrical power usage is typically measured, recorded and billed using two conditions;
the total power used over the billing period and the maximum or peak power use over
the billing period.
 Wastewater System Concepts 107

The total electrical power used is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). The cost for
kilowatt-hours used is determined by multiplying the total kilowatt-hours used by the
unit cost per kilowatt-hour charged by the utility. This cost is called the kilowatt-hour
charge. The equation used to calculate the kilowatt-hour charge is shown below.

Kilowatt-hour Charge = Total Kilowatt-hours used x Cost per Kilowatt-hour

Some utilities have different unit costs per kilowatt hour for different levels of usage. For
example, usage from 0 to 750 kWh may be billed at $0.15 per kWh and usage over 750
kWh may be billed at $0.12 per kWh.

Utilities also monitor the maximum or peak rate at which electrical energy is used during
the billing period. The peak rate is typically averaged over a specific time interval,
typically 15 minutes or a half-hour. This maximum or peak rate is called the demand.
The demand is measured in kilowatts (kW). The electrical utility charges a cost for each
kW used during this peak period. For example, if a wastewater systems’ peak rate during
the billing period is 200 kW and the utility charges $2.00 per kW, the cost to the
wastewater system for that peak usage for that billing period would be $400. This cost is
called the demand charge. The equation used to calculate the demand charge is shown
below.

Demand Charge = Maximum kW Usage x Demand Cost per kW

Some utilities also have customer service or other charges that are added to the kilowatt-
hour charge and demand charge.

The utilities electrical meter records peak usage and the total kilowatt hours used. Bills
are prepared using these records. The kilowatt-hours and kilowatt-hour charge can be
estimated by wastewater system personnel knowing the horsepower of the equipment,
the hours of operation and the utilities rate schedule. Demand charges can sometimes be
controlled by adjusting equipment operating periods to reduce peak power usage.

Example 6-29
A 25 hp motor operates for 8 hours each day for a month. The month has 30 days.
The cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh) is $0.15. What is the kilowatt-hour (kWh) charge for
the month for this motor?

ƒ The equation for kilowatt-hour charge is shown below.

Kilowatt-hour Charge = Total Kilowatt-hours used x Cost per Kilowatt-hour

108 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Convert hp to kW.
25 hp = 25 hp x 0.746 kilowatts = 18.65 kW
1 hp

ƒ Calculate the total hours of motor operation for the month.

Total Operating Hours = 8 hours x 30 days = 240 hours
1 day
ƒ Calculate the total kilowatt-hours used.

Total Kilowatt-hours used = 18.65 kW x 240 hours = 4,476 kW-hrs

ƒ Calculate the kilowatt-hour charge by multiplying the total kilowatt-hours used by the
cost per kilowatt-hour.

Kilowatt-hour Charge = Total Kilowatt-hours used x Cost per Kilowatt-hour

Kilowatt-hour Charge = 4,476 kW-hrs x $0.15 = $671.40

kW-hr

Using this example, the following equation can be developed to calculate kilowatt-hour
charge.

Kilowatt-hour Charge ($) = $/kWh x hp x 0.746 x Hours of Operation

Example 6-30
A wastewater treatment plant has a total monthly electrical usage of 20,350 kWh. The
peak demand is 60 kW. The cost per kilowatt-hour is $0.12 and the demand charge is
$1.50 per kW. What is the total electrical cost for the month?

ƒ The total electrical cost is the sum of the kWh charge and the demand charge.

Total Electrical Charge = Total kWh Charge + Demand Charge

ƒ Calculate the kWh charge by multiplying the kWh usage by the cost per kilowatt-
hour.
 Wastewater System Concepts 109

Kilowatt-hour Charge = 20,350 kWh x $0.12 = $2,442

kWh

ƒ Calculate the demand charge by multiplying the peak demand in kW by the demand
cost.

Demand Charge = Maximum kW Usage x Cost per kW

Demand Charge = 60 kW x $1.50 = $90
kW

ƒ Add the Kilowatt-hour Charge and the Demand Charge to determine the total
electrical cost for the month.

Total Electrical Charge = Total kWh Charge + Demand Charge

Total Electrical Charge = $2,442 + $90 = $2,532

Process Efficiency
It is often necessary for wastewater system operators to determine the efficiency of a
wastewater treatment process or the percent removal of the contaminants in the
process.

The Sedimentation Tank in the diagram below removes total suspended solids (TSS).
The influent wastewater has a TSS concentration of 215 mg/L. The TSS entering the
tank settles to the bottom and is removed as sludge. The effluent from the tank has a
TSS concentration of 28 mg/L.

Influent TSS (mg/L) = 215 mg/L Effluent TSS (mg/L) = 28 mg/L

Sedimentation Tank

Sludge
110 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

The efficiency of the process (or percent removal) can be defined as follows.

% Removal = (Influent TSS î Effluent TSS) x 100

Influent TSS

% Removal = (215 mg/L î 28 mg/L) x 100 = 87 %

215 mg/L

The general equation for percent removal is shown below.

% Removal = (In î Out) x 100

In

Example 6-31
It is the goal a wastewater treatment facility to operate the Sedimentation Basin to
achieve a TSS removal of 60%. The influent wastewater has a TSS concentration of
236 mg/L. To achieve the desired treatment efficiency, what is the required TSS
concentration of the effluent?
Influent TSS (mg/L) = 236 mg/L TSS Removal = 60%
Effluent TSS (mg/L) =?

Sedimentation Tank

ƒ The general percent removal equation is shown below.

% Removal = (In î Out) x 100
In
The EffluentTSS or “Out” in the equation is the unknown. This problem could be
solved by rearranging the equation and isolating “Out” on one side of the equation
and plugging in the knowns of “In” and % Removal.

ƒ An easier way to solve the problem is to recognize that if 60% TSS is removed from
the process then 100% minus 60% or 40% of the influent TSS must be in the
effluent. This solution is presented below.
Effluent TSS = (100% î 60%) x 236 mg/L = (1.0 î 0.6) x 236 mg/L = 94 mg/L
 Wastewater System Concepts 111

Chlorine Demand
Chlorine Demand is defined as is the difference between the amount of chlorine added,
or Chlorine Dose, and the amount of chlorine remaining, or Chlorine Residual, after a
certain contact time. Chlorine demand can change with changes in dosage, time,
temperature, pH and the nature and quantity of contaminants in the water. Chlorine
demand, chlorine dose and chlorine residual are typically expressed in milligrams per liter
(mg/L) or parts per million (ppm).

The diagram below diagram shows the flow to a chlorine contact tank being disinfected
at a chlorine dose of 25 mg/L. The flow to the receiving water has a chlorine residual of
4 mg/L. The chlorine demand of 21 mg/L is the amount of chlorine used up in the
chlorine contact tank.
Chlorine Dose = 25 mg/L Chlorine Residual = 4 mg/L

Q IN
Chlorine Contact Tank
Q OUT To Receiving Water
Chlorine Demand = 21 mg

The relationship among chlorine demand, chlorine dose and chlorine residual can be
defined by the following equation.

Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = Chlorine Dose (mg/L) î Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Example 6-32
A chlorine dose of 18.0 mg/L is added to the wastewater prior to disinfection. The
chlorine residual at the end of the chlorine contact tank is measured at 1.4 mg/L.
What is the chlorine demand?

ƒ Plug in the known values for chlorine dose and chlorine residual into the equation
and solve for the unknown chlorine demand.

Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = Chlorine Dose (mg/L) – Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = 18.0 mg/L – 1.4 mg/L = 16.6 mg/L
112 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Administrative Duties
Administrative duties that wastewater system operators may encounter include estimating
project costs, budgeting and inventory control.

Operators need to estimate the cost of projects for budgeting purposes or to determine if
the funds on hand are sufficient to complete the project. Project costs consist of two
primary components; labor costs and material costs.

Budgeting is the process used by utilities to estimate total operating costs for the future.
Budgets are commonly expressed as a percentage of the previous year’s cost. Inventory
control is the process by which materials and supplies are purchased and stored to insure
that these materials and supplies are available to the utility when they are needed.

Basic math functions, along with some judgment and common sense, are used to solve
these types of problems. The following examples illustrate issues related to
administrative tasks.

Example 6-33
An employee receives an hourly wage of $17.50. For each hour worked over 40
hours per week, overtime is paid at the rate of 1.5 times the hourly rate. If an
employee works 52 hours during a week what is the total pay that the employee
should receive?

ƒ The total pay the employee will receive is the regular pay plus the overtime pay.

ƒ Calculate the regular pay by multiplying the regular hourly wage rate by the regular
hours.
Regular Pay = Regular Hours x Regular Pay Rate
Regular Pay = 40 hrs x $17.50/hr = $700.00

ƒ The overtime pay is found by multiplying the overtime hourly wage rate by the
overtime hours.

Overtime Hrs = Total Hrs Worked – 40 hrs = 52 hrs î 40 hrs = 12 hrs

Overtime Pay Rate = $17.50/hr x 1.5 = $26.25/hr
Overtime Pay = Overtime Hours x Overtime Pay Rate
Overtime Pay = 12 hours x $26.25/hour = $ 315.00
 Wastewater System Concepts 113

ƒ Total Pay = Regular Pay + Overtime Pay

ƒ Total Pay = $ 700.00 + $ 315.00 = $ 1,015.00

Example 6-34
The current annual operating budget for a wastewater treatment plant is $650,000.
Fifty-five percent of the budget represents salary costs and the remainder represents
all other expenses including utilities, supplies, billing and administration. It is
estimated that salary costs will increase by 4.5% and all other expenses will increase
by 6.0% for the next year. Calculate the budget for the next year.

ƒ Calculate the salary costs and other costs in the current budget. If 55% represents
salary costs, 45% represents the other costs.

Current Salary Costs = $650,000 x 0.55 = $357,500

Current Other Costs = $650,000 x 0.45 = $292,500

ƒ Calculate the future budget for salary costs and other costs. Multiply the current
salary costs by 100% plus the percentage increase of 4.5%. Multiply the current other
costs by 100% plus the percentage increase of 6.0%.

Budget Salary Costs = $357,500 (1.00 + 0.045) = $373,588

Budget Other Costs = $292,500 (1.00 + 0.060) = $310,050

ƒ Add the budgets for salary costs and other costs.

Total Budget Costs = $373,588 + $310,050 = $ 683,638

Example 6-35
A wastewater utility installs on average 250 linear feet of 8-inch diameter sewer per
week. A 12-week reserve supply is required at all times to respond to a major
wastewater system repair. It takes six weeks to obtain a new supply of pipe after an
order. What is the minimum inventory required before ordering additional pipe?

ƒ The minimum inventory period is equal to the reserve period plus the time required
to receive the pipe after an order is placed.

Inventory Period = Reserve Period + Order Period

114 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Inventory Period = 12 weeks + 6 weeks = 18 weeks

ƒ The minimum inventory of pipe required is the inventory period in weeks times the
pipe required per week.

Minimum Inventory = 18 weeks x 250 ft/week = 4,500 ft

 Chapter 6

WASTEWATER SYSTEM CONCEPTS

Review Problems

(The answers are given in Appendix A. Step-by-step solutions are shown in Appendix B)

1. A water utility serving residential, commercial and industrial users produces the
average daily volumes of water listed below. The system serves a total
population of 7,100. Determine the total water produced by the utility in gpcd.

ɹ Residential 1,500,000 gpd

ɹ Commercial 180,000 gpd
ɹ Industrial 800,000 gpd

2. A water utility has an average daily water use of 450,000 gpd. The commercial
class accounts for 18% of the total water used. If the system has a population of
2,600, what is the gpcd water use for the commercial class?

3. Calculate the projected average daily flow in million gallons per day for a new
wastewater treatment plant given the following information.

ɹ Equivalent Population Served 10,000

ɹ Average Water Use 75 gpcd
ɹ Average Commercial/Industrial Wastewater Flow 400 gpm
ɹ Feet of 8-inch Diameter Sewer 675,000
ɹ Infiltration Rate 200 gpd/inch/mile

4. A proposed wastewater treatment plant will serve a population of 10,200.

Determine the TSS and BOD5 loads that the proposed wastewater treatment
plant will receive. Assume a per capita per day loading rate of 0.17 for BOD5 and

115
116 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

0.20 for TSS. For commercial establishments use the values provided in the table
below.

Number of Population Equivalent

Commercial Type Unit
Units (PE)/Unit
Motels Rooms 250 2.5
Restaurants Seats 175 0.5

5. Calculate the VSS of a mixed liquor suspended solids sample given the following
laboratory data.

ɹ Sample Volume = 550 mLs

ɹ Weight of filter and residue from TSS test = 1.15 grams
ɹ Weight of crucible = 19.14 grams
ɹ Weight of filter, residue and crucible after ignition = 20.05 grams

6. Determine the BOD5 of a wastewater sample in mg/L given the results of three
dilutions shown below. 300 mL BOD bottles were used.

Sample Volume Initial D.O. Final D.O.

5 mL 8.1 mg/L 5.8 mg/L
8 mL 7.4 mg/L 4.2 mg/L
12 mL 8.4 mg/L 3.0 mg/L

7. 200 mLs of HCl with an 8 N concentration is available in the lab. How many mLs
of this solution are required to make a 6 N concentration of HCl?

8. An operator has a stock solution of acid that is 10 N. He needs to prepare 500

milliliters of a 0.50 N solution of the acid. How much acid and distilled water
should be mixed to make 500 milliliters of the desired 0.50 N solution?

9. The specific gravity (SG) of a sodium hypochlorite solution is 1.12. What is the
density of sodium hypochlorite in lbs/ft3?
 Wastewater System Concepts 117

10. Determine the flow in cfs in a 4-inch diameter force main that is transporting
wastewater at a velocity of 2 fps.

11. Determine the velocity in fps in a 12-inch force main sewer that is transporting
wastewater at a flow of 1,762 gpm.

12. A circular primary clarifier has a diameter of 100 feet and a depth of 10 feet. At a
flow of 2.82 mgd, what is the detention time in hours?

13. Determine the pressure in psi at Point B in the piping system below given the
following information.

ɹ Friction headloss from Point A to Point B is 32 feet

ɹ Minor headloss and velocity headloss are negligible
ɹ Pipe rises in elevation 20 feet from Point A to Point B

100 ft P

20 ft
Q B

14. A pump at elevation 25 feet delivers flow to an effluent storage tank at elevation
200 feet. Determine the total dynamic head of the pump given the following
conditions.

ɹ Headloss due to friction = 18 feet

ɹ Velocity Head = 1 foot
ɹ Minor Headloss = 10 feet

15. A pump runs continuously for a period of 24 hours and delivers a total volume of
23,450 gallons. What is the capacity of the pump in gallons per minute?
118 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

16. Determine the pounds of available chlorine required to disinfect a 450,000 gallon
storage tank to a chlorine concentration of 50 mg/L.

17. Polymer is added to a treatment process at a rate of 110 lbs/day. If the flow is
1.25 mgd, what is the dosage of polymer added in mg/L?

18. How many pounds of sodium hypochlorite at 12.5 percent strength are required
to disinfect a water storage tank? The desired chlorine dosage is 50 mg/L. The
tank has a volume of 1.85 million gallons.

19. A primary sedimentation tank removes biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5)

from the wastewater prior to the activated sludge system. Determine the pounds
per day of BOD5 that will go to the aeration tank given the information in the
following diagram.

BOD5 Concentration = 85 mg/L

BOD5 Pounds per Day (lbs/day) =?

To Aeration Tank
Flow = 5.6 mgd

Primary Sedimentation Tank

20. In a wastewater treatment plant, sludge from the primary sedimentation tank is
pumped to a sludge lagoon for storage prior to being sent to a landfill for
ultimate disposal. Determine the tons of dry solids removed from the lagoon per
year given the information in the following diagram.

Flow = 35,000 gpd

TSS Concentration = 32,000 mg/L

To Landfill
Primary
Sedimentation Tank
Sludge Removed
Sludge Lagoon in Tons per Year
 Wastewater System Concepts 119

21. Calculate the Surface Loading Rate and the Weir Overflow Rate of the following
Sedimentation Tank.

Tank Length = 80 feet Weir

Tank Influent (QIN) =

220,000 gpd
Tank Width = 15 feet

Sedimentation
Tank Tank Effluent
(QOUT) = 220,000 gpd

22. Determine the motor efficiency, pump efficiency and wire-to-water efficiency of
the following pumping system.

Water hp = 50

Storage
MOTOR Tank

PUMP

Motor hp = 75
Brake hp = 68
Treatment
Plant
120 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

23. The motor in the diagram below has an efficiency of 76%. If the Break hp is 95,
what is the Motor hp?

MOTOR
Storage
PUMP Tank

Motor Eff. = 76%

Motor hp = ? Brake hp = 95

Treatment
Plant

24. A pump with an efficiency of 82% pumps a flow of 8,400 gpm from the treatment
plant to a storage tank. The total head of the pumping system is 18 feet. What is
the Break hp?

25. An electrical circuit with a resistance of 25 ohms is powered by a 120 volt energy
source. What is the current flowing in the circuit?

26. A 75 hp motor operates for 12 hours each day for a month. The month has 30
days. The cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh) is $0.125. What is the kilowatt-hour
(kWh) charge for the month for this motor?

27. A wastewater treatment plant has a total monthly electrical usage of 60,500
kWh. The peak demand is 2,000 kW. The cost per kilowatt-hour is $0.15 and the
demand charge is $2.00 per kW. What is the total electrical cost for the month?

28. It is the goal of a wastewater treatment facility to operate the primary

sedimentation tank to achieve a TSS removal of 65%. The influent wastewater
has a TSS concentration of 210 mg/L. To achieve the desired treatment
efficiency, what is the required TSS concentration of the tank effluent?
 Wastewater System Concepts 121

29. A chlorine dose of 16.5 mg/L is added to a chlorine contact tank for disinfection.
The chlorine residual at the end of the tank is measured at 2.3 mg/L. What is the
chlorine demand of the wastewater?

30. An employee receives an hourly wage of $18.50. For each hour worked over 40
hours per week, overtime is paid at the rate of 1.5 times the hourly rate. If an
employee works 48 hours during a week what is the total pay that the employee
should receive?

31. The current annual operating budget for a wastewater system is $1,250,000.
Sixty percent of the budget represents salary costs and the remainder
represents all other expenses including utilities, supplies, billing and
administration. It is estimated that salary costs will increase by 2.5% and all
other expenses will increase by 4.0% for the next year. Calculate the budget for
the next year.

32. A wastewater utility installs on average 650 linear feet of 8-inch diameter sewer
per week. An 18 week reserve supply is required at all times to respond to a
major wastewater system repair. It takes six weeks to obtain a new supply of
pipe after an order. What is the minimum inventory required before ordering
additional pipe?

33. A wastewater treatment plant has a flow of 23.5 mgd. Chlorine gas at a rate of
590 lbs/day is added for disinfection. What is the chlorine dosage in milligrams
per liter?

34. A polymer with a specific gravity of 1.13 is added to a primary sedimentation

tank to improve solids removal efficiency. Determine the rate of polymer
addition in milliliters per minute if the required dosage is 2.50 mg/L and the plant
flow is 15.2 mgd.

35. A sedimentation tank at a wastewater treatment facility has a diameter of 85

feet. The flow to the tank is 6.5 cfs. The overflow weir is located at the periphery
of the tank. What is the weir overflow rate in gpd/ft?
Chapter 7

WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Screenings Removal
The first unit processes in a wastewater treatment plant are screenings removal and grit
removal. These two processes together are generally referred to as preliminary treatment.
The purpose of preliminary treatment is to remove the larger materials in wastewater
that could interfere with the operation of pumps and equipment in subsequent treatment
processes.

Screenings is the material removed with screening equipment. The quantity of screenings
removed is a function of the quantity of screenings in the wastewater and the type of
equipment used. Manually cleaned bar racks, with 1 or 2-inch bar spacing, remove much
less material than fine mechanical screens with openings of 0.20 inch or less.

The quantity or volume of screenings in wastewater is commonly measured in terms of

cubic feet of screenings per million gallons of wastewater (ft3/mg). Depending on the
design of the screenings equipment and the nature of the wastewater, the volume of
screenings removed can range from 0.5 to over 20 ft3/mg.

Example 7-1
Estimate the volume of screenings (in cubic yards) removed annually from a
wastewater treatment plant given the information shown below.

ɹ Average Annual Flow – 256,000 gpd

ɹ Estimated Screenings Removed – 1.32 ft3/mg

ƒ Determine the total volume of wastewater treated per year in mg.

123
124 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Million gallons/year = gallons/day x days/year

1,000,000 gallons/million gallons

mg/yr = 256,000 gals x 365 days x mg = 93.4 mg/yr

day year 1,000,000 gals

ƒ Calculate the volume of screenings per year in ft3. Convert the units of screenings
from ft3 to yd3.

Screenings in ft3/yr = 93.4 mg x 1.32 ft3 = 123.3 ft3/yr

yr mg

Screenings in yd3/yr = 123.3 ft3 x yd3 = 4.57 yd3/yr

yr 27 ft3

Grit Removal
Grit consists of sand, gravel, eggshells, coffee grounds and other materials in wastewater
that can wear or clog equipment and pumps. Grit chambers are designed to remove
these materials while allowing the lighter organic substances to pass-through for further
treatment.

The quantity or volume of grit in wastewater is measured in units of cubic feet per
million gallons of wastewater (ft3/mg). The volume of grit removed can range from 0.5
to over 10 ft3/mg. Wastewater systems with storm water inflow tend to have higher
quantities of grit. The specific gravity of grit ranges from 1.2 to 2.5.

Two common grit chamber designs are horizontal-flow grit chambers and aerated grit
chambers. The horizontal-flow type requires a velocity of about 1.0 feet per second (fps)
to keep the organic material from settling. Aerated grit chambers are designed to provide
a detention time of about 2 to 4 minutes at peak flow. Diffused aeration systems in
aerated grit chambers keep organic material in suspension at all flow rates.

Example 7-2
A rectangular horizontal-flow grit chamber with cross-sectional dimensions of 5 feet
deep and 12 feet wide needs to maintain a minimum flow through velocity of 1.0 feet
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 125

per second (fps) to prevent organics from settling. What is the minimum allowable
flow (in gpm) for this grit chamber?

12 ft
V = 1.0 fps

5 ft Grit Chamber Q =? gpm

ƒ The flow rate through a cross-sectional area is defined by the following equation.

Flow Rate = Velocity x Area or, Q = V x A

ƒ Calculate the cross-sectional area.

Area (ft2) = Width (ft) x Depth (ft)

Area (ft2) = 12 ft x 5 ft = 60 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for area and velocity into the flow rate equation.

Q=VxA
Q = 1.0 ft/sec x 60 ft2 = 60 ft3/sec

ƒ Convert the units of flow from ft3/sec to gpm.

60 ft3/sec = 60 ft3 x 7.48 gal x 60 sec = 26,900 gpm

sec ft3 min

Example 7-3
A wastewater treatment plant has an average daily flow of 1.2 mgd. Peak flows are
three times the average. What is the detention time (in minutes) at the peak flow rate
in an aerated grit chamber 8 feet wide by 18 feet long by 8 feet deep?

Q AVERAGE = 1.2 mgd

Grit
8 ft Chamber
8 ft

18 ft
126 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Detention time is defined as volume divided by flow or,

DT = Volume/Flow

ƒ Calculate the volume of the grit chamber.

Volume (ft3) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) x Depth (ft)

Volume (ft3) = 18 ft x 8 ft x 8 ft = 1,152 ft3

ƒ Convert the volume from ft3 to gallons to be consistent with the units for flow.

1,152 ft3 = 1,152 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 8,617 gals

ft3

ƒ Calculate the peak flow rate. The peak flow rate is three times the average flow rate.
Convert the peak flow rate from mgd to gpd to be consistent with the units for
volume.

Peak Flow Rate (mgd) = Average Flow Rate (mgd) x 3 = 1.2 mgd x 3 = 3.6 mgd

3.6 mgd = 3.6 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 3,600,000 gpd

day mg

ƒ Plug the known values for volume and flow into the detention time formula.
Convert the units for detention time from day to minutes.

DT = Volume = 8,617 gals = 0.00239 day

Flow 3,600,000 gals/day

0.00239 day = 0.00239 day x 60 min x 24 hr = 3.4 minutes

hr day

Primary Treatment
Primary treatment is a physical treatment process that allows the heavier solid particles in
wastewater to settle and the lighter buoyant particles to float. Primary sedimentation
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 127

tanks (also called primary clarifiers) are provided with equipment to remove the settled
sludge from the bottom of the tank and the oil, grease and floating solids at the surface.

For smaller wastewater systems, septic tanks and Imhoff tanks can provide primary
treatment. These tanks have no mechanical equipment and the sludge and floating
materials are periodically removed by septage pumping vehicles. The volume of the
sludge in these systems is reduced by anaerobic digestion. In Imhoff tanks, the settling
compartment is separated from the sludge digestion compartment.

The performance of primary treatment systems is evaluated by the percent removal of

BOD5 and TSS. For typical domestic wastewaters, primary treatment can remove
approximately 35% of the influent BOD5 and 50% of the influent TSS. Chemical
addition can substantially increase removal efficiencies.

The design and operational parameters of primary sedimentation tanks are detention
time and surface overflow rate.

ƒ Detention Time – The detention time in a primary sedimentation tank (typically

expressed in units of hours) is determined by dividing the volume of the tank by the
flow to the tank. The equation is shown below.

Detention Time = Volume of Sedimentation Tank

Flow to the Tank

ƒ Surface Overflow Rate (SOR) – The surface overflow rate (also called surface
loading rate and hydraulic loading rate) for a primary sedimentation tank is defined
as the flow to the tank divided by the surface area of the tank and is expressed in
units of gallons per day per square foot of surface area. The equation is shown
below.

Surface Overflow Rate = Flow to Tank (gpd)

Surface Area of Tank (ft2)

Example 7-4
A rectangular primary clarifier has a detention time of 2.5 hours. The tank has a width
of 25 feet and a depth of 12 feet. Calculate the length of the tank if the flow is 1.5
mgd.
128 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

1.5 mgd Detention Time = 2.5 hrs 12 ft

Primary Clarifier 25 ft

Length =? ft

ƒ The volume of the primary clarifier can be determined by using the detention time
formula. Rearrange the formula to isolate the volume on one side of the equation.

Detention Time = Volume/Flow, or

Volume = Detention Time x Flow

ƒ Calculate the volume of the clarifier. First, convert the detention time from hours to
days to be similar with the units for flow.

2.5 hrs = 2.5 hrs x 1 day = 0.104 day

24 hrs

Volume = Detention Time x Flow = 0.104 day x 1.5 mg = 0.156 mg

day

ƒ Use the volume of a rectangle formula to solve for the length. Isolate the unknown
length on one side of the equation. First, convert the units of volume from million
gallons to cubic feet.

0.156 mg = 0.156 mg x 1,000,000 gals x 1 ft3 = 20,856 ft3

mg 7.48 gals

Volume (ft3) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) x Depth (ft), or

Length (ft) = Volume (ft3) = 20,856 ft x ft2 = 69.5 ft

Width (ft) x Depth (ft) 25 ft x 12 ft

Example 7-5
Calculate the surface overflow rate of the primary clarifier in the previous example.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 129

ƒ The equation for surface overflow rate is shown below.

Surface Overflow Rate = Flow to Tank (gpd)

Surface Area of Tank (ft2)

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the primary clarifier.

Surface Area (ft2) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 69.5 ft x 25 ft = 1,738 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and surface area into the surface overflow rate
formula. First, convert the units of flow from million gallons per day to gallons per
day.

1.5 mgd = 1.5 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 1,500,000 gpd

day mg

SOR = Flow to Tank (gpd) = 1,500,000 gpd = 863 gpd/ft2

Surface Area of Tank (ft2) 1,738 ft2

Activated Sludge
General
Activated sludge is a secondary biological suspended growth treatment process that
utilizes microorganisms in the wastewater to achieve treatment objectives. There are two
unit operations in the activated sludge process. The first operation consists of adding
oxygen or aerating the liquid while maintaining the liquid in suspension. The second
operation consists of separating the sludge from the treated or clarified wastewater.
These unit operations are usually performed in two separate tanks; called the aeration
tank and the final (or secondary) clarifier. Aeration, mixing and sludge settling operations
can also be performed in one tank. Sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) can be designed
for single tank activated sludge operation. The activated sludge process can follow
primary treatment or can be used to treat wastewater after preliminary treatment.

The influent wastewater enters the aeration tank where mechanical equipment adds
dissolved oxygen and mixes the wastewater to keep it in suspension. Equipment
130 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

commonly used includes surface aerators and diffused aeration systems. The dissolved
oxygen is used by the microorganisms to consume the organic material and grow new
microorganisms. The term “activated sludge” is used to describe the living mass of
microorganisms in the activated sludge process.

Aeration tanks vary in size and configuration. Tanks can be square, rectangular or
circular. Tank depths, which typically vary from about 8 feet to 20 feet, are a function of
the aeration and mixing equipment provided. Tank size is related to the plant flow and
type of activated sludge process. Oxidation ditches are a special aeration tank design
typically used for small and medium sized treatment plants. Oxidation ditches are
discussed in the next section.

After the aeration tank the wastewater enters a secondary clarifier where the activated
sludge settles to the bottom and the clarified wastewater is discharged for further
treatment. Most of the activated sludge is “returned” to the aeration tank. This return
activated sludge (RAS) maintains the population of microorganisms in the aeration tank
necessary to consume the organic material in the influent wastewater. The activated
sludge process produces a net growth of activated sludge. The activated sludge not
required is removed from the process as waste activated sludge (WAS).

The key components of the activated sludge process are shown in the following diagram.

Influent Aeration Final Clarified

Wastewater Tank Clarifier Wastewater

Waste
Activated
Return Activated Sludge (RAS) Sludge
(WAS)

Activated Sludge Terminology

Solving math problems related to the activated sludge process requires an understanding
of the terms commonly used in process design and operations. Although there are
several variations of the activated sludge process including conventional, complete mix,
contact stabilization and extended aeration, the calculations generally apply to all
variations. The key terms are listed and explained below.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 131

ƒ Mixed Liquor – The liquid in the aeration tank consisting of the influent
wastewater and return sludge.

ƒ Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) – The total suspended solids in the
mixed liquor. MLSS can be expressed in units of mass (pounds) or concentration
(milligrams per liter).

ƒ Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS) – The volatile suspended

solids in the mixed liquor. MLVSS is used as an estimate of the active
microorganisms in the mixed liquor and can be expressed in units of mass (pounds)
or concentration (milligrams per liter). The relationship between MLSS and MLVSS
is shown below.
MLVSS = MLSS x Percent Volatile Solids

ƒ Food to Microorganism Ratio (F:M) – The ratio of the food (F) entering the
aeration tank (in units of pounds per day of BOD5) to the active microorganisms
(M) in the aeration tank (in units of pounds of MLVSS). The F:M ratio is used to
evaluate process operations. The units of F:M ratio is 1/day. F: M ratio is expressed
below in equation form.

F:M = Food Entering Aeration Tank = lbs of BOD5 per day

Active Microorganisms MLVSS (lbs)

ƒ Waste Activated Sludge (WAS) – The excess sludge removed from an activated
sludge process, typically expresses in terms of gallons or gallons per day. Excess
sludge is removed or “wasted” from activated sludge systems to maintain a constant
SRT or a target MLSS. The WAS required to maintain process conditions can be
determined by using the SRT equation or calculating the difference between the
actual MLSS and the target MLSS.

ƒ Solids Retention Time (SRT) – The average time sludge remains in the activated
sludge process. SRT is calculated by dividing the total solids in the system (in units of
pounds) by the solids removed from the system over a one day period (in units of
pounds per day). The solids in the aeration tank (MLSS) and final clarifier (TSS) are
included. (The solids in the activated sludge piping systems are typically not included
in the calculation since they generally represent a small percentage of the total solids.)
The solids removed from the process includes the waste activated sludge and the
solids in the effluent. SRT is a key parameter used to design activated sludge systems.
The units of SRT are days. The equation for SRT is shown below.
132 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

SRT (days) = MLSS in Aeration Tank (lbs) + TSS in Clarifier (lbs)

TSS Removed in WAS (lbs/day) + TSS in Effluent (lbs/day)

ƒ Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) – Equivalent to SRT.

ƒ Sludge Production – The activated sludge process produces excess sludge that
must be removed or “wasted” from the system. The amount of sludge produced is a
function of the SRT, or how long the sludge remains in the system. The longer the
SRT, the less excess sludge is produced. Sludge production, also called “growth
rate”, can be expressed in terms of pounds of solids produced per pounds of BOD5
removed from the system. The equation for the growth rate factor is shown below.
Depending on the type of activated sludge process, the growth rate factor can range
from 0.1 to 1.2.

Growth Rate Factor = Excess Solids Produced (lbs of TSS per day)
BOD5 Removed (lbs of BOD5 per day)

ƒ Sludge Age – Similar to SRT and MCRT in that it calculates the average time solids
remain in the system. Sludge age is calculated by dividing the total solids in the mixed
liquor (pounds of MLSS) by the total solids entering the aeration tank (pounds per
day of TSS). (Sludge Age differs from SRT and MCRT because the solids entering the aeration
tank are used instead of the solids leaving the system and the solids in the clarifier are not
considered.) The equation for Sludge Age is shown below.

Sludge Age (days) = MLSS in Aeration Tank (lbs)

TSS in Aeration Tank Influent (lbs/day)

ƒ Return Activated Sludge (RAS) – The activated sludge returned to the aeration
tank from the final clarifier, expressed in terms of flow (typically gallons per minute).
RAS provides the mass of microorganisms necessary to consume the organic
material in the influent wastewater and maintain the desired level of MLSS in the
aeration tank. RAS flow rate is expressed as a percentage of the influent flow and can
vary from 50% to 200% of the influent flow. The RAS flow rate is typically
optimized based on operational experience. The RAS flow rate is typically set at a
constant rate or at a rate proportional to the influent flow.

ƒ Volumetric Organic Loading Rate – The amount of organic material entering the
aeration tank (in units of pounds of BOD5 per day) divided by the volume of the
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 133

aeration tank (in units of 1,000 ft3). The volumetric organic loading rate is used to
evaluate process operations.

Vol. Organic Loading Rate = Organic Material Entering Aeration Tank (lbs/day)
Volume of Aeration Tank (ft3/1,000)

ƒ Aeration Tank Detention Time – The detention time in the aeration tank (typically
in units of hours) is determined by dividing the volume of the aeration tank by the
flow to the aeration tank. (Return sludge flow is usually not included in the
calculation.) Aeration tank detention time is not generally a critical design or
operating parameter.

Aeration Tank Detention Time = Volume of Aeration Tank

Flow to Aeration Tank

ƒ Sludge Volume Index (SVI) – An index that measures the relative settling
characteristics of activated sludge. SVI is the volume in millimeters of one gram of
activated sludge after settling for 30 minutes. Generally an SVI of 100 or less
indicates good settling mixed liquor. SVI (in units of milliliters per gram) is
determined by;

1. Measuring the volume of sludge that settles in a graduated cylinder of mixed

liquor in a 30 minute period (SSV30 – in units of milliliters per liter),
2. Determining the suspended solids concentration of the mixed liquor (MLSS
– in units of mg/L)
3. Dividing the volume measured in (1) by the suspended solids concentration
determined in (2) and converting the result to units of milliliters per gram
(mL/g).

The equation for SVI is shown below.

SVI (mL/g) = Settled Sludge Volume SSV30 (mL/L) x 1,000 mg/g

MLSS (mg/L)

ƒ Sludge Density Index (SDI) – An index that measures the relative compaction of
activated sludge after settling. SDI (in units of grams per milliliter) is related to SVI
as shown in the following equation.
134 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

SDI (g/mL) = 100

SVI

ƒ Final Clarifier Detention Time – The detention time in the final clarifier (in units
of hours) is determined by dividing the volume of the final clarifier by the flow to
the clarifier. (Return sludge flow is generally not included in the calculation.)

Final Clarifier Detention Time = Volume of Final Clarifier

Flow

ƒ Final Clarifier Surface Overflow Rate – The hydraulic loading rate on a final
clarifier per surface area (in units of gallons per day per square foot of surface area).
Surface overflow rate is a key design parameter. Monitoring of surface overflow rates
is most important during peak flow periods.

Surface Overflow Rate (gpd/ft2) = Flow to Final Clarifier (gpd)

Surface Area (ft2)

Note: The final clarifier surface overflow rate in activated sludge systems does not include the
return sludge recycle flows. Overflow rate is based on upward flow velocity. The return sludge
is drawn from the bottom of the tank and does not contribute to the upward velocity.

ƒ Final Clarifier Solids Loading Rate – The solids entering the final clarifier per
surface area (in units of pounds per day per square foot of surface area). Return
sludge flows and MLSS concentrations are monitored to keep solids loading rates at
satisfactory levels.

Solids Loading Rate (lbs/day/ft2) = Solids Loading (lbs/day)

Surface Area (ft2)

Note: The final clarifier solids loading rate is based on the total flow entering the clarifier –
the influent flow plus the return sludge flow.

Example 7-6
An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant has the following parameters. What
is the F:M ratio of the process?

ɹ Flow = 1.5 mgd

 Wastewater Treatment Systems 135

ɹ Influent BOD5 = 112 mg/L

ɹ MLSS = 2,400 mg/L
ɹ Percent Volatile Solids = 80%
ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 750,000 gallons

Influent Aeration Tank

Vol = 750,000 gals Effluent
Q = 1.5 mgd MLSS = 2,400 mg/L
BOD5 = 112 mg/L

Return Sludge

ƒ F:M equals the food or BOD5 entering the aeration tank divided by the mass of
active microorganisms in the aeration tank.

ƒ Determine F by using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 1.5 mgd x 112 mg/L x 8.34 = 1,400 lbs/day

ƒ Determine M by using the “Mass” version of the pounds formula. First, calculate
MLVSS, the active concentration of microorganisms.

MLVSS = MLSS x % Volatile Solids = 2,400 mg/L x 0.80 = 1,920 mg/L

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Mass (lbs) = 0.75 mg x 1,920 mg/L x 8.34 = 12,000 lbs

ƒ Divide F by M.

F:M = F/M = 1,400 lbs/day = 0.12/day

12,000 lbs

Example 7-7
An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant has the following parameters.
Calculate the SRT.
136 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ɹ Flow = 6.5 mgd

ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 3 mg
ɹ Final Clarifier Volume = 0.75 mg
ɹ MLSS = 2,400 mg/L
ɹ Average TSS in Clarifier = 1,700 mg/L
ɹ Waste Activated Sludge Flow = 135 gpm
ɹ TSS of Waste Activated Sludge = 9,500 mg/L
ɹ TSS of Effluent = 18 mg/L

Final Clarifier
Q = 6.5 mgd Aeration Tank Q = 6.5 mgd
Vol= 3 mg TSS = 18 mg/L
Vol = 0.75 mg
MLSS = 2,400 mg/L
TSS = 1,700 mg/L

WAS = 135 gpm

RAS
TSS of WAS = 9,500 mg/L

ƒ The SRT is the total solids in the system divided by the solids removed from the
system in one day. This can be represented by the following equation.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank + Solids in Clarifiers

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

Solids in Aeration Tank and Final Clarifier

ƒ Calculate the solids in the aeration tank and final clarifier using the “Mass” version
of the pounds formula.

Aeration Tank
Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 3 mg x 2,400 mg/L x 8.34 = 60,000 lbs

Final Clarifier
Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 0.75 mg x 1,700 mg/L x 8.34 = 10,600 lbs
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 137

Solids in WAS and Effluent

ƒ Calculate the solids removed per day from the process in the WAS and the effluent
using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula. (Assume the WAS has a
specific gravity of 1.0.)

Before using the pounds formula, the WAS flow must be converted to million gallons
per day.

135 gpm = 135 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x mg = 0.194 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals

WAS
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.194 mgd x 9,500 mg/L x 8.34 = 15,370 lbs/day

Effluent
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 6.5 mgd x 18 mg/L x 8.34 = 976 lbs/day

ƒ Plug the known values calculated above into the SRT formula.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank + Solids in Clarifiers

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

SRT = 60,000 lbs + 10,600 lbs = 70,600 lbs = 4.3 days

15,370 lbs/day + 976 lbs/day 16,346 lbs/day

Example 7-8
Determine the volumetric organic loading rate of a circular activated sludge tank with
a diameter of 150 feet and a depth of 12 feet. The influent flow is 1.5 mgd and the
influent BOD5 concentration is 230 mg/L.

Q = 1.5 mgd
BOD5 = 230 mg/L 12 ft
Aeration Tank

150 ft
138 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ The volumetric organic loading rate is the amount of organic material entering the
aeration tank per unit volume as represented by the following formula.

Vol. Organic Loading Rate = Organic Material Entering Aeration Tank (lbs/day)
Volume of Aeration Tank (ft3/1,000)

ƒ Calculate the organic material entering the aeration tank using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 1.5 mgd x 230 mg/L x 8.34 = 2,880 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the volume of the aeration tank using the volume of a cylinder formula.

Volume of Cylinder = 0.785 x Diameter2 x Height

Volume of Aeration Tank = 0.785 x (150 ft)2 x 12 ft = 212,000 ft3

ƒ Plug the known values into the volumetric organic loading rate formula.

Vol. Organic Loading Rate = Organic Material Entering Aeration Tank (lbs/day)
Volume of Aeration Tank (ft3/1,000)
3
Vol. Organic Loading Rate = 2,880 lbs/day BOD5 = 13.6 lbs of BOD5/day/1,000 ft
212 x 1,000 ft3

Example 7-9
An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant desires to achieve an SRT of 20
days. How many gallons of sludge should be wasted from the process given the
following plant data?

ɹ Flow = 650,000 gpd

ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 300,000 gallons
ɹ MLSS = 2,250 mg/L
ɹ Return Sludge Concentration = 9,000 mg/L
ɹ Effluent TSS = 16 mg/L
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 139

Q = 0.65 mgd
Q = 0.65 mgd Aeration Tank TSS = 16 mg/L
Final
Vol = 0.3 mg
MLSS = 2,250 mg/L Clarifier

RAS = 9,000 mg/L

WAS ?

ƒ The SRT is the total solids in the system divided by the solids removed from the
system in one day. This can be represented by the following equation.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank + Solids in Clarifiers

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

Note that in this problem, the solids in the clarifier cannot be determined
because solids the required information is not provided. Therefore, the revised
the SRT formula as shown below is used.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

ƒ Calculate the solids in the aeration tank using the “Mass” version of the pounds
formula.

Aeration Tank Solids

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 0.3 mg x 2,250 mg/L x 8.34 = 5,630 lbs

ƒ Calculate the solids in the effluent using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds
formula.

Effluent Solids
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.65 mgd x 16 mg/L x 8.34 = 87 lbs/day

ƒ Plug the known values into the SRT formula.

140 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

20 days = 5,630 lbs

lbs/day of WAS + 87 lbs/day

ƒ Rearrange and solve the above equation for lbs of WAS.

20 days x (lbs/day of WAS + 87 lbs/day) = 5,630 lbs

20 lbs of WAS + 1,740 lbs = 5,630 lbs
20 lbs of WAS = 3,890 lbs
lbs of WAS = 195 lbs

ƒ Calculate the volume of waste sludge using the “Mass” version of the pounds
formula and convert mg to gallons. (Assume the specific gravity of the WAS is 1.0.)

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

195 lbs = Volume (mg) x 9,000 mg/L x 8.34

Solve for Volume in the above equation.

Volume (mg) = 195 lbs = 0.00260 mg

9,000 mg/L x 8.34
Convert million gallons to gallons.
0.00260 mg = 0.00260 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 2,600 gallons
1 mg

Example 7-10
An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant’s goal is to achieve a “target” MLSS
concentration of 2,600 mg/L. Calculate the pounds and gallons of solids that needs
to be wasted from the process.

ɹ Flow = 4.2 mgd

ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 1.5 mg
ɹ Current MLSS = 2,750 mg/L
ɹ Return Sludge Concentration = 8,500 mg/L
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 141

Q = 4.2 mgd
Aeration Tank Final
Q = 4.2 mgd Vol = 1.5 mg
Clarifier
MLSS = 2,750 mg/L

RAS = 8,500 mg/L WAS ?

ƒ Calculate the current pounds of solids in the aeration tank and the “target” pounds
of solids in the aeration tank using the “Mass” version of the pounds formula

Current Pounds under Aeration

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 1.5 mg x 2,750 mg/L x 8.34 = 34,400 lbs

Target Pounds under Aeration

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 1.5 mg x 2,600 mg/L x 8.34 = 32,500 lbs

ƒ Subtract the current pounds from the target pounds to determine the pounds to be
wasted.

Pounds to be Wasted = Current Pounds – Target Pounds

Pounds to be Wasted = 34,400 lbs – 32,500 lbs = 1,900 lbs

ƒ Determine the gallons to be wasted using the “Mass” version of the pounds formula.
(Assume that the waste sludge has a specific gravity of 1.0)

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

1,900 lbs = Volume (mg) x 8,500 mg/L x 8.34

Rearrange the above equation and solve for the unknown million gallons.

Volume (mg) = 1,900 lbs = 0.0268 mg

8,500 mg/L x 8.34

Convert million gallons to gallons.

142 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

0.0268 mg = 0.0268 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 26,800 gallons

1 mg

Example 7-11
Calculate the detention time, surface overflow rate and solids loading rate for a final
clarifier at an activated sludge wastewater treatment plant given the following
information.

ɹ Plant Flow = 1.1 mgd

ɹ Return Sludge Rate = 50%
ɹ MLSS = 2,600 mg/L
ɹ Final Clarifier Diameter = 40 feet
ɹ Average Final Clarifier Depth = 12 feet

Detention Time

ƒ Calculate the volume of the final clarifier in units of ft3 using the volume of a
cylinder formula. Convert the units of ft3 to mg to be consistent with the units of
flow.
Volume (ft3) = 0.785 x Diameter2 (ft)2 x Depth (ft)
Volume (ft3) = 0.785 x 40 ft x 40 ft x 12 ft = 15,072 ft3

15,072 ft3 = 15,072 ft3 x 7.48 gals x mg = 0.113 mg

ft3 1,000,000 gals

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and volume into the detention time formula.
Convert the units of time from day to hours.

Final Clarifier Detention Time = Volume of Final Clarifier = 0.113 mg = 0.103 day
Flow to Final Clarifier 1.1 mgd

0.103 day = 0.103 day x 24 hrs = 2.47 hrs

day

Surface Overflow Rate

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the final clarifier in units of ft2 using the area of a circle
formula.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 143

Area (ft2) = 0.785 x Diameter2 (ft2) = 0.785 x 40 ft x 40 ft = 1,256 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and surface area into the surface overflow rate
formula. First convert the units of flow from mgd to gpd.

1.1 mgd = 1.1 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 1,100,000 gpd

day mg

Surface Overflow Rate (gpd/ft2) = 1,100,000 gpd = 876 gpd/ ft2

1,256 ft2

Solids Loading Rate

ƒ Calculate the solids loading to the final clarifier in lbs/day using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula. First determine the total flow to the clarifier, which is
the influent flow plus the return sludge flow.

Total Clarifier Flow = Plant Flow + Return Sludge Flow

Total Clarifier Flow = 1.1 mgd + (1.1 mgd x 0.50) = 1.1 mgd + 0.55 mgd = 1.65 mgd

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 1.65 mgd x 2,600 mg/L x 8.34 = 35,780 lbs/day of MLSS

ƒ Plug the known values for solids loading and surface area into the solids loading rate
formula.

Solids Loading Rate (lbs/day/ft2) = Solids Loading (lbs/day)

Surface Area (ft2)

Solids Loading Rate (lbs/day/ft2) = 35,780 lbs/day = 28.5 lbs of MLSS/day/ft2

1,256 ft2

Example 7-12
Calculate the SVI and SDI of an activated sludge plant given the following
information.

ɹ Settled Sludge Volume = 344 mL/L

144 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ɹ MLSS = 3,825 mg/L

ƒ Plug the known values for settled sludge volume and mixed liquor suspended solids
into the equation for SVI.

SVI (mL/g) = Settled Sludge Volume SSV30 (mL/L) x 1,000 mg/g

MLSS (mg/L)

SVI (mL/g) = 344 mL/L x 1,000 mg/g = 90 mL/g

3,825 mg/L

ƒ Plug the known value for SVI into the equation for SDI.

SDI (g/mL) = 100 = 100 = 1.11 g/mL

SVI 90 mL/g

Oxidation Ditches
Oxidation ditches are a common aeration tank design used for small and medium sized
wastewater treatment plants. Oxidation ditches have a racetrack pattern with a
trapezoidal cross-section. Dissolved oxygen and mixing is commonly provided by
surface brush aerators although other oxygen supply and mixing equipment can be used.
The activated sludge terminology and equations presented in the previous section also
apply for oxidation ditches.

Example 7-13
Calculate the volume in million gallons of the oxidation ditch shown below.

14 ft

Radius = 30 ft L = 175 ft 6 ft

8 ft
Centerline X - Section
Plan View Length
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 145

ƒ The volume of the oxidation ditch can be estimated by multiplying the cross-
sectional area by the centerline length of the ditch (shown above as a dashed line).

ƒ The cross-sectional area can be calculated using the area of a trapezoid formula.

Area = Height x (Length1 + Length2) = 6 ft x (8 ft + 14 ft) = 66 ft2

2 2

ƒ The centerline length is the sum of the two straight lengths (L) and the
circumference of a circle with a radius of 30 ft. One half of the circumference is on
each side of the ditch. (Circumference = ư x Diameter = ư x 2 x Radius)

Centerline Length = L + L + (ư x 2 x R) = 175 ft + 175 ft + (3.14 x 2 x 30)

Centerline Length = 350 ft + 188 ft = 538 ft

ƒ Calculate the estimated volume of the oxidation ditch by multiplying the cross-
sectional area by the centerline length.

Volume = Cross-Sectional Area x Centerline Length = 66 ft2 x 538 ft = 35,500 ft3

ƒ Convert the units of volume from ft3 to mg.

35,500 ft3 = 35,500 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 1 mg = 0.266 mg

3
ft 1,000,000 gals

Example 7-14
The oxidation ditch in the previous example has the following flow and wastewater
characteristics.

ɹ Influent Flow = 0.30 mgd

ɹ Influent BOD5 = 210 mg/L
ɹ Influent TSS = 250 mg/L
ɹ MLSS = 2,800 mg/L
ɹ Volatile MLSS = 75%
ɹ Effluent TSS = 12 mg/L
ɹ RAS and WAS = 9,500 mg/L
ɹ WAS Rate = 2,200 gpd
146 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Determine the following operational parameters.

î Detention Time (in hours, return sludge flow not included)
î Organic Loading Rate
î F:M Ratio
î Sludge Age

Detention Time

ƒ Detention time equals volume divided by flow. Plug the known values for volume
and flow into the detention time formula. Convert the units of time from day to
hours.

Detention Time = Volume/Flow = 0.266 mg/0.30 mgd = 0.887 day

0.887 day = 0.887 day x 24 hours/day = 21.3 hours

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate equals the organic material entering the tank divided by the
volume of the tank. Tank volume is expressed in units of 1,000 ft3.

Organic Loading Rate = lbs of BOD5 per day

1,000 ft3

ƒ Calculate the BOD5 in the influent using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds
formula.

Influent BOD5
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.30 mgd x 210 mg/L x 8.34 = 525 lbs/day of BOD5

ƒ Express the volume of the oxidation ditch in units of 1,000 ft3. The volume of
35,500 ft3 was calculated in the previous example.

35,500 ft3 = 35.5 x 1,000 ft3

ƒ Insert the known values for BOD5 and volume in the organic loading rate formula.

Organic Loading Rate = lbs of BOD5 per day

1,000 ft3
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 147

Organic Loading Rate = 525 lbs of BOD5 per day = 14.8 lbs of BOD5/day/1,000 ft3
35.5 x 1,000 ft3

F:M Ratio

ƒ The F:M Ratio is the ratio of the food (F), specifically the BOD5, entering the
aeration tank per day to the mass (M) of active microorganisms in the aeration tank.
(or F divided by M)

ƒ Calculate the pounds of BOD5 using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds
formula.

Influent BOD5
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.30 mgd x 210 mg/L x 8.34 = 525 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the concentration of active microorganisms (MLVSS) in the aeration tank.

MLVSS = MLSS x % Volatile MLSS = 2,800 mg/L x 0.75 = 2,100 mg/L

ƒ Calculate the pounds of MLVSS in the aeration tank using the “Mass” version of the
pounds formula and the oxidation ditch volume calculated in the previous example.

Pounds under Aeration

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x MLVSS Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 0.266 mg x 2,100 mg/L x 8.34 = 4,660 lbs

ƒ Divide the pounds of BOD5 entering the tank (F) by the pounds of MLVSS under
aeration (M).

F:M = F/M = 525 lbs/day = 0.11 /day

4,660 lbs

Sludge Age

ƒ Sludge Age represents the average time sludge remains in the activated sludge
system.
148 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Sludge Age = MLSS in Aeration Tank (lbs)

TSS in Aeration Tank Influent (lbs/day)

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids in the aeration tank using the “Mass” version of the
pounds formula and the oxidation ditch volume calculated previously.

Pounds of Solids in Aeration Tank

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x MLSS Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 0.266 mg x 2,800 mg/L x 8.34 = 6,210 lbs

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids per day in the influent using the “Mass Flow” version
of the pounds formula.

Pounds per Day of Influent Solids

Mass Flow (lbs) = Flow (mgd) x Influent TSS Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs) = 0.30 mgd x 250 mg/L x 8.34 = 626 lbs

ƒ Plug the known values into the Sludge Age formula.

Sludge Age = MLSS in Aeration Tank (lbs)

TSS in Aeration Tank Influent (lbs/day)

Sludge Age = 6,210 lbs = 9.9 days

626 lbs/day

Example 7-15
A peripheral overflow final clarifier at an oxidation ditch treatment plant has a
diameter of 125 feet and a side water depth of 16 feet. Assuming a flow of 15 mgd
determine the following.

ɹ Detention Time (in hours)

ɹ Surface Overflow Rate (in gpd/ft2), and
ɹ Weir Overflow Rate (in gpd/ft)
125 ft Diameter
Q = 15 mgd

16 ft
Final Clarifier
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 149

Detention Time

ƒ Detention time equals volume divided by flow.

ƒ Calculate the volume of the final clarifier using the volume of a cylinder equation.

Volume = 0.785 x Diameter2 x Height

Volume (ft3) = 0.785 x 125 ft x 125 ft x 16 ft = 196,250 ft3

ƒ Convert the units of volume from ft3 to mg to be consistent with the units for flow.

196,250 ft3 = 196,250 ft3 x 7.48 gals/ft3 = 1.47 mg

1,000,000 gals/mg

ƒ Plug the known values for volume and flow into the detention time formula.
Convert days to hours.

Detention Time = Volume/Flow = 1.47 mg = 0.098 day

15 mg/d

0.098 day = 0.098 day x 24 hrs/day = 2.35 hours

Surface Overflow Rate

ƒ Surface Overflow Rate is defined by the following equation.

Surface Overflow Rate (SOR) = Flow to Tank (gpd)

Surface Area of Tank (ft2)

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the final clarifier using the area of a circle equation.

Area = 0.785 x Diameter2

Area (ft2) = 0.785 x 125 ft x 125 ft = 12,270 ft2

ƒ Convert the units of flow from mg to gpd.

15 mgd = 15 mg/d x 1,000,000 gals/mg = 15,000,000 gpd

ƒ Plug the known values into the Surface Overflow Rate formula.
150 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

SOR = Flow to Tank (gpd) = 15,000,000 gpd = 1,220 gpd/ft2

Surface Area of Tank (ft2) 12,270 ft2

Weir Overflow Rate

ƒ Weir Overflow Rate is defined by the following equation (See Chapter 6).

Weir Overflow Rate = Flow to Clarifier (QIN)

Length of Weir

ƒ Calculate the circumference of the final clarifier. The circumference approximates

the length of the weir in a peripheral overflow clarifier.

Circumference = ư x Diameter = 3.14 x 125 ft = 393 ft

ƒ Plug the known values into the Weir Overflow Rate formula.

WOR = Flow to Clarifier (gpd) = 15,000,000 gpd = 38,200 gpd/ft

Length of Weir (ft) 393 ft

Trickling Filters
General
Trickling filters provide secondary biological treatment utilizing fixed-growth reactors.
The influent wastewater flows or “trickles” over a fixed media; which typically consists
of rock or synthetic material. The depth of the media can range from 3 feet to 30 feet
depending on media type and treatment objectives. The media provides a surface area
for the development of a biological “biomass” or slime layer. The microorganisms in
the slime layer break down the organic material and provide treatment for the
wastewater. Periodically, portions of the slime layer break off of the media. The material
that breaks off the media is called sloughings. The discharge from the trickling filter,
which consists of the treated wastewater and the sloughings, goes to a secondary
clarifier. The effluent from the secondary clarifier is discharged and the sloughings settle
to the bottom of the clarifier as sludge. It is common for the sludge to be pumped to the
primary clarifier where the trickling filter sludge is combined and treated or disposed
with the primary sludge.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 151

Unlike the activated sludge process, the all sludge from the secondary clarifier is
removed and not recirculated. Trickling filters can, however, have many different
recirculation flow patterns. Depending on process requirements, the effluent from the
trickling filter and/or the effluent from the final clarifier can be recycled back to the
trickling filter influent. The key components of the trickling filter process are shown in
the following diagram.

Influent
Wastewater

Filter Effluent
Recirculation Recirculation
Trickling Filter

Final Effluent
Sludge to Primary Clarifier Clarifier

Trickling Filter Design and Operational Parameters

The key design and operational parameters for trickling filters are described below.

Organic Loading Rate

The organic loading rate on a trickling filter is defined as the quantity of organic material
applied to the filter in units of pounds of organic material per day per volume of media.
The organic material is usually in units of BOD5 or COD. The volume is in units of
1,000 cubic feet. Only the organic material in the influent wastewater is included in the
calculations. The organic material in the recirculation flows is not considered. In
equation form, the organic loading rate is presented below.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (1,000 ft3)

The organic loading rate can also be expressed in terms of pounds per day per acre-feet,
as shown below.
152 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (ac-ft)

Hydraulic Loading Rate

The hydraulic loading rate on a trickling filter is defined as the amount of liquid applied
over the surface area of the media in units of gallons per minute per square foot of
media or gallons per day per square foot of media. The hydraulic loading rate is
sometimes called the surface loading rate or “wetting rate”. The total liquid applied to
the filter is the influent wastewater plus all recirculation flows. In equation form, the
hydraulic loading rate is presented below.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (gpm or gpd)

Surface Area (ft2)

The hydraulic loading rate can also be expressed in terms of million gallons per day per
acre, as shown below.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (mgd)

Surface Area (acre)

Recirculation Ratio
The total flow to a trickling filter is the influent flow plus the recirculation flow. The
flow recirculated to the trickling filter is commonly expressed as a ratio of the influent
wastewater. This concept is presented in equation form below.

Total Flow = Influent Flow + Recirculation Flow

Recirculation Ratio = Recirculation Flow

Influent Flow

Combining these equations, the following expression can be developed for the total flow
to a trickling filter.

Total Flow = Influent Flow x (1 + Recirculation Ratio)

 Wastewater Treatment Systems 153

Example 7-16
Determine the organic loading rate (in units of lbs of BOD5/1,000 ft3) and the
hydraulic loading rate (in units of gpd/ft2) of a trickling filter given the following
information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 588,800 gpd

ɹ Recirculation Flow = 1.0 mgd
ɹ Influent BOD5 = 220 mg/L
ɹ Trickling Filter Diameter = 100 ft
ɹ Media Depth = 8 ft Q = 588,800 gpd
BOD5 = 220 mg/L

Media 8 ft
Depth Trickling Filter

100 ft Diameter

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate is defined by the following formula.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (1,000ft3)

ƒ Calculate the organic loading on the trickling filter in pounds per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula. Convert the flow from gpd per mgd
before using the formula.

Organic Loading
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.589 mgd x 220 mg/L x 8.34 = 1,081 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the volume of the media in units of cubic feet by using the volume of a
cylinder formula. Convert the volume units from cubic feet to 1,000 cubic feet.

Volume = 0.785 x (Diameter of Trickling Filter)2 x Depth of Media

Volume = 0.785 x 100 ft x 100 ft x 8 ft = 62,800 ft3
62,800 ft3 = 62.8 x 1,000 ft3
154 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Plug the known values into the organic loading rate formula.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (1,000ft3)

Organic Loading Rate = 1,081 lbs/day = 17.2 lbs of BOD5 /1,000 ft3
62.8 x 1,000 ft3
Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ The hydraulic loading rate is defined by the following formula.

Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) = Flow Rate (gpd)

Surface Area (ft2)

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the trickling filter using the area of a circle formula.

Area = 0.785 x Diameter2 = 0.785 x 100 ft x 100 ft = 7,850 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and surface area into the hydraulic loading rate
formula. The total flow equals the influent flow plus the recirculation flow.

HLR = Flow Rate (gpd) = 588,800 gpd + 1,000,000 gpd = 202 gpd/ft2
Surface Area (ft2) 7,850 ft2

Example 7-17
A trickling filter with a diameter of 75 feet has a design organic loading rate of 100
lbs/BOD5/1,000 ft3. Determine the depth of media required to accommodate the
organic load given the following information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 6.47 mgd Q = 6.47 mgd

ɹ Influent BOD5 = 180 mg/L BOD5 = 180 mg/L

Media Depth = ?
Trickling Filter

75 ft Diameter
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 155

ƒ The depth of the trickling filter can be determined by rearranging the volume of a
cylinder formula and solving for depth, as shown below.

Depth = Volume
0.785 x Diameter2

ƒ Calculate the organic loading on the trickling filter in pounds per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Organic Loading
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 6.47 mgd x 180 mg/L x 8.34 = 9,710 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the volume of media required to accommodate this organic load using a
rearranged version of the organic loading rate formula, as shown below.

Media Volume (1,000 ft3) = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Organic Loading Rate (lbs/day/1,000 ft3)

Media Volume (1,000 ft3) = 9,710 lbs BOD5/day

100 lbs BOD5/day/1,000 ft3

Media Volume (1,000 ft3) = 97.1 x 1,000 ft3 = 97,100 ft3

ƒ Plug the known values into the rearranged volume of a cylinder formula.

Depth = Volume = 97,100 ft2 x ft = 22 feet

0.785 x Diameter2 0.785 x 75 ft x 75 ft

Example 7-18
A trickling filter with an influent flow of 2.35 mgd recirculates final clarifier effluent at a
rate of 2,450 gpm. What is the recirculation ratio?

ƒ Recirculation ratio is the recirculation flow divided by the influent flow as shown in
the equation below.
156 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Recirculation Ratio = Recirculation Flow

Influent Flow

ƒ Convert the recirculation flow from gallons per minute to million gallons per day to
be consistent with the units for influent flow.

2,450 gpm = 2,450 gals/min x 60 min/hr x 24 hrs/day = 3.53 mgd

1,000,000 gals/mg

ƒ Plug the known values into the recirculation ratio formula.

Recirculation Ratio = Recirculation Flow = 3.53 mgd = 1.5

Influent Flow 2.35 mgd

Example 7-19
A trickling filter wastewater treatment plant has four filters, each with a diameter of
100 feet. The depth of the filter media is 8 feet. Determine the hydraulic loading rate
in mgd/acre and the organic loading rate in lbs BOD5/day/ac-ft using the information
provided below.

ɹ Influent Flow = 1.8 mgd

ɹ Recirculation Ratio = 1.25
ɹ Influent BOD5 = 240 mg/L

TF TF
Influent Effluent

TF

100 ft Diameter
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 157

Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ The hydraulic loading rate is defined by the following formula.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (mgd)

Surface Area (acre)

ƒ Calculate the flow rate using the flow equation for trickling filters that includes the
recirculation ratio.

Total Flow = Influent Flow x (1 + Recirculation Ratio)

Total Flow = 1.8 mgd x (1 + 1.25) = 1.8 mgd x 2.25 = 4.05 mgd

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the four trickling filters using the area of a circle
formula. Convert the units of area from ft2 to acres.

Area of One Filter = 0.785 x Diameter2

Area of One Filter = 0.785 x 100 ft x 100 ft = 0.785 x 10,000 ft2 = 7,850 ft2
Area of Four Filters = 4 x 7,850 ft2 = 31,400 ft2

31,400 ft2 = 31,400 ft2 x 1 acre = 0.72 acre

43,560 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values into the hydraulic loading rate formula.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (mgd) = 4.05 mgd = 5.63 mgd/acre
Surface Area (acre) 0.72 acre

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate is defined by the following formula.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (acre-feet)

ƒ Calculate the organic loading on the trickling filter in pounds per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula.
158 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Organic Loading
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 1.8 mgd x 240 mg/L x 8.34 = 3,603 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the volume of the media in units of cubic feet by using the volume of a
cylinder formula. Convert the volume units from cubic feet to acre-feet.

Volume of One Filter = 0.785 x (Diameter of Trickling Filter)2 x Depth of Media

Volume of One Filter = 0.785 x 100 ft x 100 ft x 8 ft = 62,800 ft3
Volume of Four Filters = 4 x 62,800 ft3 = 251,200 ft3

251,200 ft3 = 251,200 ft3 x ft x 1 acre = 5.77 acre-feet

43,560 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values into the organic loading rate formula.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (ac-ft)

Organic Loading Rate = 3,603 lbs/day = 624 lbs of BOD5/day/ac-ft

5.77 ac-ft

Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs)

General
Similar to trickling filters, rotating biological contactors (RBCs) provide secondary
biological treatment utilizing fixed-growth reactors. However for RBCs, the media is not
stationary but moves through the wastewater. RBC media consists of circular plastic
discs mounted vertically on a horizontal shaft. The shaft, driven by a motor, rotates the
discs in a tank containing the wastewater. The discs are partially submerged. The rotation
of the shaft causes the media to be exposed to both the wastewater and the atmosphere.
The exposure to the atmosphere provides the oxygen for the reduction of organic
material and microorganism growth.

The RBC process is typically designed in stages with the first stage accommodating the
highest organic load. There can be one or several RBC shafts per stage depending on
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 159

design requirements. Similar to the trickling filter process, RBCs are usually preceded by
primary treatment.

Similar to the trickling filter process, portions of the slime layer periodically break off the
media. The material that breaks off the media is called sloughings. The discharge from
the RBCs, which consists of the treated wastewater and the sloughings, goes to a
secondary clarifier. The effluent from the secondary clarifier is discharged and the
sloughings settle to the bottom of the clarifier as sludge and are disposed. It is common
for the sludge to be pumped to the primary clarifier where the RBC sludge is combined
and disposed with the primary sludge.

Unlike the trickling filter process, RBCs typically do not provide recirculation of RBC or
secondary clarifier effluent. Flow recirculation may be provided depending on process
requirements. The key components of the rotating biological contactor process are
shown in the following diagram.

Stage 1 Stage 2
3 RBC Shafts 3 RBC Shafts

Influent
Secondary
Clarifier
Effluent

Sludge to Primary Treatment Process

RBC Design and Operational Parameters

Similar to trickling filters, organic loading rate and hydraulic loading rate are the main
design and operational parameters for RBCs.

Organic Loading Rate

The organic loading on RBCs is defined as the quantity of organic material applied to the
process in units of pounds of organic material per day per surface area of the media.
RBCs are designed to remove soluble BOD5 (SBOD5). Accordingly, the organic loading
is usually expressed in units of SBOD5. The area of the media is expressed in units of
1,000 square feet. In equation form, the organic loading rate is presented below.
160 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Surface Area (1,000 ft2)

k factor and SBOD5

SBOD5 is the non-filterable portion of the total BOD5 (TBOD5) and is commonly
found by analyzing the BOD5 of a sample that has been filtered through a 0.45 micron
filter. For most domestic wastewaters the following relationship exists among SBOD5,
TBOD5 and TSS (total suspended solids).

TBOD5 = SBOD5 + (k x TSS)

If the k factor is known for a specific wastewater, the SBOD5 can be estimated using the
TSS and TBOD5 analyses.

Hydraulic Loading Rate

The hydraulic loading for RBCs is defined as the flow rate to the RBCs divided by the
surface area of the media in units of gallons per day per square foot of media. In most
cases, the total flow applied to the RBC is the influent wastewater since RBCs typically
have no recirculation flow. In equation form, the hydraulic loading rate is presented
below.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (gpd)

Media Surface Area (ft2)

Example 7-20
Calculate the k factor of the wastewater in an RBC process given the following
information.

ɹ RBC Influent TSS = 235 mg/L

ɹ RBC Influent TBOD5 = 205 mg/L
ɹ RBC Influent SBOD5 = 80 mg/L

ƒ Plug the known values into the k-factor formula and solve for k.

TBOD5 = SBOD5 + (k x TSS)

205 mg/L = 80 mg/L + (k x 235 mg/L)
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 161

125 mg/L = k x 235 mg/L

k = 125 mg/L = 0.53

235 mg/L

Example 7-21
Determine the surface area of the media in a two-stage RBC wastewater treatment
plant given the following information.

Stage 1
ɹ No. of Shafts = 4
ɹ No. of Discs per Shaft = 18
ɹ Disc Diameter = 8 feet

Stage 2
ɹ No. of Shafts = 4
ɹ No. of Discs per Shaft = 12
ɹ Disc Diameter = 8 feet

Stage 1 Surface Area

ƒ Determine the total number of Discs in Stage 1.

Total Stage 1 Discs = No. of Shafts x No. of Discs per Shaft

Total Stage 1 Discs = 4 x 18 = 72 Discs

ƒ Determine the surface area of each disc by using the area of a circle formula.
Multiply by 2 to account for both sides of the disc.

Area (One Side of Disc) = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 82 = 50.24 ft2

Total Disc Area (Both Sides of Disc) = 50.24 ft2 x 2 = 100.5 ft2

ƒ Determine the total Stage 1 surface area by multiplying the total number of discs by
the total area of each disc.

Stage 1 Area = No. of Discs x Total Disc Area = 72 x 100.5 ft2 = 7,236 ft2
162 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Stage 2 Surface Area

ƒ The Stage 2 surface area is calculated in the same manner as Stage 1 as shown below.

Total Stage 2 Discs = 4 Shafts x 12 Discs per Shaft = 48 Discs

Stage 2 Area = No. of Discs x Total Disc Area = 48 x 100.5 ft2 = 4,824 ft2

Total RBC Media Area

Total RBC Media Area = Stage 1 Area + Stage 2 Area

= 7,236 ft2 + 4,824 ft2 = 12,060 ft2

Example 7-22
Determine the hydraulic loading rate (in units of gpd/ft2) and the organic loading rate
(in units of lbs of SBOD5/1,000 ft2) of an RBC wastewater treatment plant given the
following information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 1.65 mgd

ɹ Influent TBOD5 = 220 mg/L
ɹ Influent TSS = 260 mg/L
ɹ k factor = 0.55
ɹ Total RBC Media Surface Area = 500,000 ft2

Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ Plug the known values for influent flow and media surface area into the hydraulic
loading rate formula. First, convert the flow units from mgd to gpd.

1.65 mgd = 1.65 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 1,650,000 gpd

day mg

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (gpd) = 1,650,000 gpd = 3.3 gpd/ft2
Surface Area (ft2) 500,000 ft2

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ Calculate the SBOD5 of the influent wastewater by plugging the known values for
TBOD5, TSS and k into the “k value” formula.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 163

TBOD5 = SBOD5 + (k x TSS)

220 mg/L = SBOD5 + (0.55 x 260 mg/L)
SBOD5 = 220 mg/L – (0.55 x 260 mg/L)
SBOD5 = 220 mg/L – 143 mg/L
SBOD5 = 77 mg/L

ƒ Calculate the organic loading (SBOD5) on the RBCs in pounds per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Organic Loading
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 1.65 mgd x 77 mg/L x 8.34 = 1,060 lbs/day

ƒ Plug the known values into the organic loading rate formula.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day) = 1,060 lbs/day

Media Surface Area (1,000 ft2) 500 x 1,000 ft2

Organic Loading Rate = 2.12 lbs of SBOD5 day/1,000 ft2

Example 7-23
Determine the square feet of RBC media required given the following information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 3.25 mgd

ɹ Influent SBOD5 = 85 mg/L
ɹ Organic Loading Rate = 4 lbs of SBOD5/day/1,000 ft2

ƒ Calculate the organic loading (SBOD5) on the RBCs in pounds per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Organic Loading (SBOD5)

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 3.25 mgd x 85 mg/L x 8.34 = 2,304 lbs/day

ƒ Using the organic loading rate formula, plug in the known values for organic loading
and organic loading rate and solve for the media surface area.
164 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Surface Area (1,000 ft2)

4 lbs of SBOD5/1,000 ft2 = 2,304 lbs/day of SBOD5

Media Surface Area (1,000 ft2)

Media Surface Area (1,000 ft2) = 2,304 lbs/day of SBOD5

4 lbs/day of SBOD5/1,000 ft2

Media Surface Area (ft2) = 576 = 576,000 ft2

1/1000 ft2

Ponds and Lagoons

General
Ponds and lagoons are used in wastewater treatment for flow equalization, secondary
treatment and tertiary treatment. Controlled-discharge ponds are provided to store
effluent during periods when the receiving water cannot safely accommodate the
discharge. Lagoons providing treatment are commonly equipped with aeration
equipment to improve performance. Ponds and lagoons can also be used to store or
treat wastewater treatment residuals.

Large activated sludge plants can have lagoons as aeration basins. When lagoons are used
in activated sludge systems, the math for the activated sludge process is applicable.

Operational Considerations
The following parameters are commonly monitored in ponds and lagoons.

ƒ Lagoon Volume (in units of million gallons or acre-feet)

ƒ Detention Time (in units of days)
ƒ Organic Loading (in units of pounds of BOD5 per day per acre)
ƒ Hydraulic Loading (in units of inches per day)
ƒ Removal Efficiency (in units of percent BOD5 or percent TSS removal)
ƒ Population Loading (in units of persons per acre)
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 165

Calculating Pond and Lagoon Volume

The volumes of lagoons and ponds can be calculated using the dimensions given. The
calculations will depend on the specific information provided. These calculations are
discussed below.

The diagrams below show the cross-sections of a typical wastewater lagoon.

Lagoon Length X-Section

Surface Length

Mean Length
Depth
Vertical

Horizontal
Bottom Length

Lagoon Width X-Section

Surface Width

Mean Width
Depth Vertical

Horizontal

Bottom Width

The approximate volume of the lagoon can be calculated by using the following
equation.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth

If the surface and bottom dimensions are known, the volume equation can be rewritten
as follows.

Volume = (Surface Length + Bottom Length) x (Surface Width + Bottom Width) x Depth
2 2
166 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

In some situations, the side slope of the lagoon may be given instead of either the surface
or bottom dimension. In these cases, the slope can be used to calculate the mean length
or mean width.

The slope is defined as the horizontal dimension divided by the vertical dimension or,

Slope = Horizontal = H : V
Vertical

Lagoons typically have side slopes of 4:1 to 2:1.

The mean length is calculated by subtracting the product of the depth times the side
slope from surface length, or;

Mean Length = Surface Length – (Depth x H : V)

The mean length can also be calculated by adding the bottom length to the product of
the depth times the slope, or;

Mean Length = Bottom Length + (Depth x H : V)

The mean width of a lagoon can be calculated in a similar manner.

The lagoon volume equation does not include a small portion of the volume in the
corners. This corner volume is not significant, except in small lagoons. The corner
volumes should be included in calculations for small lagoons (lagoons with a length or
width less than about 50 to 100 feet). The volume of these smaller lagoons can be
calculated by using the following formula.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth + (A x A x Depth)

3

The A value in the equation is the horizontal distance from the toe of the lagoon to the
lagoon edge as shown in the sketch below.
Surface Length or Width

Bottom Length or Width

 Wastewater Treatment Systems 167

Example 7-24
Calculate the volume in million gallons of a wastewater lagoon with the following
dimensions.

ɹ Surface Length = 200 feet

ɹ Bottom Length = 140 feet
ɹ Surface Width = 120 feet
ɹ Bottom Width = 60 feet
ɹ Depth = 10 feet

ƒ The equation for the volume of the lagoon is;

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth

ƒ Calculate the mean length and mean width.

Mean Length = Surface Length + Bottom Length = 200 ft + 140 ft = 170 ft

2 2

Mean Width = Surface Width + Bottom Width = 120 ft + 60 ft = 90 ft

2 2

ƒ Plug the known values into the volume equation.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth = 170 ft x 90 ft x 10 ft = 153,000 ft3

ƒ Convert the units of volume from ft3 to million gallons.

153,000 ft3 = 153,000 ft3 x 7.48 gals/ft3 = 1.14 mg

1,000,000 gals/mg

Example 7-25
Calculate the volume in million gallons of the wastewater lagoon in the previous
example using the formula for smaller lagoons that includes the additional volume in
the corners.

ƒ The equation for the volume of the lagoon that considers the corner volume is;
168 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth + (A x A x Depth)

3

ƒ Draw a sketch of the lagoon to determine the A dimension.

Surface Length = 200 ft

30 ft Bottom Length = 140 ft 30 ft

ƒ Mathematically, A can be calculated as shown below.

A = Surface Length – Bottom Length = 200 ft – 140 ft = 30 ft

2 2

ƒ Plug in the known values of A, Depth and the Mean Length and Mean Width
calculated in the previous Example.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth + (A x A x Depth)

3

Volume = 170 ft x 90 ft x 10 ft + (30 ft x 30 ft x 10 ft)

3

Volume = 153,000 ft3 + 3,000 ft3 = 156,000 ft3

ƒ Convert the units of volume from ft3 to million gallons.

156,000 ft3 = 156,000 ft3 x 7.48 gals/ft3 = 1.17 mg

1,000,000 gals/mg

ƒ Using the lagoon volume formula that includes the corner volume results in an
increase in total volume of about 3%.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 169

Example 7-26
The wastewater lagoon in the previous example has a flow of 48,300 gpd and an
influent BOD5 concentration of 235 mg/L. Calculate the following operating
parameters.

ɹ Detention Time (in days)

ɹ Organic Loading Rate (in pounds of BOD5 per day per acre)
ɹ Hydraulic Loading Rate (in inches per day)

Detention Time

ƒ Detention time is defined as volume divided by flow or,

DT = Volume/Flow

ƒ Convert the lagoon volume units from million gallons to gallons to be consistent
with the units of flow.

1.17 mg = 1.17 mg x 1,000,000 gals/mg = 1,170,000 gals

ƒ Plug the known values into the detention time formula.

DT = Volume/Flow = 1,170,000 gals = 24.2 days

48,300 gals/day

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate in lagoons is the pounds of influent BOD5 per day divided
by the surface area of the lagoon in acres, or;

Organic Loading Rate = lbs/day of BOD5

Lagoon Area in Acres

ƒ Calculate the pounds of BOD5 per day in the influent wastewater using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula. First, convert the units of flow from gallons
per day to million gallons per day.

48,300 gpd = 48,300 gals x 1 mg = 0.0483 mgd

day 1,000,000 gals
170 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Influent BOD5
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.0483 mgd x 235 mg/L x 8.34 = 94.7 lbs BOD5/day

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the lagoon using the length and width dimensions given
in Example 7-24. Convert the units of area from ft2 to acres.

Lagoon Area (ft2)= Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 200 ft x 120 ft = 24,000 ft2

24,000 ft2 = 24,000 ft2 x 1 acre = 0.55 acre

43,560 ft2

ƒ Calculate the organic loading rate by dividing the pounds of BOD5 per day by the
surface area of the lagoon.

Organic Loading Rate = 94.7 lbs BOD5/day = 172 lbs BOD5/day/acre

0.55 acre

Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ The hydraulic loading rate in lagoons is commonly expressed in units of inches per
day. This can be visualized as a volume of wastewater per day over the lagoon
surface area or volume divided by area.

ƒ Convert the units of wastewater flow from gallons per day to cubic feet per day.

48,300 gpd = 48,300 gals x 1 ft3 = 6,460 ft3/day

day 7.48 gals

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the lagoon in units of ft2.

Lagoon Area (ft2) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 200 ft x 120 ft = 24,000 ft2

ƒ Divide the “volume” of flow by the surface area of the lagoon. Convert the units of
feet to inches.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Volume of Flow = 6,460 ft3/day = 0.269 ft/day

Surface Area 24,000 ft2
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 171

0.269 ft/day = 0.269 ft x 12 inches = 3.23 inches/day

day 1 ft

Example 7-27
A wastewater treatment pond has a surface length of 1,200 feet and a surface width
of 825 feet and serves a population of 5,682. What is the population loading rate of
the lagoon in persons per acre?

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the lagoon in square feet. Convert the area from square
feet to acres.

Lagoon Area (ft2)= Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 1,200 ft x 825 ft = 990,000 ft2

990,000 ft2 = 990,000 ft2 x 1 acre = 22.73 acres

43,460 ft2

ƒ Calculate the population loading rate by dividing the population by the surface area
of the lagoon in acres.

Population Loading = Population = 5,682 people = 250 persons/acre

Area 22.73 acres

Example 7-28
A wastewater treatment pond has a surface length of 280 feet, a surface width of 180
feet, a depth of 8 feet and side slopes of 3:1, horizontal to vertical. The average flow
rate is 0.092 mgd and the influent BOD5 is 180 mg/L. Calculate the detention time in
hours and the organic loading rate in pounds of BOD5 per acre.

Detention Time

ƒ Detention time equals volume divided by flow. The volume of a lagoon can be
calculated from the following equation.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth

ƒ The mean length and mean depth for a lagoon with given side slopes can be
calculated from the equations previously shown.
172 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Mean Length = Surface Length – (Depth x H:V)

Mean Length = 280 ft – (8 ft x 3:1) = 280 ft – 24 ft = 256 ft

Mean Width = Surface Width – (Depth x H:V)

Mean Width = 180 ft – (8 ft x 3:1) = 180 ft – 24 ft = 156 ft

ƒ Plug the known values into the lagoon volume equation to calculate the volume in
units of ft3. Convert the volume units from ft3 to million gallons to be consistent
with the units of flow.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth

Volume = 256 ft x 156 ft x 8 ft = 319,500 ft3

319,500 ft3 = 319,500 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 1 mg = 2.39 mg

3
ft 1,000,000 gals

ƒ Plug the known values into the detention time formula.

Detention Time = Volume = 2.39 mg = 26 days

Flow 0.092 mgd

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate in lagoons is the pounds of influent BOD5 per day divided
by the surface area of the lagoon in acres, or;

Organic Loading Rate = lbs/day of BOD5

Lagoon Area in Acres

ƒ Calculate the pounds of BOD5 per day in the influent wastewater using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Influent BOD5
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.092 mgd x 180 mg/L x 8.34 = 138 lbs BOD5/day

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the lagoon using the length and width dimensions given.
Convert the units of area from ft2 to acres.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 173

Lagoon Area (ft2)= Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 280 ft x 180 ft = 50,400 ft2

50,400 ft2 = 50,400 ft2 x 1 acre = 1.16 acres

43,460 ft2

ƒ Calculate the organic loading rate by dividing the pounds of BOD5 per day by the
surface area of the lagoon.

Organic Loading Rate = 138 lbs BOD5/day = 119 lbs BOD5/day/acre

1.16 acres

Example 7-29
A controlled-discharge pond must hold treated effluent for 180 days. The average
flow for the storage period is 650,000 gpd. If the lagoon has a mean length of 850
feet and a mean width of 750 feet, how deep must the lagoon be to store the
effluent? Use a safety factor of 20% to account for precipitation and flows that may
be greater than the average.

ƒ The equation for the volume of a lagoon developed previously in this section is
shown below.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth

ƒ This equation can be rearranged to solve for depth.

Depth = Volume
Mean Length x Mean Width

ƒ Calculate the volume of the effluent for the 180 day period in million gallons.

Effluent Volume = 650,000 gals x 1 mg x 180 days = 117 mg

day 1,000,000 gals

ƒ Add the 20% safety factor by multiplying the effluent volume by 120% or 1.2.
Convert the volume from million gallons to cubic feet to be consistent with the units
for the length and width of the lagoon.

Effluent Volume = 117 mg x 1.2 = 140 mg

174 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

140 mg = 140 mg x 1 ft3 x 1,000,000 ft3 = 18,720,000 ft3

7.48 gal mft3

ƒ Plug the known values into the “rearranged” lagoon volume equation.

Depth = Volume = 18,720,000 ft3 = 29.4 ft

Mean Length x Mean Width 850 ft x 750 ft

Tertiary Sand Filtration

General
Tertiary sand filtration is commonly used when effluent discharge requirements are more
stringent than secondary treatment standards. Tertiary sand filters are also used in water
reuse applications. Total suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand and total
phosphorus are typical pollutants that can be removed with tertiary sand filters.

Tertiary sand filters are similar in design and operation to sand filters used in potable
water treatment.

Filter Design and Operational Parameters

Filter Flow Rate (or Filtration Rate) and Filter Backwash Flow Rate are operational
parameters of the filtration process used to monitor process efficiency and equipment
operation.

The following diagram shows a typical tertiary sand filter.

 Wastewater Treatment Systems 175

Filter Influent Flow

(QIN) Filter Length

Filter Width

Sand Media

Underdrain System
Filter Effluent Flow
Filter Backwash to (QOUT)
Waste
Filter Backwash Flow
(QBACK)

Under normal operations, the Filter Influent (QIN) flows over the surface of the filter.
The water passes through the filter media and the treated water is collected and
discharged as Filter Effluent (QOUT). During backwash operations, the Filter Backwash
(QBACK) passes upwards through the filter to remove contaminants captured in the filter.
The Filter Backwash is discharged to the sludge treatment process.

The Filter Flow Rate and the Filter Backwash Flow Rate are both expressed in terms of
flow per surface area of the filter. Since the surface area of rectangular filters is the length
times the width, the equations for Filter Flow Rate and Filter Backwash Flow Rate for
rectangular filters can be written as shown below.

Filter Flow Rate = Filter Influent (QIN) = Filter Influent (QIN)

Filter Surface Area Length x Width

Filter Backwash Flow Rate = Filter Backwash (QBACK) = Filter Backwash (QBACK)
Filter Surface Area Length x Width

For circular filters, the filter surface area can be calculated using the area of a circle
formula.
176 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Filter Flow Rate and Filter Backwash Flow Rate are typically expressed in terms of
gpm/ft2.

Example 7-30
Determine the Filter Flow Rate and the Filter Backwash Flow Rate given the
parameters shown in the diagram.

Filter Influent Flow (QIN) = 1,200 gpm

Filter Length = 40 feet

Filter Width = 15 feet

Filter Effluent Flow

Filter Backwash to (QOUT)
Waste
Filter Backwash Flow
(QBACK) = 15,000 gpm

ƒ The Filter Flow Rate and the Filter Backwash Flow Rate can be determined by using
the equations shown above. Plug into these equations the known values for length,
width, filter influent flow and filter backwash flow and calculate the respective flow
rates.

Filter Flow Rate = Filter Influent (QIN) = 1,200 gpm = 2 gpm/ft2

Length x Width 40 ft x 15 ft

Filter Backwash Flow Rate = Filter Backwash (QBACK) = 15,000 gpm = 25 gpm/ ft2
Length x Width 40 ft x 15 ft
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 177

Disinfection
General
To minimize harmful bacteria in receiving waters, wastewater is usually disinfected prior
to discharge. The most common disinfection method is chlorination. After chlorine is
added to the wastewater and prior to discharge, a minimum contact time is required for
the chlorine to mix with the wastewater. The typical minimum contact time is 30 minutes
at peak design flow. Following disinfection with chlorine, a dechlorination agent is
sometimes added to reduce residual chlorine levels. The dechlorination reaction is almost
instantaneous. A 10 second contact time at peak flow is commonly used for design.

Chlorination
Chlorine is available in gas, liquid or dry form. Chlorine gas, provided in cylinders and
ton containers, has 100% available chlorine. Liquid sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)2, also
called bleach, is provided in solutions of 3% to 15% available chlorine. Dry calcium
hypochlorite Ca(OCl2), also called HTH, is in granular or tablet form with 65% to 70%
available chlorine.

The chlorine dosage required for wastewater disinfection is a function of effluent quality.
Typical values are shown below.

ƒ Primary Treatment Plant Effluent – 5 to 20 mg/L

ƒ Activated Sludge Treatment Plant Effluent – 2 to 10 mg/L
ƒ Tertiary Treatment Plant Effluent – 1 to 5 mg/L

Example 7-31
The chlorine demand of a 3.4 mgd activated sludge treatment plant effluent is 14.5
mg/L. If a chlorine residual of 1.5 mg/L is desired, calculate the pounds per day of
12% sodium hypochlorite required for disinfection.

ƒ Determine chlorine dose required.

Chlorine Dose (mg/L) = Chlorine Demand (mg/L) + Chlorine Residual (mg/L), or

Chlorine Dose (mg/L) = 14.5 mg/L + 1.5 mg/L = 16.0 mg/L

178 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Calculate the pounds of sodium hypochlorite required per day by using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula modified for chemical feed applications.

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = 3.4 mgd x 16 mg/L x 8.34 = 3,780 lbs/day

0.12

Example 7-32
A 1,736 gpm primary treatment plant requires a chlorine residual of 10 mg/L for
disinfection. If the chlorine demand of the wastewater is 15 mg/L and a solution of
calcium hypochlorite with 1.5% available chlorine is used, at what flow rate (in gpm)
should the chlorine solution feed pump be set.

ƒ Determine chlorine dose required by adding chlorine demand and chlorine residual.

Chlorine Dose (mg/L) = Chlorine Demand (mg/L) + Chlorine Residual (mg/L), or

Chlorine Dose (mg/L) = 15.0 mg/L + 10.0 mg/L = 25.0 mg/L

ƒ Calculate the pounds of calcium hypochlorite solution required per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula modified for chemical feed applications.
First convert the units of flow from gallons per minute to million gallons per day.

1,736 gpm = 1,736 gals x 1,440 min x mg = 2.5 mgd

min day 1,000,000 gals

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = 2.5 mgd x 25 mg/L x 8.34 = 34,750 lbs/day

0.015

ƒ Convert pounds per day of calcium hypochlorite solution to gallons per minute.
(Assume that the specific gravity of the calcium hypochlorite solution is 1.0)

34,750 lbs/day = 34,750 lbs x 1 gal x day = 2.89 gpm

day 8.34 lbs 1,440 min
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 179

Dechlorination
Dechlorination chemicals are added to reduce the total residual chlorine (TRC)
concentration in the effluent to near zero. Most wastewater dechlorination applications
use sulfur-based compounds. Common dechlorination chemicals, the dose ratios
required and the chemical purities are shown in the following table.

Dosage Ratio
Common (mg/L of
Dechlorination Chemical % Purity
Form chemical per
mg/L of TRC)

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Gas 1.1 100%

Sodium Bisulfite (NaHSO3) Liquid 1.6 39%

39% solution
Sodium Metabisulfite (Na2S2O5) Crystalline 1.5 when mixed with
water
20% solution
Crystalline
Sodium Sulfite (Na2SO3) 2.0 when mixed with
or Powder
water

Example 7-33
Calculate the pounds per day of sulfur dioxide required in Example 7-32 to
dechlorinate the effluent to a final chlorine residual of 1.0 mg/L.

ƒ From Example 7-32, the “target” residual necessary to achieve adequate disinfection
is 10 mg/L. To achieve a 1.0 mg/L residual after dechlorination, the dechlorination
chemical must remove 9.0 mg/L of chlorine.

ƒ Using the dosage ratio for sulfur dioxide shown in the above table, calculate the
dosage of sulfur dioxide required.

SO2 (mg/L) = 1.1 mg/L SO2 x 9 mg/L Cl2 = 9.9 mg/L SO2
1 mg/L Cl2
180 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Calculate the pounds of sulfur dioxide required per day by using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula modified for chemical feed applications. (Sulfur
dioxide has a 100% purity so the decimal equivalent of 1.0 is used in the
denominator.)
Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34
(% Purity)
Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = 2.5 mgd x 9.9 mg/L x 8.34 = 206 lbs/day
1.0

Example 7-34
Sodium bisulfite at a 39% solution with a density of 11.3 lbs/gallon is used to
dechlorinate a 1.6 mgd effluent to 0.2 mg/L total residual chlorine. The residual
chlorine leaving the chlorine contact tank is 2.0 mg/L. Determine the flow rate of the
sodium bisulfite solution required in gallons per hour.

ƒ To achieve a 0.2 mg/L TRC after dechlorination, the dechlorination chemical must
remove 2.0 mg/L minus 0.2 mg/L or 1.8 mg/L TRC.

ƒ Using the dosage ratio for sodium bisulfite shown in the above table, calculate the
dosage of sodium bisulfite required.

NaHSO3 (mg/L) = 1.6 mg/L NaHSO3 x 1.8 mg/L Cl2 = 2.88 mg/L NaHSO3
1 mg/L Cl2

ƒ Calculate the pounds per day of sodium bisulfite required by using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula modified for chemical feed applications.

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)
Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = 1.6 mgd x 2.88 mg/L x 8.34 = 98.5 lbs/day
0.39
ƒ Using the density of sodium bisulfite and the appropriate time conversion, the
required flow of sodium bisulfite can be calculated.

98.5 lbs/day = 98.5 lbs x 1 gal x 1 day = 0.36 gph

day 11.3 lbs 24 hrs
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 181

Land Application of Wastewater

General
Land application treatment systems are used when effluent discharge to receiving waters
is uneconomical or not permitted by law. Slow rate systems (spray irrigation) and rapid
infiltration systems are the most typical of land application systems. Pretreatment of the
wastewater prior to land application is generally required. The specific pretreatment
processes depend on the land application system used, soil conditions and treatment
objectives.

Land application treatment systems may require storage facilities to hold the wastewater
when weather and/or soil conditions restrict or prevent operations.

Land Application Design and Operational Parameters

The quantity of wastewater that can be land applied depends on a number of factors
including soil type, soil depth, topography, vegetation and climatic conditions. The land
required for a land application system is based on a maximum hydraulic loading rate
typically expressed in units of inches of liquid applied per week or feet of liquid applied
per year. The hydraulic loading rate for land application systems is generally referred to
as the application rate. Maximum pumping rates for spray irrigation systems are based
on maximum hydraulic loading rates in units of inches per hour.

Most land application systems include a lagoon for the storage of treated wastewater.
These lagoons serve as a wet well for the land application pumping system and provide
storage for periods when land application is not possible due to climatic conditions.
Depending on the climate, there may be a net loss or net gain of wastewater stored in
the lagoon due to precipitation and evaporation. Taking these factors into consideration,
a general equation that defines the area required for a land application system can be
developed as shown below.

Area = Volume of Wastewater Generated + Volume Loss or Gain in Storage Lagoon

Application Rate

This equation can be expressed with different units for volume and application rate. A
typical version of this equation is shown below.
182 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Area (acres) = Average Daily Flow (ft3/day) x 365 days/year + ¨ Lagoon Volume (ft3/year)
Application Rate (ft/year) x 43,560 ft2/acre

Note: ¨ Lagoon Volume = Change in lagoon volume due to precipitation and evaporation.

Example 7-35
Determine the minimum area required for a spray irrigation land application
wastewater facility given the information shown below. The net loss/gain from
precipitation/evaporation in the storage lagoon is zero.

ɹ Average Daily Flow = 285,000 gpd

ɹ Maximum Application Rate = 1.75 inches/week
ɹ Spray Irrigation Period = 26 weeks

ƒ Calculate the annual wastewater volume in units of ft3.

Wastewater Volume (gals) = 285,000 gals/day x 365 days/yr = 104,025,000 gals/yr

104,025,000 gals/yr = 104,025,000 gals/yr x 1 ft3 = 13,907,000 ft3/yr

7.48 gals

ƒ Determine the maximum inches of wastewater that can be applied annually. Convert
the application rate from inches/year to cubic feet per acre per year.

Inches per Year = Maximum Application Rate (inches/week) x No. of Spray Weeks

Inches per Year = 1.75 inches x 26 weeks = 45.5 inches/year

week year

45.5 inches/year = 45.5 inches x 1 ft x 43,560 ft2 = 165,160 ft3/acre/year

year 12 inches acre

ƒ Divide the annual wastewater volume by the application rate.

Area (acres) = 13,907,000 ft3/year = 84 acres

165,160 ft3/acre/year
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 183

Example 7-36
Calculate the maximum flow rate (in units of gallons per minute) of a spray irrigation
pumping system given the following conditions.

ɹ No. of Spray Fields = 4

ɹ Spray Field Diameter = 100 feet
ɹ Maximum Hydraulic Loading Rate = 0.25 inches/hour

ƒ Determine the area of the spray fields using the area of a circle formula.

Area of Each Spray Field = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 100 ft2 = 7,850 ft2

Area of All Spray Fields = 4 fields x 7,850 ft2 = 31,400 ft2

field

ƒ Calculate the hydraulic loading over the entire spray field in units of cubic feet per
hour.

0.25 inches/hour = 0.25 inches x 1 ft x 31,400 ft2 = 654 ft3/hr

hr 12 inches

ƒ Convert the hydraulic loading rate from ft3/hour to gpm.

654 ft3/hr = 654 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 1 hr = 82 gpm

hr ft3 60 min

The “Pounds Formula” – Revisited

As discussed in Chapter 6, the pounds formula is one of the most important equations
that wastewater system operators use. This equation defines the relationship among
volume, flow, pounds and dosage. Frequently in sludge thickening and dewatering
applications, the pounds formula should be modified to account for the specific gravity
of the liquid.

The two formats of the pounds formula, revised to include the specific gravity, are
shown in the equations below.
184 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Equation (1) – Mass

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.

where:
Mass = pounds
Volume = million gallons
Dosage (or Concentration) = milligrams per liter (or ppm)
S.G. = specific gravity of the liquid or semi-solid

Equation (2) – Mass Flow

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.

where:
Mass Flow = pounds per day
Flow = million gallons per day
Dosage (or Concentration) = milligrams per liter (or ppm)
S.G. = specific gravity of the liquid or semi-solid

The following table presents estimated specific gravities for wastewaters containing
significant solids. Note that the specific gravity of sludges can vary widely.

Type of Wastewater Specific Gravity

Activated Sludge Mixed Liquor 1.005

Trickling Filter and Waste

1.02
Activated Sludges

Primary Sludges 1.03

Thickened and Dewatered Sludges 1.04 to 1.07

If the specific gravity is not provided in a problem, assume a specific gravity of 1.0.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 185

Sludge Thickening
General
The residual solids or sludge created during wastewater treatment operations needs to be
removed from the process and disposed. Solids handling processes are designed to
increase the percent solids content of the sludge and reduce the total volume of sludge
to facilitate sludge disposal.

Sludge thickening equipment can increase the percent solids concentration of the sludge
from approximately 0.5% to 10%. If higher sludge solids concentrations are needed,
sludge dewatering equipment is used.

Sludge Thickening – Gravity Thickeners

Gravity sludge thickeners are similar in configuration to circular sedimentation tanks.
The dilute sludge enters the thickener at the top center and a rotating mechanism scrapes
the thickened settled sludge to the bottom for removal. The overflow from the thickener
is typically returned to the influent waste stream. Polymer is added to improve solids
settling and sludge compaction. Dilution water can be added to the influent sludge to
prevent septic conditions from developing in the thickener and to enhance solids
removal. Gravity thickeners are designed and operated based solids loading rate and
hydraulic overflow rate. These terms are defined below.

Solids Loading Rate (SLR) = Solids Entering Thickener (pounds per day)
Thickener Surface Area (square feet)

Hydraulic Overflow Rate (HOR) = Thickener Influent Flow (gallons per day)
Thickener Surface Area (square feet)

The process flow diagram for a gravity thickener is shown below.

Influent
Sludge Thickener
Overflow

Dilution Gravity Thickener

Water
Thickened
Sludge
186 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 7-37
Calculate the hydraulic overflow rate of a gravity thickener in gpd/ft2 given the
following information.

ɹ Thickener Diameter = 250 feet

ɹ Total Thickener Flow = 40 mgd

ƒ Determine the surface area of the gravity thickener using the area of a circle formula.

Thickener Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 250 ft x 250 ft = 49,060 ft2

ƒ Convert the units of flow from million gallons per day to gallons per day.
40 mgd = 40 million gallons x 1,000,000 gals = 40,000,000 gpd
day 1 million gallons

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and area into the Hydraulic Overflow Rate formula.
Hydraulic Overflow Rate (HOR) = Thickener Influent Flow (gallons per day)
Thickener Surface Area (square feet)

HOR = 40,000,000 gpd = 815 gpd/ft2

49,060 ft2

Example 7-38
Calculate the solids loading rate of the gravity thickener in the previous example if
the influent sludge concentration is 7,500 mg/L. The sludge has a specific gravity of
1.02.

ƒ Calculate the pounds of TSS per day in the influent sludge using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula that includes the specific gravity.

Influent Sludge TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 40 mgd x 7,500 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.02 = 2,552,000 lbs TSS/day

ƒ Plug the known values for TSS and area into the Solids Loading Rate formula.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 187

Solids Loading Rate (SLR) = Solids Entering Thickener (pounds per day)
Thickener Surface Area (square feet)

SLR = 2,552,000 lbs TSS/day = 52 lbs TSS/day/ft2

49,060 ft2

Sludge Thickening – Dissolved Air Flotation Thickeners

Dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners utilize a pressurized recycle flow to deliver
dissolved air to the flotation tank. The air particles float the solids to the surface and
form a sludge blanket which can be scrapped off the top. The DAF effluent flows under
a baffle and over the tank effluent weirs. Polymer is usually added to enhance
performance.

DAF thickeners are designed and operated based solids loading rate and hydraulic
loading rate. These terms are defined below.

Solids Loading Rate (SLR) = Solids Entering DAF (pounds per hour)
DAF Surface Area (square feet)

Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) = DAF Influent Flow (gallons per minute)
DAF Surface Area (square feet)

The general process flow diagram for a DAF thickener is shown below.

Clarified Thickened Sludge

Effluent

DAF Thickener

Influent Sludge
Recycle
Flow

Air Saturation Tank

Air Supply Pressurized
Recycle Flow
188 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 7-39
A DAF thickener is designed to operate at a hydraulic loading rate of 1.5 gallons per
minute per square foot. If the DAF tank is 25 feet long and 15 feet wide, what is the
design flow of the unit?

ƒ Rearrange the Hydraulic Loading Rate formula to isolate the DAF influent flow on
one side of the equation.

DAF Influent Flow = Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) x DAF Surface Area (ft2)

ƒ Calculate the DAF surface area by using the area of a rectangle formula.

Area = Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 25 ft x 15 ft = 375 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for hydraulic loading rate and area into the rearranged
Hydraulic Loading Rate formula.

DAF Influent Flow = Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) x DAF Surface Area (ft2)

DAF Influent Flow = 1.5 gpm/ft2 x 375 ft2 = 563 gpm

Sludge Thickening – Gravity Belt Thickeners

In gravity belt thickeners (GBTs) the sludge is distributed on a porous horizontal belt
where the solids are concentrated and free water (filtrate) drains through the belt. A
spray wash system cleans the belt of entrapped solids to prevent blinding. The sludge is
conditioned using a polymer. The polymer feed rate is expressed in terms of pounds of
polymer per ton of dry solids fed to the GBT.

The influent sludge flow, the speed of the belt and the polymer dosage are controlled to
optimize operations. The hydraulic loading rate, expressed as sludge flow per meter of
belt width, is a key design and operational parameter.

Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) = Influent Sludge Flow (gallons per minute)
Width of Belt (meters)

The process flow diagram for a GBT is shown below.

 Wastewater Treatment Systems 189

Feed Sludge
Belt

Thickened Sludge

Polymer
Filtrate

Example 7-40
A 2-meter GBT is designed to operate at a hydraulic loading rate of 125 gpm/meter
for a 1% waste activated sludge with a specific gravity of 1.015. At a polymer feed
rate of 6 pounds per ton, how many pounds of polymer are required for an 8-hour
shift?

ƒ Find the sludge flow rate to the GBT. Rearrange the Hydraulic Loading Rate
formula to isolate the GBT influent sludge flow on one side of the equation.

Influent Sludge Flow (gpm) = Hydraulic Loading Rate x Width of Belt (meters)

Influent Sludge Flow (gpm) = 125 gpm/meter x 2 meters = 250 gpm

ƒ Calculate the total sludge volume to the GBT over the 8-hour shift.

Sludge Flow (gpm) x Time (minutes) = Total Sludge Volume (gals)

(250 gals/minute) x (8 hours x 60 minutes/hour) = 120,000 gals

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the influent sludge using the “Mass” version
of the pounds formula with the specific gravity correction. Convert the volume from
gallons to million gallons before plugging into the pounds formula. Also, note that
1% sludge solids is equal to 10,000 mg/L.

Influent Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.
Mass (lbs) = 0.12 mg x 10,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.015 = 10,160 lbs TSS

ƒ Calculate the pounds of polymer required. First, convert the units of TSS from
pounds to tons.
190 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Tons of TSS = 10,160 lbs x 1 Ton = 5.1 Tons

2,000 lbs

Lbs. of Polymer = 6 lbs of polymer x 5.1 Ton = 31 lbs

Ton

Sludge Thickening – Rotary Drum Thickeners

Rotary drum thickeners (RDTs) are similar in concept to gravity belt thickeners except
the filter media is attached to a rotating drum. The feed sludge enters the inside of the
drum. The filtrate passes through the filter media and radial flights inside the drum
transport the thickened sludge out the end of the drum. Polymer selection is critical due
to the potential for floc shearing at excessive drum speeds. Similar to GBTs, operation is
optimized by controlling sludge feed, drum speed and polymer dosage.

A diagram of an RDT is shown below.

Feed Sludge

Thickened Sludge
Polymer

Filtrate

Example 7-41
An RDT has a sludge feed rate of 100 gpm. The feed sludge concentration is 9,800
mg/L. The thickened sludge flow rate is estimated at 18 gpm and the thickened
sludge has solids content of 4.5%. Calculate the percent of the influent solids
remaining in the filtrate. Assume the specific gravities of the feed sludge and
thickened sludge are 1.02 and 1.04, respectively.

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the feed sludge flow using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula with the specific gravity correction. Convert the flow
from gallons per minute to million gallons per day before plugging into the pounds
formula.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 191

100 gpm = 100 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x 1 mg = 0.144 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals

Feed Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.144 mgd x 9,800 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.02 = 12,000 lbs/day TSS

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the thickened sludge flow using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula with the specific gravity correction. Convert
the flow from gallons per minute to million gallons per day and convert the
thickened sludge concentration from percent solids to milligrams per liter before
plugging into the pounds formula.

18 gpm = 18 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x 1 mg = 0.0259 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals

4.5 % = 0.045 = 0.045 x 1,000,000 parts = 45,000 ppm = 45,000 mg/L

million

Thickened Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x 1.04
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.0259 mgd x 45,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.04 = 10,110 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the solids in the filtrate.

Filtrate Solids = Feed Sludge Solids – Thickened Sludge Solids

Filtrate Solids = 12,000 lbs/day – 10,110 lbs/day = 1,890 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the percent of the influent solids in the filtrate.

% Solids in Filtrate = Solids in Filtrate = 1,890 lbs/day = 0.158 = 15.8 %

Solids in Influent 12,000 lbs/day
192 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Sludge Digestion
Sludge digestion is used in wastewater treatment plants for volume reduction and
stabilization. Digestion is a biological process where bacteria convert a portion of the
sludge to gasses and relatively inert substances. The volume of the sludge and the volatile
solids content are reduced. Digestion can occur under anaerobic or aerobic conditions.

Anaerobic digestion takes place in the absence of free oxygen. The sludge is mixed in
one or multiple tanks and an external heat source is provided. The reduction of volatile
solids is accompanied by a drop in pH and the production of methane gas. Chemicals
are typically added to maintain alkalinity requirements.

Aerobic digestion takes place in the presence of oxygen. The sludge is mixed and aerated
in a tank with no external heat source. Chemical addition is typically required to maintain
proper pH and alkalinity.

Digesters are designed and operated based volatile solids loading rate, hydraulic retention
time, mean cell residence time and percent reduction in volatile solids (VS). Design
parameters vary widely depending on the type of digestion, the nature of the sludge and
process objectives. The common design and operational terms for digesters are defined
below.

Volatile Solids Loading Rate

Volatile Solids Loading (lbs VS/day/ft3) = Feed Sludge (lbs VS/day)

Digester Volume (ft3)
Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)

Hydraulic Retention Time (days) = Digester Volume (gallons)

Feed Sludge (gallons/day)
Volatile Solids Reduction

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = % VS In – % VS Out x 100

% VS In – (% VS In x % VS Out)
or;

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = VS In (lbs) – VS Out (lbs) x 100

VS In (lbs)
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 193

Gas Production

Gas Produced (ft3/lbs VS Reduced) = Gas Produced (ft3/day)

Feed Sludge (lbs VS/day) x % VS Reduction
or;

Gas Produced (ft3/day) =

Feed Sludge (lbs VS/day) x % VS Reduction x Gas Produced (ft3/lbs VS Reduced)

Example 7-42
An aerobic digester has a diameter of 18 feet and a depth of 20 feet. If the design
volatile solids loading rate is 0.12 lbs VS/day/ft3, what is the maximum volume of
sludge in lbs VS/day, that can be pumped to the digester?

ƒ Calculate the volume of the digester in cubic feet using the volume of a cylinder
formula.

Volume (ft3) = 0.785 x Diameter (ft)2 x Height (ft) = 0.785 x 182 x 20 ft = 5,090 ft3

ƒ Plug the known values for volatile solids loading and digester volume into the
volatile solids loading rate formula. First, rearrange the volatile solids loading rate
formula to solve for the unknown sludge feed.

Feed Sludge (lbsVS/day) = Volatile Solids Loading (lbs VS/day/ft3) x Digester Vol. (ft3)

Feed Sludge (lbsVS/day) = 0.12 lbs VS/day x 5,090 ft3 = 611 lbs VS/day
ft3

Example 7-43
Sludge is added to an anaerobic digester at a rate of 3,500 gallons per day. If the
digester is 20 feet in diameter and 26 feet high, what is the digester detention time in
days?

ƒ Calculate the volume of the digester in cubic feet using the volume of a cylinder
formula. Convert the volume from cubic feet to gallons.
194 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Volume (ft3) = 0.785 x Diameter (ft)2 x Height (ft) = 0.785 x 20 ft x 20 ft x 26 ft

= 8,164 ft3

8,164 ft3 = 8,164 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 61,070 gallons

ft3

ƒ Plug the known values for digester volume and sludge feed rate into the detention
time formula.

Detention Time (days) = Digester Volume (gallons) = 61,070 gallons = 17.4 days
Feed Sludge (gallons/day) 3,500 gallons/day

Example 7-44
The volatile solids content of the raw sludge entering a digester is 70%. The volatile
solids content of the digested sludge is 52%. Determine the percent volatile solids
reduction in the digester.

ƒ Using the first formula shown above for volatile solids reduction, plug in the known
values for % volatile solids In and % volatile solids Out. First change the % values to
decimals.

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = % VS In – % VS Out x 100

% VS In – (% VS In x % VS Out)

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = 0.70 – 0.52 x 100

0.70 – (0.70 x 0.52)

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = 0.18 x 100 = 0.18 x 100 = 53.6%

0.70 – 0.364 0.336

Example 7-45
Solve Example 7-44 using the second formula shown above for volatile solids
reduction. Assume the total solids in (volatile solids plus fixed solids) is 100 pounds.

ƒ Show the raw solids entering the digester and the digested solids leaving the digester
in diagram form.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 195

Volatile Solids = 70% 70 lbs

? lbs Volatile Solids = 52%

Fixed Solids = 48%

Fixed Solids = 30%
(30 pounds)
(30 pounds)

Raw Sludge Digested Sludge

ƒ The diagram shows that the total solids are reduced but the fixed solids remain the
same. The total solids and volatile solids in the digested sludge can be calculated as
shown below.

Total Digested Solids (lbs) = Fixed Digested Solids (lbs) = 30 lbs = 62.5 lbs
% Fixed Digested Solids 0.48

Digested Volatile Solids (lbs) = Total Digested Solids (lbs) – Fixed Digested Solids (lbs)
Digested Volatile Solids (lbs) = 62.5 lbs – 30 lbs = 32.5 lbs

ƒ Using the second formula shown above for volatile solids reduction, plug in the
known values.

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = VS In (lbs) – VS Out (lbs) x 100

VS In (lbs)

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = 70 lbs – 32.5 lbs x 100% = 37.5 lbs x 100 = 53.6%
70 lbs 70 lbs

Example 7-46
An anaerobic digester produces 12 ft3 of gas per pound of volatile solids reduced. If
the volatile solids entering the digester is 3,245 lbs/day and 60% of the volatile solids
are reduced, what is the daily gas production?

ƒ Plug the known values given in the example into the second equation shown above
under Gas Production. Insert the % VS reduction as a decimal.
196 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Gas Produced (ft3/day) =

Feed Sludge (lbs VS/day) x % VS Reduction x Gas Produced (ft3/lbs VS Reduced)

Gas Produced (ft3/day) = 3,245 lbs VS x 0.60 x 12 ft3 = 23,360 ft3/day

day lbs VS

Sludge Dewatering
General
After sludge thickening and/or digestion, the sludge is in liquid form and further sludge
processing may be required prior to final disposal. Sludge dewatering processes can
increase the percent solids concentration to 20% or more and significantly reduce sludge
volume. A dewatered sludge in solid or semi-solid form can be incinerated, composted,
land applied or disposed in a landfill.

Sludge Dewatering – Belt Filter Presses

Belt filter presses (BFPs) employ single or multiple continuous moving porous belts
using a combination of gravity drainage and compression to dewater sludge. The
chemically conditioned sludge is deposited on a drainage belt to remove the free water
prior to being compacted by passing through a series of belts and rollers. Support
systems for BFPs include sludge feed pumps, chemical feed systems, belt wash water
systems and conveyance systems for transporting the dewatered sludge cake.

The key design and operational parameters for BFPs are the hydraulic loading rate
(expressed as sludge flow per meter of belt width) and the solids loading rate (expressed
as dry pounds per hour per meter of belt width). The belt widths of BFPs typically range
from 0.5 meter to 3.0 meters.

Hydraulic Loading Rate

Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) = Influent Sludge Flow (gallons per minute)
Width of Belt (meters)
Solids Loading Rate

Solids Loading Rate (SLR) = Pounds of Solids (lbs/hr)

Width of Belt (meters)
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 197

Many factors impact BFP performance including type of sludge, percent sludge solids,
sludge feed rate and polymer dosage. The dewatered cake from BFPs typically ranges
from 15% to 25% solids. The volume of dewatered cake produced is an important
operational parameter. Sludge cake volume can be estimated by assuming a bulk density
of 50 wet pounds per cubic foot of dewatered cake.

BFP efficiency can also be measured in terms of solids recovery or capture. Solids
capture rates typically range from 85% to 95% and can be estimated mathematically. The
equation is presented below.

Solids Capture

Solids Capture (%) = Solids in Feed Sludge (lbs) − Solids in Filtrate (lbs) x 100
Solids in Feed Sludge (lbs)

Since the solids in the above equation are difficult to quantify, particularly the filtrate
solids, solids capture calculations are generally not very accurate. Solids capture and
process performance is generally optimized by visual observation.

The polymer feed rate is expressed in terms of pounds of polymer per ton of dry solids
fed to the BFP, similar to the sludge thickening processes discussed earlier.

A diagram of a BFP is shown below.

Head
Feed Sludge Polymer
Box

Conditioned Sludge

Drainage Sludge Cake

Water

Filtrate
198 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 7-47
The sludge feed rate to a 2.0 meter belt filter press is 80 gpm. If the sludge has a
solids concentration of 3.5% and a specific gravity of 1.03, calculate the hydraulic
loading rate and solids loading rate to the BFP.

Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ The hydraulic loading rate is defined by the following equation.

Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) = Influent Sludge Flow (gallons per minute)
Width of Belt (meters)

ƒ Plug the known values for influent sludge flow and BFP size into the HLR equation.

Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) = 80 gpm = 40 gpm/meter

2.0 meters

Solids Loading Rate

ƒ The solids loading rate is defined by the following equation.

Solids Loading Rate (SLR) = Pounds of Solids (lbs/hr)

Width of Belt (meters)

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the influent sludge flow using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula with the specific gravity correction. Convert
the flow from gallons per minute to million gallons per day and the solids
concentration from percent to mg/L before plugging into the pounds formula.

80 gpm = 80 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x 1 mg = 0.115 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals

3.5% = 0.035 = 0.035 x 1,000,000 parts = 35,000 ppm = 35,000 mg/L

million

Influent Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x 1.03
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.115 mgd x 35,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.03 = 34,580 lbs/day TSS
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 199

Covert the TSS from lbs/day to lbs/hr.

34,580 lbs/day = 34,580 lbs x 1 day = 1,440 lb/hr

day 24 hrs

ƒ Plug the known values for pounds of solids per hour and BFP size into the SLR
equation.

Solids Loading Rate (SLR) = 1,440 lb/hr = 720 lbs/hr/meter

2.0 meters

Sludge Dewatering – Vacuum Filters

A vacuum filter consists of a cylindrical drum covered with a filter medium which rotates
in an open tank containing liquid sludge. About 25 to 30% of the drum is submerged in
the sludge. The types of filter medium used are steel coils or synthetic fabric. A vacuum
applied to the system causes sludge cake to form on the outside of the filter medium and
allows filtrate to be discharged. The sludge cake is scrapped off the filter medium with a
doctor blade. Vacuum filters of this type have high operating and maintenance expenses
and lower efficiencies when compared to alternative sludge dewatering equipment. Few
are in operation today.

The solids loading rate for vacuum filters is expressed in terms of pounds per day per
square foot of surface area. The basic equation is shown below.

Filter Loading Rate (FLR) = Pounds of Solids (lbs/hr)

Filter Surface Area (ft2)

Since vacuum filters are cylindrical, the surface area can be calculated as follows:

Filter Surface Area (ft2) = Circumference (ft) x Length (ft) or

Filter Surface Area (ft2) = ư x Diameter (ft) x Length (ft)

Therefore, the FLR for a vacuum filter can be expressed as follows;

Filter Loading Rate (FLR) = Pounds of Solids (lbs/hr)

ư x Diameter (ft) x Length (ft)
200 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

A diagram of a vacuum filter is shown below.

Rotation
Vacuum
In Diameter
Vacuum System

Filtrate
Out Sludge Cake

Doctor Blade

Feed Sludge

Example 7-48
Primary sludge at a rate of 54 gpm is feed to a vacuum filter that is six feet in
diameter and 12 feet long. If the sludge has a solids concentration of 5.0% and a
specific gravity of 1.05, what is the filter loading rate?

ƒ The filter loading rate is defined by the following equation.

Filter Loading Rate (FLR) = Dry Pounds of Solids/Hour (lbs/hr)

ư x Diameter (ft) x Length (ft)

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the feed sludge flow using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula with the specific gravity correction. Convert the flow
from gallons per minute to million gallons per day and the solids concentration from
percent to mg/L before plugging into the pounds formula.

54 gpm = 54 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x 1 mg = 0.0778 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals

5.0% = 0.050 = 0.050 x 1,000,000 parts = 50,000 ppm = 50,000 mg/L

million
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 201

Feed Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x 1.05
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.0778 mgd x 50,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.05 = 34,060 lbs/day TSS

Covert the TSS from lbs/day to lbs/hr.

34,060 lbs/day = 34,060 lbs x 1 day = 1,420 lb/hr

day 24 hrs

ƒ Using the FLR equation, plug in the known values for feed sludge, vacuum filter
diameter and vacuum filter length.

Filter Loading Rate (FLR) = Pounds of Solids (lbs/hr)

ư x Diameter (ft) x Length (ft)
Filter Loading Rate (FLR) = 1,420 lbs/hr = 6.3 lb/hr/ft2
3.14 x 6 ft x 12 ft

Sludge Dewatering – Sludge Drying Beds

Sludge drying beds dewater sludge by evaporation and/or gravity drainage and are most
suitable for smaller wastewater facilities that require a low technology solution for sludge
dewatering. Drying beds include a drainage medium and an underdrain system. Sand
with an underlying gravel layer is a common media design. Synthetic drainage media and
vacuum assisted media are also used. The feed sludge to drying beds is often conditioned
with polymers.

The design of sludge drying beds is based on population served or on sludge loading as
presented below.

Population Basis – square feet of bed per capita per year, or ft2/person/year

Sludge Loading Rate – pounds of dry solids per square foot per year, or lbs/ft2/year

After sludge is applied to a drying bed, sufficient time must be provided for the water to
drain and/or evaporate from the sludge and for the sludge to be removed and the bed
prepared for the next application.
202 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 7-49
A primary wastewater treatment plant has two sand drying beds, each 20 feet wide
by 60 feet long. If the design maximum solids loading rate is 25 lbs/ft2/year what is
the maximum volume of sludge (in gallons) that can be applied to the beds annually
if the sludge is 3.5% solids and has a specific gravity of 1.02.

ƒ Calculate the maximum annual solids loading to the sand drying beds.

Solids Loading (lbs/year) = Design Loading Rate (lbs/ft2/year) x Bed Area (ft2)

Solids Loading (lbs/year) = 25 lbs x (20 ft x 60 ft) x 2 beds = 60,000 lbs/yr

ft2- year bed

ƒ Calculate the annual volume of sludge using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds
formula with the specific gravity correction. The pounds formula needs to be
rearranged to solve for the unknown flow. Convert the solids concentration from
percent to mg/L before plugging into the pounds formula. Finally, convert the flow
from million gallons per year to gallons per year.

3.5% = 0.035 = 0.035 x 1,000,000 parts = 35,000 ppm = 35,000 mg/L

million

Mass Flow (lbs/year) = Flow (mg/year) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G. or

Flow (mg/yr) = Mass Flow (lbs/year) = 60,000 lbs/yr = 0.202 mg/yr

Conc. (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G. 35,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.02

0.202 mg/yr = 0.202 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 202,000 gals/yr

yr mg

Sludge Dewatering – Other Methods

Other methods and equipment used for sludge dewatering include screw presses,
centrifuges and plate & frame presses. Similar to other sludge dewatering methods
discussed, hydraulic feed rate, solids loading rate and solids capture are typical design and
operational parameters. Polymers and other chemicals are typically used to increase the
percent solids in the sludge cake and to increase solids capture rate.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 203

Controlled Discharge of Wastewater

Water quality or effluent toxicity issues of the receiving water may place limitations on
wastewater discharges. For example, low stream flows in the summer months may limit
or prohibit wastewater discharge due the streams low assimilative capacity. In this
instance, the wastewater could be stored and discharged when stream flows are higher.
Also, for some coastal wastewater treatment plants, effluent discharge may be limited to
high tide conditions when dilution factors are greatest. Since controlled discharge
applications differ, there are no typical equations to represent all situations. Mathematical
problems can be solved using techniques previously discussed.

Example 7-50
A wastewater treatment plant with an annual average daily flow of 2.4 mgd is
prohibited from discharging wastewater during June, July and August. Determine the
volume of the lagoon required to store wastewater during these three months. Add
30% to the calculated volume to allow for precipitation and flows greater than the
average.

ƒ Storage must be provided to accommodate the wastewater generated during the

three month period from June to August. Calculate the days of storage required.

Days of Storage = Days in June + Days in July + Days in August

Days of Storage = 30 + 31 + 31 = 92 days

ƒ The volume required for wastewater storage equals the volume of wastewater
generated in 92 days. Calculate the volume of wastewater generated.

Wastewater Generated (mg) = Average Daily Flow (mgd) x 92 days

Wastewater Generated (mg) = 2.4 mg x 92 days = 221 mg

day

ƒ Multiply the volume by 1.3 to provide a safety factor for precipitation and possible
increased wastewater flows.

221 mg x 1.3 = 287 mg

204 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Example 7-51
The receiving water for a wastewater treatment plant has a BOD5 limitation of 175
lbs/day. If the maximum daily effluent BOD5 concentration is 25 mg/L, what is the
maximum allowable daily flow?

ƒ Calculate the maximum allowable daily flow using the “Mass Flow” version of the
pounds formula. Rearrange the formula to solve for the unknown value for flow.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Flow (mgd) = Mass Flow (lbs/day)

Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Flow (mgd) = 175 lbs/day = 0.84 mgd

25 mg/L x 8.34
 Chapter 7

WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Review Problems

(The answers are given in Appendix A. Step-by-step solutions are shown in Appendix C)

1. A wastewater treatment plant with a flow of 2.55 mgd produces 60 cubic yards of
screenings per year. What is the average quantity of screenings in units of cubic
feet per million gallons?

2. A rectangular horizontal-flow grit chamber with cross-section dimensions of 5 feet

deep and 12 feet wide has a flow of 40,350 gallons per minute. What is the
velocity in the grit chamber in units of feet per second?

3. A wastewater treatment plant has an average daily flow of 1.5 mgd. Peak flows are
two times the average. If an aerated grit chamber has a cross-section of 6 feet
wide by 8 feet deep, how long must the grit chamber be to provide a detention
time of 3 minutes at peak flow?

4. A rectangular primary clarifier has a length of 50 feet, a width of 25 feet and a

depth of 12 feet. Calculate the detention time in hours if the flow is 1.0 mgd.

5. Calculate the surface overflow rate of the primary clarifier in the previous example.

6. An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant has the following parameters.

What is the F:M ratio of the process?

ɹ Flow = 0.75 mgd

205
206 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ɹ Influent BOD5 = 124 mg/L

ɹ MLSS = 2,200 mg/L
ɹ Percent Volatile Solids = 75%
ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 450,000 gallons

7. An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant has the following parameters.

Calculate the SRT.

ɹ Flow = 8.2 mgd

ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 3.75 mg
ɹ Final Clarifier Volume = 1.0 mg
ɹ MLSS = 2,600 mg/L
ɹ Average TSS in Clarifier = 1,900 mg/L
ɹ Waste Activated Sludge Flow = 175 gpm
ɹ Waste Activated Sludge Specific Gravity = 1.014
ɹ TSS of Waste Activated Sludge = 8,400 mg/L
ɹ TSS of Effluent = 15 mg/L

8. Determine the volumetric organic loading rate of a circular activated sludge tank
with a diameter of 85 feet and a depth of 12 feet. The influent flow is 0.85 mgd
and the influent BOD5 concentration is 215 mg/L.

9. An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant desires to maintain an SRT of 20

days. How many gallons of sludge should be wasted from the process given the
following plant data?

ɹ Flow = 1.4 mgd

ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 650,000 gallons
ɹ MLSS = 2,800 mg/L
ɹ Return Sludge Concentration = 11,000 mg/L
ɹ RAS and WAS Specific Gravity = 1.015
ɹ Effluent TSS = 12 mg/L

10. An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant’s goal is to achieve a “target”

MLSS concentration of 2,400 mg/L. Calculate the pounds and gallons of solids
that need to be wasted from the process.
ɹ Flow = 2.1 mgd
ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 900,000 gals
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 207

ɹ Current MLSS = 2,800 mg/L

ɹ Return Sludge Concentration = 10,500 mg/L
ɹ Return Sludge Specific Gravity = 1.012

11. Calculate the detention time, surface overflow rate and solids loading rate for a
final clarifier at an activated sludge wastewater treatment plant given the
following information.
ɹ Plant Flow = 1.6 mgd
ɹ Return Sludge Rate = 75%
ɹ Return Sludge Specific Gravity = 1.02
ɹ MLSS = 2,250 mg/L
ɹ Final Clarifier Diameter = 60 feet
ɹ Average Final Clarifier Depth = 12 feet

12. Calculate the SVI and SDI of an activated sludge plant given the following
information
ɹ Settled Sludge Volume = 350 mL/L
ɹ MLSS = 3,200 mg/L

13. Calculate the volume in million gallons of the oxidation ditch shown below.

20 ft

Radius = 35 ft L = 200 ft 10 ft

8 ft
X - Section
Plan View Centerline Length

14. Listed below are the wastewater characteristics for the oxidation ditch in the
previous example.

ɹ Influent Flow = 0.85 mgd

ɹ Influent BOD5 = 190 mg/L
ɹ Influent TSS = 225 mg/L
208 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ɹ MLSS = 2,650 mg/L

ɹ Volatile MLSS = 78%
ɹ Effluent TSS = 18 mg/L
ɹ RAS and WAS = 9,000 mg/L
ɹ RAS and WAS Specific Gravity = 1.012
ɹ WAS Rate = 5,200 gpd

Calculate the following operational parameters.

î Detention Time (in hours)

î Organic Loading Rate
î F:M Ratio
î SRT

15. A peripheral overflow final clarifier at an oxidation ditch treatment plant has a
diameter of 75 feet and a side water depth of 14 feet. Assuming a flow of 4.2
mgd determine the following.

ɹ Detention Time (in hours)

ɹ Surface Overflow Rate (in gpd/ft2), and
ɹ Weir Overflow Rate (in gpd/ft)

16. Determine the organic loading rate (in units of lbs of BOD5/1,000 ft3) and the
hydraulic loading rate (in units of gpd/ft2) of a trickling filter given the following
information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 250,000 gpd

ɹ Recirculation Flow = 375,000 gpd
ɹ Influent BOD5 = 200 mg/L
ɹ Trickling Filter Diameter = 100 ft
ɹ Media Depth = 8 ft

17. A trickling filter with a diameter of 95 feet has a design organic loading rate of
100 lbs of BOD5 per 1,000 ft3. Determine the depth of media required to
accommodate the organic load given the following information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 4.40 mgd

ɹ Influent BOD5 = 150 mg/L
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 209

18. A trickling filter with an influent flow of 2.35 mgd recirculates final clarifier
effluent at a rate of 3,264 gpm. What is the recirculation ratio?

19. A trickling filter wastewater treatment plant has four units, each with a diameter
of 120. The depth of the filter media is 18 feet. Determine the hydraulic loading
rate in mgd/acre and the organic loading rate in lbs of BOD5/day/ac-ft using the
information provided below.

ɹ Influent Flow = 2.8 mgd

ɹ Recirculation Ratio = 1.75
ɹ Influent BOD5 = 220 mg/L

20. Calculate the k factor of the wastewater in an RBC process given the following
information.

ɹ RBC Influent TSS = 205 mg/L

ɹ RBC Influent TBOD5 = 190 mg/L
ɹ RBC Influent SBOD5 = 70 mg/L

21. Determine the surface area of the media in a two-stage RBC wastewater
treatment plant given the following information.

Stage 1
ɹ No. of Shafts = 4
ɹ No. of Discs per Shaft = 16
ɹ Disc Diameter = 6 feet

Stage 2
ɹ No. of Shafts = 3
ɹ No. of Discs per Shaft = 12
ɹ Disc Diameter = 6 feet

22. Determine the hydraulic loading rate (in units of gpd/ft2) and the organic loading
rate (in units of lbs of SBOD5/1,000 ft2) of an RBC wastewater treatment plant
given the following information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 1.2 mgd

ɹ Influent TBOD5 = 200 mg/L
210 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ɹ Influent TSS = 240 mg/L

ɹ k factor = 0.55
ɹ Total RBC Media Surface Area = 375,000 ft2

23. Determine the square feet of RBC media required given the following
information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 1.75 mgd

ɹ Influent SBOD5 = 72 mg/L
ɹ Organic Loading Rate = 5.5 lbs of SBOD5/day/1,000 ft2

24. Calculate the volume in million gallons of a wastewater lagoon with the following
dimensions.

ɹ Surface Length = 150 feet

ɹ Bottom Length = 90 feet
ɹ Surface Width = 100 feet
ɹ Bottom Width = 40 feet
ɹ Depth = 10 feet

25. Calculate the volume of the wastewater lagoon in the previous example using
the formula for smaller lagoons that includes the additional volume in the
corners.

26. The wastewater lagoon in the previous example has a flow of 35,000 gpd and
an influent BOD5 concentration of 218 mg/L. Calculate the following operating
parameters.

ɹ Detention Time (in days)

ɹ Organic Loading Rate (in pounds of BOD5 per day per acre)
ɹ Hydraulic Loading Rate (in inches per day)

27. A wastewater treatment pond has a surface length of 850 feet and a surface
width of 600 feet and serves a population of 2,340. What is the population
loading of the lagoon in persons per acre?
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 211

28. A wastewater treatment pond has a surface length of 320 feet, a surface width
of 200 feet, a depth of 10 feet and side slopes of 4:1, horizontal to vertical. The
average flow rate is 0.18 mgd and the influent BOD5 is 200 mg/L. Calculate the
detention time in hours and the organic loading rate in pounds of BOD5 per
acre.

29. A controlled-discharge pond must hold treated effluent for 180 days. The
average flow for the storage period is 425,000 gpd. If the lagoon has a mean
length of 750 feet and a mean width of 500 feet, how deep must the lagoon be
to store this effluent? Add a safety factor of 20% to account for precipitation and
flows that may be greater than the average flow.

30. Determine the Filter Flow Rate and the Filter Backwash Flow Rate given the
parameters shown in the diagram.

Filter Influent Flow (QIN) = 800 gpm

Filter Length = 30 feet

Filter Width = 15 feet

Filter Effluent Flow

(QOUT)
Filter Backwash to
Waste
Filter Backwash Flow
(QBACK) = 12,000 gpm

31. The chlorine demand of a 2.35 mgd activated sludge treatment plant effluent is
12.0 mg/L. If a chlorine residual of 1.0 mg/L is desired, calculate the pounds per
day of 12% sodium hypochlorite required for disinfection.

32. A 575 gpm primary treatment plant requires a chlorine residual of 8 mg/L for
disinfection. If the chlorine demand of the wastewater is 18 mg/L and a solution
of calcium hypochlorite with 1.7% available chlorine is used, at what flow rate (in
212 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

gpm) should the chlorine solution feed pump be set. Assume the solution of
calcium hypochlorite has a specific gravity of 1.05.

33. Calculate the flow in gallons per hour of sodium metabisulfite solution (at 39%
purity with a specific gravity of 1.1) required to dechlorinate the effluent in
Problem 32 to a final chlorine residual of 1.0 mg/L.

34. Sodium bisulfite at a 39% solution with a density of 11.4 lbs/gallon is used to
dechlorinate a 3.3 mgd effluent to 0.75 mg/L total residual chlorine. The residual
chlorine leaving the chlorine contact tank is 3.0 mg/L. Determine the flow rate of
the sodium bisulfite solution required in gallons per hour.

35. Determine the minimum area required for a spray irrigation land application
wastewater facility given the information shown below. The net loss/gain from
precipitation/evaporation in the storage lagoon is zero.

ɹ Average Daily Flow = 120,000 gpd

ɹ Maximum Application Rate = 1.25 inches/week
ɹ Spray Irrigation Period = 26 weeks

36. Calculate the maximum flow rate (in units of gallons per minute) of a spray
irrigation pumping system given the following conditions.

ɹ No. of Spray Fields = 6

ɹ Spray Field Diameter = 75 feet
ɹ Maximum Hydraulic Loading Rate = 0.40 inches/hour

37. Calculate the hydraulic overflow rate of a gravity thickener in gpd/ft2 given the
following information.

ɹ Thickener Diameter = 125 feet

ɹ Total Thickener Flow = 15 mgd

38. Calculate the solids loading rate of the gravity thickener in the previous example
if the influent sludge concentration is 9,250 mg/L. The sludge has a specific
gravity of 1.015.
 Wastewater Treatment Systems 213

39. A DAF thickener is designed to operate at a hydraulic loading rate of 1.25

gallons per minute per square foot. If the DAF tank is 20 feet long and 10 feet
wide, what is the design flow of the unit?

40. A 2-meter GBT is designed to operate at a hydraulic loading rate of 100

gpm/meter for a 1.25% waste activated sludge with a specific gravity of 1.02. At
a polymer feed rate of 5 pounds per ton, how many pounds of polymer are
required for an 8-hour shift?

41. A RDT has a sludge feed rate of 200 gpm. The thickened sludge flow rate is
estimated at 30 gpm. If the feed sludge has a concentration of 11,000 mg/L and
the thickened sludge is 6.5% solids, calculate the percent of the influent solids
remaining in the filtrate. Assume the specific gravities of the feed sludge and
thickened sludge are 1.02 and 1.04, respectively.

42. An aerobic digester has a diameter of 24 feet and a depth of 22 feet. If the
design volatile solids loading rate is 0.14 lbs VS/day/ft3, what is the maximum
volume of sludge in lbs VS/day, that can be pumped to the digester?

43. Sludge is added to an anaerobic digester at a rate of 2,300 gallons per day. If
the digester is 22 feet in diameter and 18 feet high, what is the digester
detention time is days?

44. The volatile solids content of the raw sludge entering a digester is 72% and the
sludge leaving the digester has a volatile solids content of 55%. Determine the
percent volatile solids reduced in the digester.

45. Solve Problem 44 using the second formula given for Volatile Solids Reduction
(see Chapter 7 under Sludge Digestion). Assume the total solids in (volatile
solids plus fixed solids), is 100 pounds.

46. An anaerobic digester produces 14 ft3 of gas per pound of volatile solids
reduced. If the volatile solids content entering the digester is 5,300 lbs/day and
62% of the volatile solids are reduced, what is the daily gas production?
214 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

47. The sludge feed rate to a 2.5 meter belt filter press is 120 gpm. If the sludge has
a solids concentration of 4.5% and a specific gravity of 1.04, calculate the
hydraulic loading rate and solids loading rate to the BFP.

48. Primary sludge is feed to a vacuum filter that is six feet in diameter and 10 feet
long at a rate of 45 gpm. If the sludge has a solids concentration of 5.5% and a
specific gravity of 1.05, what is the filter loading rate?

49. A primary wastewater treatment plant has four sand drying beds, each 40 feet
wide by 60 feet long. If the design maximum solids loading rate is 25 lbs/ft2/year
what is the maximum volume of sludge (in gallons) that can be applied to the
beds annually if the sludge is 3.0% solids and has a specific gravity of 1.02.

50. A wastewater treatment plant with an annual average daily flow of 325 gpm is
prohibited from discharging wastewater during June, July and August.
Determine the volume of the lagoon (in million gallons) required to store
wastewater during these three months. Add 25% to the calculated volume to
allow for precipitation.

51. The receiving water for a wastewater treatment plant has a BOD5 limitation of
25 lbs/day. If the maximum daily effluent BOD5 concentration is 15 mg/L, what
is the maximum allowable daily flow in units of gallons per minute?
Chapter 8

PROBLEM SOLVING METHODS

General
Wastewater system operators are natural problem solvers. Although many operational
tasks are repetitive, the situations and conditions operators encounter are wide-ranging.
Project location, time constraints, public relations, availability of resources and many
other factors define the problems and influence the solutions.

Operators seldom use mathematics to solve these problems. Most problems are solved
by relying on prior experience and the experience of team members. Problems that
involve math, such as setting chemical pumping rates or determining the amount of
activated sludge that needs to be wasted are frequently solved by using charts and graphs
that have been prepared by others or by standard procedures developed by management
based on operational experience.

The math problems on licensing examinations are challenging since they represent
situations not typically encountered. Exam questions could also relate to treatment
processes that are unfamiliar to operators since the processes may not exist at their
facility.

In addition, the problems on the exams are presented in words rather than verbally. Real
world problems are seldom written.

The methods described in this Chapter are intended to provide the operator with a
general approach to solve the math problems encountered on licensing examinations.

215
216 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Problem Solving Steps

Knowledge of and experience with basic wastewater system concepts can help operators
understand the problems presented on licensing exams.
The first approach that should be used in solving a problem is to visualize the conditions
presented in the problem. Use experience to see if a straightforward solution is possible.
A problem may not require the use of formulas but might be solved intuitively.

Be aware that test makers may provide information that is not required to solve the
problem. When taking exams, be alert for possible irrelevant information.

If the approach to a problem is not clear-cut, the following steps may be helpful. Some
problems are more difficult than others. Apply only those steps that seem reasonable for
the problem at hand.

Step 1 – Read the Problem

ƒ Read the problem carefully to get an understanding of the situation and create a
mental picture.
ƒ Reread the problem.

Step 2 – Identify the Unknown

ƒ Identify the unknown.
ƒ Determine the units of the unknown.

Step 3 – Make a Drawing

ƒ Make a drawing illustrating the problem. Show the unit process and use arrows to
indicate direction of flow.
ƒ Place the known information on the drawing. Include the units.
ƒ Identify the unknown on the drawing with a question mark.

Step 4 – Convert the Units

ƒ Examine the units for the information given and convert units, if necessary, to be
consistent with other units. For example, if a pipe diameter is given as 6 inches
and the velocity is given in feet per second, the units for diameter will likely need
to be converted to feet. It is also common to have the flow into a tank given in
gallons per day and the dimensions of the tank given in feet. If the volume of the
 Problem Solving Methods 217

tank needs to be determined it is first calculated in units of cubic feet. It may be

necessary to change the units of tank volume from cubic feet to gallons to be
consistent with the units of flow.
ƒ Change fractions to decimals so they can be entered into the calculator.

Step 5 – Find the Equation(s)

ƒ Unless the problem is simple or straightforward, an equation may be needed to
solve the problem.
ƒ If you cannot directly determine the equation required, search the formula sheet
provided with the exam.

Step 6 – Rearrange the Equation and Plug in the Known Values

ƒ Rearrange the equation so the “unknown” is on one side and the “knowns” are
on the other side.
ƒ Insert the knowns from the drawing into the equation. Include the units of
measurement as well as the number.

Step 7 – Use a Calculator to Solve for the Unknown

ƒ Solve the equation using a calculator.
ƒ Divide the calculation into several steps, if necessary, to make calculator use less
complicated.
ƒ Solve for the unknown at least twice, or enough times to get the same answer
two times in a row.
ƒ Check the units of the answer to make sure they are the same as what was asked
for in the problem.

Step 8 – Select the Closest Answer

ƒ Your answer may not match exactly to the list of possible answers. If several
calculations are required, the rounding of intermediate values can create different
numerical answers.
ƒ Select the answer that is close to an answer provided.
 APPENDIX A
Answers to Review Problems

Chapter 1 – BASIC MATH FUNCTIONS AND THE CALCULATOR

1. 1,044.562

2. 509.803

3. 31.75

4. – 8.620924

5. 0.6285715

6. 0.062903

Chapter 2 – BASIC MATH PRINCIPLES

1.
a) 5,200
b) 5,234.7
c) 5,234.67
d) 5,000

2. 1,117.1 inches

3. 8.1 %

4.
a) 1.259 x 103
b) 3.456 x 104
c) 1.0024 x 105
d) 4.567 x 10-3

5. 1.7777777

219
220 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Chapter 3 – WORKING WITH EQUATIONS

1. ºF = ºC x 1.8 + 32

2. 32.2

3. 1.7632952

4. 702.31

5. 2,395.6623

Chapter 4 – LINEAR, AREA AND VOLUME COMPUTATIONS

1. 71.2 feet

2. 125 feet

3. 16,960 cubic feet

4. 23,780 gallons

5. 149,000 gallons

6. 40 feet

7. 1,670 cubic yards

Chapter 5 – CONVERSIONS

1. î 40 º C

2. 925 gallons

3. 969,400 gallons per day

4. 3.87 cubic feet per second

5. 2.54 grams
 Appendix A – Answers to Review Problems 221

6. 718 acre-feet

7. 143 feet

8. 28,800 pounds

Chapter 6 – WASTEWATER SYSTEM CONCEPTS

1. 349 gpcd

2. 31 gpcd

3. 1.53 mgd

4.
a) 2,183 lbs of TSS/day
b) 1,855 lbs of BOD5/day

5. 436 mg/L

6. 131 mg/L

7. 267 mLs

8. 25 mLs of acid and 475 mLs of distilled water

9. 69.9 lbs/ft3

10. 0.174 ft3/sec

11. 5 fps

12. 5.0 hours

13. 20.8 psi

14. 204 feet

222 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

15. 16.3 gpm

16. 188 lbs

17. 10.6 mg/L

18. 6,172 lbs

19. 3,970 lbs/day

20. 1,705 tons/year

21.
a. 183 gpd/ft2
b. 14,670 gpd/ft

22. 66.7%

23. 125 hp

24. 46.6 hp

25. 4.8 amps

26. $2,518

27. $13,075

28. 73.5 mg/L

29. 14.2 mg/L

30. $962.00

31. $1,288,750

32. 15,600 ft

33. 3.0 mg/L

 Appendix A – Answers to Review Problems 223

34. 88.4 mLs/minute

35. 15,730 gpd/ft

Chapter 7 – WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

1. 1.74 ft3/mg

2. 1.5 ft/sec

3. 17.4 ft

4. 2.69 hrs

5. 800 gpd/ft2

6. 0.125/day

7. 5.1 days

8. 22.3 lbs BOD5/day/1,000 ft3

9. 6,650 gallons

10.
a) 3,010 lbs
b) 34,000 gals

11.
a) 3.82 hrs
b) 566 gpd/ft2
c) 18.6 lbs/day/ft2

12.
a. 109 mL/g
b. 0.92 g/mL
224 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

13. 0.65 mg

14.
a. 18.3 hrs
b. 15.6 lbs BOD5/day/1,000 ft3
c. 0.12/day
d. 27.5 days

15.
a. 2.64 hrs
b. 950 gpd/ft2
c. 17,800 gpd/ft

16.
3
a. 15.7 lbs BOD5/day/1,000 ft
b. 141 gpd/ft2

17. 7.8 ft

18. 2.0

19.
a. 7.4 mgd/acre
b. 275 lbs BOD5/day/ac-ft

20. 0.59

21. 5,652 ft2

22.
a. 3.2 gpd/ft2
b. 1.82 lbs SBOD5/day/1,000 ft2

23. 191,000 ft2

24. 0.63 mg
 Appendix A – Answers to Review Problems 225

25. 0.65 mg

26.
a. 18.6 days
b. 187 lbs BOD5/day/acre
c. 3.74 inches/day

27. 200 persons/acre

28.
a. 18.6 days
b. 204 lbs BOD5/day/acre

29. 32.7 ft

30.
a. 1.78 gpm/ft2
b. 26.7 gpm/ft2

31. 2,123 lbs/day

32. 0.84 gpm

33. 0.85 gph

34. 0.93 gph

35. 50 acres

36. 110 gpm

37. 1,220 gpd/ft2

38. 96 lbs TSS/day/ft2

39. 250 gpm

226 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

40. 26 lbs

41. 9.6%

42. 1,390 lbs of VS/day

43. 22.2 days

44. 52.5%

45. 52.5%

46. 46,000 ft3/day

47.
a. 48 gpm/meter
b. 1,124 lbs/hr/meter

48. 6.9 lbs/hr/ft2

49. 1,410,000 gals/yr

50. 53.8 mg

51. 139 gpm

 APPENDIX B
Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems

1. A water utility serving residential, commercial and industrial users produces the
average daily volumes of water listed below. The system serves a total
population of 7,100. Determine the total water produced by the utility in gpcd.

ɹ Residential 1,500,000 gpd

ɹ Commercial 180,000 gpd
ɹ Industrial 800,000 gpd

ƒ Determine the total water produced in gpd by adding the average daily volumes of
water for the residential, commercial and industrial classes.

Total Water Produced = Residential + Commercial + Industrial

Total Water Produced = 1,500,000 gpd + 180,000 gpd + 800,000 gpd

= 2,480,000 gpd

ƒ Divide the total water produced per day by the population as shown in the gpcd
equations.
gpcd (produced) = water produced (gpd) ÷ total population served
gpcd (produced) = 2,480,000 gpd ÷ 7,100 people = 349 gpcd

2. A water utility has an average daily water use of 450,000 gpd. The commercial
class accounts for 18% of the total water used. If the system has a population of
2,600, what is the gpcd water use for the commercial class?

ƒ Determine the gpcd water use for all user classes

gpcd (consumed) = water consumed (gpd) ÷ total population served
gpcd (consumed) = 450,000 gpd ÷ 2,600 people = 173 gpcd

ƒ Determine the gpcd water use contributed by the commercial class.

gpcd for commercial class = gpcd for all classes x % commercial water use
gpcd for commercial class = 173 gpcd x 0.18 = 31 gpcd

227
228 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

3. Calculate the projected average daily flow in million gallons per day for a new
wastewater treatment plant given the following information.

ɹ Equivalent Population Served 10,000

ɹ Average Water Use 75 gpcd
ɹ Average Commercial/Industrial Wastewater Flow 400 gpm
ɹ Feet of 8-inch Diameter Sewer 675,000
ɹ Infiltration Rate 200 gpd/inch/mile

ƒ Calculate the sanitary wastewater flow. Assume that the sanitary flow equals the
water used. Rearrange the gpcd formula and solve for water consumed. Convert to
million gallons per day.

gpcd (consumed) = water consumed (gpd) ÷ total population served

water consumed (gpd) = gpcd (consumed) x total population served

water consumed (gpd) = 75 gpcd x 10,000 persons = 750,000 gpd

750,000 gpd = 750,000 gpd x 1 mg/1,000,000 gals = 0.750 mgd

ƒ Convert the commercial/industrial flow from gpm to mgd.

400 gpm = 400 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs = 576,000 gpd

min hr day

576,000 gpd = 576,000 gals x 1 mg = 0.576 mgd

day 1,000,000 gals

ƒ Calculate the infiltration volume. First, convert the length of sewers from feet to
miles. Convert from gpd to mgd.

675,000 feet = 675,000 feet x 1 mile = 127.8 miles

5,280 feet

Infiltration (gpd) = Diameter (inches) x Length (miles) x Rate (gpd/inch/mile)

Infiltration (gpd) = 8 inches x 127.8 miles x 200 gals/day = 204,500 gpd

inch-mile

204,500 gpd = 204,500 gals x 1 mg = 0.205 mgd

day 1,000,000 gals
 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 229

ƒ Add the sanitary flows, commercial/industrial flows and infiltration.

Average Daily Flow = Sanitary Flow + Commercial/Industrial Flow + Infiltration

Average Daily Flow = 0.750 mgd + 0.576 mgd + 0. 205 mgd = 1.53 mgd

4. A proposed wastewater treatment plant will serve a population of 10,200.

Determine the TSS and BOD5 loads that the proposed wastewater treatment
plant will receive. Assume a per capita per day loading rate of 0.17 for BOD5 and
0.20 for TSS. For commercial establishments use the values provided in the table
below.

Number of Population Equivalent

Commercial Type Unit
Units (PE)/Unit
Motels Rooms 250 2.5
Restaurants Seats 175 0.5

ƒ Determine the total population equivalents for the commercial establishments.

No. of Units x Population Equivalent (PE)/Unit = Population Equivalent (PE)

Motels = 250 rooms x 2.5 PE/rooms = 625 PEs

Restaurants = 175 seats x 0.5 PE/seat = 88 PEs

Total Commercial PEs = 625 PEs + 88 PEs = 713 PEs

ƒ Add the commercial population equivalents to the population.

Population + Commercial PEs = 10,200 PEs + 713 PEs = 10,913 PEs

ƒ Multiply the total PEs by the per capita values for TSS and BOD5

TSS = 0.20 lbs of TSS/capita/day x 10,913 PEs = 2,183 lbs of TSS/day

BOD5 = 0.17 lbs of BOD5/capita/day x 10,913 PEs = 1,855 lbs of BOD5/day

230 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

5. Calculate the VSS of a mixed liquor suspended solids sample in mg/L given the
following laboratory data.

Sample Volume = 550 mLs

Weight of filter and residue from TSS test = 1.15 grams
Weight of crucible = 19.14 grams
Weight of filter, residue and crucible after ignition = 20.05 grams

ƒ The equation for VSS is shown below.

VSS (mg/L) = (A – B) x 1,000 mg/g

Sample Volume (Liters)
where:

A = weight of filter + weight of residue from TSS test + weight of crucible, in grams
B = weight of filter + weight of residue + weight of crucible - after ignition, in grams

ƒ Calculate A and B for the VSS equation.

A = weight of filter + weight of residue from TSS test + weight of crucible

A = 1.15 g + 19.14 g = 20.29 g

B = weight of filter + weight of residue + weight of crucible (after ignition)

B = 20.05 g

ƒ Plug the known values into the VSS equation.

VSS (mg/L) = (A – B) x 1,000 mg/g = (20.29 g – 20.05 g) x 1,000 mg/g

Sample Volume (Liters) 0.55 L

VSS (mg/L) = 436 mg/L

6. Determine the BOD5 of a wastewater sample in mg/L given the results of three
dilutions shown below. 300 mL BOD bottles were used.

Sample Volume Initial D.O. Final D.O.

5 mL 8.1 mg/L 5.8 mg/L
8 mL 7.4 mg/L 4.2 mg/L
12 mL 8.4 mg/L 3.0 mg/L
 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 231

ƒ The general formula for calculating BOD5 is presented below.

BOD5 (mg/L) = [Initial D.O. (mg/L) – Final D.O. (mg/L)] x 300

Sample Volume (mL)
ƒ Using the BOD5 test formula shown above, determine the BOD5 for each of the
three dilutions.

Dilution 1 - BOD5 (mg/L) = (8.1 mg/L – 5.8 mg/L) x 300 = 138 mg/L
5 mL

Dilution 2 - BOD5 (mg/L) = (7.4 mg/L – 4.2 mg/L) x 300 = 120 mg/L
8 mL

Dilution 3 - BOD5 (mg/L) = (8.4 mg/L – 3.0 mg/L) x 300 = 135 mg/L
12 mL

ƒ Calculate the average of the three dilutions.

138 mg/L + 120 mg/L + 135 mg/L = 131 mg/L

3

7. 200 mLs of HCl with an 8 N concentration is available in the lab. How many mLs
of this solution are required to make a 6 N concentration of HCl?

ƒ Use the dilution equation, V1 x C1 = V2 x C2, where

V1 = Volume of original solution = 200 mLs

C1 = Concentration of original solution = 8 N
V2 = Volume of diluted solution = unknown
C2 = Concentration of diluted solution = 6 N

ƒ Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown V2 on one side of the equation, plug
in the known values for V1, C1 and C2 and solve for V2.

V2 = V1 x C1 = 200 mLs x 8 N = 267 mLs

C2 6N
232 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Therefore, 200 mLs of 8 N solution diluted to 267 mLs will result in a 6 N solution.

8. An operator has a stock solution of acid that is 10 N. He needs to prepare 500

milliliters of a 0.50 N solution of the acid. How much acid and distilled water
should be mixed to make 500 milliliters of the desired 0.50 N solution?

ƒ Use the above equation, V1 x C1 = V2 x C2, where

V1 = Volume of stock solution = unknown

C1 = Concentration of stock solution = 10 N
V2 = Volume of working solution = 500 mLs
C2 = Concentration of working solution = 0.50 N

ƒ Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown volume of the stock solution (V1) on
one side.

ƒ Plug in the known values for V2, C1 and C2 and solve for V1.

V1 = V2 x C2 = 500 mLs x 0.50 N = 25 mLs

C1 10 N

ƒ Therefore, mix 25 mLs of the stock 10 N solution with 475 mLs (500 mLs – 25
mLs) of distilled water to make 500 mLs of a 0.50 N solution.

9. The specific gravity (SG) of a sodium hypochlorite solution is 1.12. What is the
density of sodium hypochlorite in lbs/ft3?

ƒ The specific gravity of sodium hypochlorite is defined by the following equation.

SG SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE = Density SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE

Density WATER

ƒ Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown density of sodium hypochlorite.

Density SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE = SG SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE x Density WATER

ƒ Plug the known values for the specific gravity of sodium hypochlorite and the
density of water into the equation.
 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 233

Density SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE = 1.12 x 62.4 lbs/ft3 = 69.9 lbs/ft3

10. Determine the flow in cfs in a 4-inch diameter force main that is transporting
wastewater at a velocity of 2 fps.

ƒ The equation for flow is Q = A x V where Q equals flow, A equals the cross-
sectional area of the pipe and V equals the velocity of the water.

ƒ Determine the cross-sectional area of the force main using the area of a circle
formula. Since the flow and the velocity are expressed in “feet” units, convert the
diameter of the force main from inches to feet before using the area of a circle
formula.
4 in = 4 in x 1 foot = 0.333 foot
12 in

Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 0.333 ft x 0.333 ft = 0.087 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for velocity and area in the flow formula.

Q = A x V = 0.087 ft2 x 2 ft/sec = 0.174 ft3/sec

11. Determine the velocity in fps in a 12-inch force main sewer that is transporting
wastewater at a flow of 1,762 gpm.

ƒ The equation for flow is Q = A x V where Q equals flow, A equals the cross-
sectional area of the pipe and V equals the velocity of the water.

ƒ Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown velocity.

Q=AxV or V=Q
A

ƒ Determine the area of the sewer. Since the velocity is in “feet” units, convert the
diameter of the sewer from inches to feet before using the area of a circle formula.

12 in = 24 in x 1 foot = 1 foot
12 in

Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 1 ft x 1 ft = 0.785 ft2

234 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Convert the flow from gallons per minute to cubic feet per second to make the flow
units consistent with the units for velocity and area.

1,762 gpm = 1,762 gal x 1 ft3 x 1 min = 3.93 ft3/sec

min 7.48 gals 60 sec

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and area into the rearranged flow formula.

V = Q = 3.93 ft3/sec = 3.93 ft x ft x ft/sec = 5 fps

A 0 .785 ft2 0.785 ft x ft

12. A circular primary clarifier has a diameter of 100 feet and a depth of 10 feet. At a
flow of 2.82 mgd, what is the detention time in hours?

ƒ The equation for detention time is DT = V/Q where DT equals detention time, V
equals the volume of the tank and Q equals the flow through the tank.

ƒ The primary clarifier has the shape of a cylinder. Its volume can be calculated by
using the equation for the volume of a cylinder.

Volume = 0.785 x D2 x H

Volume = 0.785 x 100 ft x 100 ft x 10 ft = 78,500 ft3

ƒ Convert the volume units from ft3 to mg to be consistent with the flow units.

78,500 ft3 = 78,500 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 587,180 gals

1 ft3

587,180 gals = 587,180 gals x 1 mg = 0.587 mg

1,000,000 gals

ƒ Plug the known valves for volume and flow into the detention time formula.

DT = Vol = 0.587 mg = 0.208 day

Q 2.82 mg/d

Convert the units of detention time from days to hours.

 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 235

DT = 0.208 days x 24 hours = 5.0 hours

1 day

13. Determine the pressure in psi at Point B in the piping system below given the
following information.

ɹ Friction headloss from Point A to Point B is 32 feet

ɹ Minor headloss and velocity headloss are negligible
ɹ Pipe rises in elevation 20 feet from Point A to Point B

100 ft P

20 ft
Q B

A
ƒ The pressure head at Point B equals the pressure head at Point A minus the change
in elevation minus the friction headloss.

Pressure head at B = Pressure head at A î elevation loss î friction loss

Pressure head at B = 100 ft î 20 ft î 32 ft = 48 feet

ƒ Convert the pressure head in feet to psi.

48 feet = 48 feet x 0.433 psi = 20.8 psi

1 foot

14. A pump at elevation 25 feet delivers flow to an effluent storage tank at elevation
200 feet. Determine the total dynamic head of the pump given the following
conditions.

ɹ Headloss due to friction = 18 feet

ɹ Velocity Head = 1 foot
ɹ Minor Headloss = 10 feet

ƒ Calculate the static head.

236 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Static Head = Effluent Storage Tank Elevation – Pump Elevation

Static Head = 200 feet î 25 feet = 175 feet

ƒ Plug the known values into the Total Dynamic Head equation.

TDH = Static Head + Friction Headloss + Minor Headloss + Velocity Head

TDH = 175 ft + 18 ft + 10 ft + 1 ft = 204 feet

15. A pump runs continuously for a period of 24 hours and delivers a total volume of
23,450 gallons. What is the capacity of the pump in gallons per minute?

ƒ The capacity or the flow (Q) delivered by the pump, can be found by using the
following basic flow formula.

Flow (Q) = Volume

Time

ƒ Plug the known values for volume and time into the flow formula.

Flow (Q) = Volume = 23,450 gals = 977 gals/hr

Time 24 hours

ƒ Convert the units of flow from gals/hr to gpm.

977 gals/hr = 977 gals/hr x 1 hr/60 min = 16.3 gpm

16. Determine the pounds of available chlorine required to disinfect a 450,000 gallon
storage tank to a chlorine concentration of 50 mg/L.

ƒ Calculate the pounds of chlorine required by using the “Mass” version of the pounds
formula.
Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

ƒ Convert the volume units of the tank from gallons to million gallons.

450,000 gals = 450,000 gals x 1 mg = 0.45 mg

1,000,000 gals
 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 237

ƒ Plug the known values for volume and dosage into the pounds formula to solve for
the unknown pounds of available chlorine.

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

lbs of Cl2 = 0.45 mg x 50 mg/L x 8.34 = 188 lbs

17. Polymer is added to a treatment process at a rate of 110 lbs/day. If the flow is
1.25 mgd, what is the dosage of polymer added in mg/L?

ƒ Calculate the dosage of polymer using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds
formula.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

ƒ Rearrange the formula to isolate the unknown dosage on one side of the equation.

Dosage (mg/L) = Mass Flow (lbs/day)

Flow (mgd) x 8.34

ƒ Plug the known values for mass flow and flow into the equation and solve for the
dosage of polymer.

Dosage (mg/L) = 110 lbs/day = 10.6 mg/L

1.25 mgd x 8.34

18. How many pounds of sodium hypochlorite at 12.5 percent strength are required
to disinfect a water storage tank? The desired chlorine dosage is 50 mg/L. The
tank has a volume of 1.85 million gallons.

ƒ Since the sodium hypochlorite solution used for disinfection is not 100% pure, the
modified version of the “Mass” pounds formula is used to take into consideration
the purity of the solution.

Chemical Feed (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

ƒ Plug the known values for volume and dosage into the pounds formula to solve for
the unknown pounds of sodium hypochlorite.
238 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Sodium Hypochlorite (lbs) = 1.85 mg x 50 mg/L x 8.34 = 6,172 lbs

0.125

19. A primary sedimentation tank removes biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5)

from the wastewater prior to the activated sludge system. Determine the pounds
per day of BOD5 that will go to the aeration tank given the information in the
following diagram.

BOD5 Concentration = 85 mg/L

BOD5 Pounds per Day (lbs/day) =?

To Aeration Tank
Flow = 5.6 mgd

Primary Sedimentation Tank

ƒ Use the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and concentration into the pounds formula to solve
for the unknown pounds per day of BOD5.

BOD5 (lbs/day) = 5.6 mgd x 85 mg/L x 8.34 = 3,970 lbs/day

20. In a wastewater treatment plant, sludge from the primary sedimentation tank is
pumped to a sludge lagoon for storage prior to being sent to a landfill for
ultimate disposal. Determine the tons of dry solids removed from the lagoon per
year given the information in the following diagram.

Flow = 35,000 gpd or 0.035 mgd

TSS Concentration = 32,000 mg/L

To Landfill
Primary Sedimentation
Tank

Sludge Removed in
Sludge Lagoon Tons per Year
 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 239

ƒ Use the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula to solve the problem.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and dosage into the pounds formula to solve for the
unknown pounds per day of TSS. First, convert the units of flow from gallons per
day to million gallons per day.

TSS (lbs/day) = 0.035 mgd x 32,000 mg/L x 8.34 = 9,340 lbs/day

ƒ Convert the TSS units from pounds per day to tons per year.

9,340 lbs = 9,340 lbs x 365 days x 1 ton = 1,705 tons/year

day day year 2,000 lbs

21. Calculate the Surface Loading Rate and the Weir Overflow Rate of the following
Sedimentation Tank.
Tank Length = 80 feet Weir

Tank Influent (QIN) =

220,000 gpd
Tank Width = 15 feet

Sedimentation
Tank Tank Effluent
(QOUT) = 220,000 gpd

ƒ The Surface Loading Rate and the Weir Overflow Rate can be determined using
the following equations.

Surface Loading Rate = Tank Influent Flow (QIN) = 220,000 gpd = 183 gpd/ft2
Length x Width 80 ft x 15 ft

Weir Overflow Rate = Tank Influent Flow (QIN) = 220,000 gpd = 14,670 gpd/ft
Length of Weir 15 ft
240 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

22. Determine the motor efficiency, pump efficiency and wire-to-water efficiency of
the following pumping system.

Water hp = 50

Storage
MOTOR Tank

PUMP

Motor hp = 75
Brake hp = 68
Treatment
Plant

ƒ Motor Efficiency (%) = Brake hp x 100 = 68 x 100 = 90.7 %

Motor hp 75

ƒ Pump Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100 = 50 x 100 = 73.5 %

Break hp 68

ƒ Wire-to-Water Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100 = 50 x 100 = 66.7 %

Motor hp 75

Wire-to-Water Efficiency can also be determined by multiplying the Motor hp by the

Pump hp.

ƒ Wire-to-Water Efficiency = Motor hp x Pump hp = 90.7 % x 73.5 %

= 0.907 x 0.735 = 0.667 = 66.7%

23. The motor in the diagram below has an efficiency of 76%. If the Break hp is 95,
what is the Motor hp?
 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 241

MOTOR
Storage
PUMP
Tank

Motor Eff. = 76%

Motor hp = ? Brake hp = 95

Treatment
Plant

ƒ The equation for motor efficiency is;

Motor Efficiency (%) = Brake hp

Motor hp

ƒ Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown Motor hp on one side of the equation
and plug in the known values for Brake hp and motor efficiency.

Motor hp = Brake hp = 95 = 95 = 125 hp

Motor Efficiency (%) 76% 0.76

24. A pump with an efficiency of 82% pumps a flow of 8,400 gpm from the treatment
plant to a storage tank. The total head of the pumping system is 18 feet. What is
the Break hp?

ƒ Using the Break hp equation, plug in the known values for motor efficiency, flow and
total head.

Brake hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960 x % Pump Efficiency

Brake hp = 8,400 gpm x 18 feet = 46.6 hp

3,960 x 0.82
242 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

25. An electrical circuit with a resistance of 25 ohms is powered by a 120 volt energy
source. What is the current flowing in the circuit?

ƒ The following equation defines the relationship among volts, amps and ohms.

Volts = Amps x Ohms

ƒ Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown amps on one side of the equation.

Amps = Volts
Ohms

ƒ Plug in the known values for volts and ohms to solve for the unknown current in
amps.
Amps = Volts = 120 volts = 4.8 amps
Ohms 25 ohms

26. A 75 hp motor operates for 12 hours each day for a month. The month has 30
days. The cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh) is $0.125. What is the kilowatt-hour (kWh)
charge for the month for this motor?

ƒ The equation for kilowatt-hour charge is shown below.

Kilowatt-hour Charge = Total Kilowatt-hours used x Cost per Kilowatt-hour

ƒ Convert hp to kW.

75 hp = 75 hp x 0.746 kilowatt = 55.95 kW

1 hp

ƒ Calculate the total hours of motor operation for the month.

Total Operating Hours = 12 hours x 30 days = 360 hours

1 day

ƒ Calculate the total kilowatt-hours used.

Total Kilowatt-hours used = 55.95 kW x 360 hours = 20,142 kW-hrs

 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 243

ƒ Calculate the kilowatt-hour charge by multiplying the total kilowatt-hours used by the
cost per kilowatt-hour.

Kilowatt-hour Charge = Total Kilowatt-hours used x Cost per Kilowatt-hour

Kilowatt-hour Charge = 20,142 kW-hrs x $0.125 = $2,518

kW-hr

27. A wastewater treatment plant has a total monthly electrical usage of 60,500
kWh. The peak demand is 2,000 kW. The cost per kilowatt-hour is $0.15 and the
demand charge is $2.00 per kW. What is the total electrical cost for the month?

ƒ The total electrical charge is the sum of the kWh charge and the demand charge.

Total Electrical Charge = Total kWh Charge + Demand Charge

ƒ Calculate the kWh charge by multiplying the kWh usage by the cost per kilowatt-
hour.

Kilowatt-hour Charge = 60,500 kWh x $0.15 = $9,075

kWh

ƒ Calculate the demand charge by multiplying the peak demand in kW by the demand
cost per kW.

Demand Charge = Maximum kW Usage x Cost per kW

Demand Charge = 2,000 kW x $2.00 = $4,000

kW

ƒ Add the Kilowatt-hour Charge and the Demand Charge to determine the total
electrical cost for the month.

Total Electrical Charge = Total kWh Charge + Demand Charge

Total Electrical Charge = $9,075 + $4,000 = $13,075

244 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

28. It is the goal of a wastewater treatment facility to operate the primary

sedimentation tank to achieve a TSS removal of 65%. The influent wastewater
has a TSS concentration of 210 mg/L. To achieve the desired treatment
efficiency, what is the required TSS concentration of the tank effluent?

TSS Removal = 65%

Influent TSS (mg/L) = 210 mg/L Effluent TSS (mg/L) =?

Sedimentation Tank

ƒ This problem can be solved using the percent removal equation.

% Removal = (In î Out) x 100

In

The EffluentTSS or “Out” in the equation is the unknown. This problem could be
solved by rearranging the equation and isolating “Out” on one side of the equation
and plugging in the knowns of “In” and % Removal.

ƒ An easier way to solve the problem is to recognize that if 65% TSS is removed from
the process then 100% minus 65% or 35% of the influent TSS must be in the
effluent. This solution is presented below.

Effluent TSS = (100% î 65%) x 210 mg/L = (1.00 î 0.65) x 210 mg/L = 73.5 mg/L

29. A chlorine dose of 16.5 mg/L is added to a chlorine contact tank for disinfection.
The chlorine residual at the end of the tank is measured at 2.3 mg/L. What is the
chlorine demand of the wastewater?

ƒ Plug in the known values for chlorine dose and chlorine residual into the equation
and solve for the unknown chlorine demand.

Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = Chlorine Dose (mg/L) – Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = 16.5 mg/L – 2.3 mg/L = 14.2 mg/L

 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 245

30. An employee receives an hourly wage of $18.50. For each hour worked over 40
hours per week, overtime is paid at the rate of 1.5 times the hourly rate. If an
employee works 48 hours during a week what is the total pay that the employee
should receive?

ƒ The total pay the employee will receive is the regular pay plus the overtime pay.

ƒ Calculate the regular pay by multiplying the regular hourly wage rate by the regular
hours.

Regular Pay = Regular Hours x Regular Pay Rate

Regular Pay = 40 hrs x $18.50/hr = $740.00

ƒ The overtime pay is found by multiplying the overtime hourly wage rate by the
overtime hours.

Overtime Hrs = Total Hrs Worked – 40 hrs = 48 hrs î 40 hrs = 8 hrs

Overtime Pay Rate = $18.50/hr x 1.5 = $27.75/hr
Overtime Pay = Overtime Hours x Overtime Pay Rate
Overtime Pay = 8 hours x $27.75/hour = $222.00

ƒ Add the regular pay and the overtime pay.

Total Pay = Regular Pay + Overtime Pay

Total Pay = $740.00 + $222.00 = $ 962.00

31. The current annual operating budget for a wastewater system is $1,250,000.
Sixty percent of the budget represents salary costs and the remainder
represents all other expenses including utilities, supplies, billing and
administration. It is estimated that salary costs will increase by 2.5% and all
other expenses will increase by 4.0% for the next year. Calculate the budget for
the next year.

ƒ Calculate the salary costs and other costs in the current budget. If 60% represents
salary costs, 40% represents the other costs.

Current Salary Costs = $1,250,000 x 0.60 = $750,000

Current Other Costs = $1,250,000 x 0.40 = $500,000
246 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Calculate the future budget for salary costs and other costs. Multiply the current
salary costs by 100% plus the percentage increase of 2.5%. Multiply the current other
costs by 100% plus the percentage increase of 4.0%.

Budget Salary Costs = $750,000 (1.00 + 0.025) = $768,750

Budget Other Costs = $500,000 (1.00 + 0.040) = $520,000

ƒ Add the budgets for salary costs and other costs.

Total Budget Costs = $768,750 + $520,000 = $ 1,288,750

32. A wastewater utility installs on average 650 linear feet of 8-inch diameter sewer
per week. An 18 week reserve supply is required at all times to respond to a
major wastewater system repair. It takes six weeks to obtain a new supply of
pipe after an order. What is the minimum inventory required before ordering
additional pipe?

ƒ The minimum inventory period is equal to the reserve period plus the time required
to receive the pipe after an order is placed.

Inventory Period = Reserve Period + Order Period

Inventory Period = 18 weeks + 6 weeks = 24 weeks

ƒ The minimum inventory of pipe required is the inventory period in weeks times the
pipe required per week.

Minimum Inventory = 24 weeks x 650 ft/week = 15,600 ft

33. A wastewater treatment plant has a flow of 23.5 mgd. Chlorine gas at a rate of
590 lbs/day is added for disinfection. What is the chlorine dosage in milligrams
per liter?

ƒ Use the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula. Since chlorine gas is assumed
to be 100% pure, the percent purity component of the formula is not required for
this problem.

Cl2 Feed Rate (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

ƒ Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown dosage.

 Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems 247

Dosage (mg/L) = Cl2 Feed Rate (lbs/day)

Flow (mgd) x 8.34

ƒ Plug the known values for chlorine feed rate and flow into the equation to solve for
dosage.

Dosage = 590 lbs/day = 3.0 mg/L

23.5 mgd x 8.34

34. A polymer with a specific gravity of 1.13 is added to a primary sedimentation

tank to improve solids removal efficiency. Determine the rate of polymer
addition in milliliters per minute if the required dosage is 2.50 mg/L and the plant
flow is 15.2 mgd.

ƒ Using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula, calculate the pounds per day
of polymer required.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

Polymer (lbs/day) = 15.2 mgd x 2.50 mg/L x 8.34 = 317 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the density of the polymer in pounds per gallon.

SG POLYMER = Density of Polymer (lbs/gal) = 1.13

Density of Water (lbs/gal)

Rearrange this equation to solve for the Density of Polymer.

Density of Polymer (lbs/gal) = Density of Water (lbs/gal) x SG POLYMER

Density of Polymer (lbs/gal) = 8.34 lbs/gal x 1.13 = 9.42 lbs/gal

ƒ Using the density of the polymer, convert the polymer units from pounds per day to
gallons per day.

317 lbs/day = 317 lbs x 1 gal = 33.65 gals/day

day 9.42 lbs
248 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Convert the units for rate of polymer addition from gallons per day to milliliters per
minute.

33.65 gals/day = 33.65 gals x 1 day x 3,785 mLs = 88.4 mLs/minute

day 1,440 min 1 gal

35. A sedimentation tank at a wastewater treatment facility has a diameter of 85

feet. The flow to the tank is 6.5 cfs. The overflow weir is located at the periphery
of the tank. What is the weir overflow rate in gpd/ft?

ƒ Weir overflow rate is defined as the flow to the tank divided by the length of the
overflow weir, typically expressed as gpd/ft.

Weir Overflow Rate = Flow (gpd)

Weir Length (ft)

ƒ Convert the flow units from cubic feet per second to gallons per day.

6.5 cfs = 6.5 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 60 sec x 60 min x 24 hrs = 4,200,800 gpd
sec 1 ft3 min hr day

ƒ Calculate the length of the overflow weir. The length of the weir is assumed as the
circumference of the tank.

Length of Weir = Circumference = ư x D = 3.14 x 85 ft = 267 feet

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and weir length into the weir overflow rate formula.

Weir Overflow Rate = Flow (gpd) = 4,200,800 gpd = 15,730 gpd/ft

Weir Length (ft) 267 feet
 APPENDIX C
Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems

1. A wastewater treatment plant with a flow of 2.55 mgd produces 60 cubic yards of
screenings per year. What is the average quantity of screenings in units of cubic
feet per million gallons?
ƒ Convert the annual screenings quantity from units of cubic yards to cubic feet.

60 yd3 = 60 yd3 x 27 ft3 = 1,620 ft3

yd3

ƒ Determine the total volume of wastewater treated per year in mg.

2.55 mgd = 2.55 mg x 365 days = 931 mg/yr

day yr

ƒ Divide the total volume of screenings by the total volume of wastewater.

Screenings in ft3/mg = 1,620 ft3/yr = 1.74 ft3/mg

931 mg/yr

2. A rectangular horizontal-flow grit chamber with cross-section dimensions of 5 feet

deep and 12 feet wide has a flow of 40,350 gallons per minute. What is the
velocity in the grit chamber in units of feet per second?

12 ft V =? fps

5 ft Grit Chamber Q = 40,350 gpm

ƒ The flow rate through a cross-sectional area is defined by the following equation.

Flow Rate = Velocity x Area

ƒ Rearrange this equation to solve for the unknown velocity.

249
250 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Velocity = Flow Rate

Area

ƒ Calculate the cross-sectional area of the grit chamber.

Area (ft2) = Width (ft) x Depth (ft)

Area (ft2) = 12 ft x 5 ft = 60 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for area and flow into the rearranged flow rate equation. First,
change the units of flow from gallons per minute to cubic feet per second to be
consistent with the units for area and velocity.

40,350 gpm = 40,350 gals x 1 ft3 x 1 min = 90 ft3/sec

min 7.48 gals 60 sec

Velocity = Flow Rate = 90 ft2 x ft/sec = 1.5 ft/sec

Area 60 ft2

3. A wastewater treatment plant has an average daily flow of 1.5 mgd. Peak flows
are two times the average. If an aerated grit chamber has a cross-section of 6
feet wide by 8 feet deep, how long must the grit chamber be to provide a
detention time of 3 minutes at peak flow?

Q AVERAGE = 1.5 mgd

8 ft Grit Chamber

6 ft

L=? ft
ƒ Detention time is defined as volume divided by flow. This equation can be
rearranged to solve for the unknown volume.

DT = Volume/Flow or;

Volume = DT x Flow
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 251

ƒ Calculate the volume of the grit chamber by plugging in the known values for
detention time and flow. First, convert the units of detention time from minutes to
seconds, determine the peak flow and convert the units of peak flow from million
gallons per day to cubic feet per second.

3.0 min = 3.0 min x 60 sec = 180 sec

min

Peak Flow Rate (mgd) = Average Flow Rate (mgd) x 2 = 1.5 mgd x 3 = 3.0 mgd

3.0 mgd = 3.0 mg x 1,000,000 gals x 1 ft3 x 1 day x 1 hr x 1 min = 4.64 ft3/sec
day mg 7.48 gal 24 hrs 60 min 60 sec

Volume = DT x Flow = 180 sec x 4.64 ft3 = 835 ft3

sec

ƒ Plug the known values for volume, grit chamber depth and grit chamber width into
the volume of a rectangular formula. Solve for the length of the grit chamber.

Volume (ft3) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) x Depth (ft)

835 ft3 = Length (ft) x 6 ft x 8 ft

Length (ft) = 835 ft2 x ft = 17.4 ft

6 ft x 8 ft

4. A rectangular primary clarifier has a length of 50 feet, a width of 25 feet and a

depth of 12 feet. Calculate the detention time in hours if the flow is 1.0 mgd.

1.0 mgd 12 ft
Detention Time =?

25 ft

50 ft

ƒ The detention time formula is shown below.

Detention Time = Volume/Flow

252 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Calculate the volume of the clarifier using the volume of a rectangular tank formula.

Volume (ft3) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) x Depth (ft)

Volume (ft3) = 50 ft x 25 ft x 12 ft = 15,000 ft3

ƒ Plug the known values for volume and flow into the detention time formula. First,
convert the units of flow from million gallons per day to cubic feet per hour to be
consistent with the units for volume and time

1.0 mgd = 1.0 mg x 1,000,000 gals x 1 ft3 x 1 day = 5,570 ft3/hr

day mg 7.48 gal 24 hrs

Detention Time = Volume/Flow

Detention Time = 15,000 ft3 = 2.69 hrs

5,570 ft3/hr

5. Calculate the surface overflow rate of the primary clarifier in the previous
example.

ƒ The equation for surface overflow rate is shown below.

Surface Overflow Rate = Flow to Tank (gpd)

Surface Area of Tank (ft2)

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the primary clarifier.

Surface Area (ft2) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 50 ft x 25 ft = 1,250 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and surface area into the surface overflow rate
formula. First, convert the units of flow from million gallons per day to gallons per
day.

1.0 mgd = 1.0 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 1,000,000 gpd

day mg
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 253

SOR = Flow to Tank (gpd) = 1,000,000 gpd = 800 gpd/ft2

Surface Area of Tank (ft2) 1,250 ft2

6. An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant has the following parameters.

What is the F:M ratio of the process?

ɹ Flow = 0.75 mgd

ɹ Influent BOD5 = 124 mg/L
ɹ MLSS = 2,200 mg/L
ɹ Percent Volatile Solids = 75%
ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 450,000 gallons

Aeration Tank
Influent Effluent
Vol = 450,000 gals
Q = 0.75 mgd MLSS = 2,200 mg/L
BOD5 = 124 mg/L

Return Sludge

ƒ F:M equals the food or BOD5 entering the aeration tank divided by the mass of
active microorganisms in the aeration tank.

ƒ Determine F by using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.75 mgd x 124 mg/L x 8.34 = 776 lbs/day

ƒ Determine M by using the “Mass” version of the pounds formula. First, calculate
MLVSS, the active concentration of microorganisms.

MLVSS = % Volatile Solids x MLSS = 0.75 x 2,200 mg/L = 1,650 mg/L

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Mass (lbs) = 0.45 mg x 1,650 mg/L x 8.34 = 6,190 lbs

ƒ Divide F by M.
254 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

F:M = F/M = 776 lbs/day = 0.125/day

6,190 lbs

7. An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant has the following parameters.

Calculate the SRT.
ɹ Flow = 8.2 mgd
ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 3.75 mg
ɹ Final Clarifier Volume = 1.0 mg
ɹ MLSS = 2,600 mg/L
ɹ Average TSS in Clarifier = 1,900 mg/L
ɹ Waste Activated Sludge Flow = 175 gpm
ɹ Waste Activated Sludge Specific Gravity = 1.014
ɹ TSS of Waste Activated Sludge = 8,400 mg/L
ɹ TSS of Effluent = 15 mg/L
Final Clarifier
Q = 8.2 mgd Q = 8.2 mgd
Aeration Tank TSS = 15 mg/L
Vol = 1.0 mg
Vol = 3.75 mg TSS = 1,900 mg/L
MLSS = 2,600 mg/L

WAS = 175 gpm

TSS of WAS = 8,400 mg/L

ƒ The SRT is the total solids in the system divided by the solids removed by the system
in one day. This can be represented by the following equation.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank + Solids in Clarifiers

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

ƒ Calculate the solids in the aeration tank and final clarifier using the “Mass” version
of the pounds formula.

Aeration Tank
Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 3.75 mg x 2,600 mg/L x 8.34 = 81,300 lbs

Final Clarifier
Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 1.0 mg x 1,900 mg/L x 8.34 = 15,850 lbs
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 255

ƒ Calculate the solids removed per day from the process in the WAS and the effluent
using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula. For the WAS calculation,
include the specific gravity.

Solids in WAS

Before using the pounds formula, the WAS flow must be converted to million gallons
per day.

175 gpm = 175 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x mg = 0.252 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.252 mgd x 8,400 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.014 = 17,900 lbs/day

Solids in Effluent

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 8.2 mgd x 15 mg/L x 8.34 = 1,030 lbs/day

ƒ Plug the known values into the SRT formula.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank + Solids in Clarifiers

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

SRT = 81,300 lbs + 15,850 lbs = 97,150 lbs = 5.1 days

17,900 lbs/day + 1,030 lbs/day 18,930 lbs/day

8. Determine the volumetric organic loading rate of a circular activated sludge tank
with a diameter of 85 feet and a depth of 12 feet. The influent flow is 0.85 mgd
and the influent BOD5 concentration is 215 mg/L.
ƒ The volumetric organic loading rate is the amount of organic material entering the
aeration tank per unit volume as represented by the following formula.

Vol. Organic Loading Rate = Organic Material Entering Aeration Tank (lbs/day)
Volume of Aeration Tank (ft3/1,000)
256 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Calculate the organic material entering the aeration tank using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula.

Organic Material Entering Tank

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.85 mgd x 215 mg/L x 8.34 = 1,520 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the volume of the activated sludge tank using the volume of a cylinder
formula.

Volume of Cylinder = 0.785 x Diameter2 x Height

Volume of Aeration Tank = 0.785 x (85 ft)2 x 12 ft = 68,060 ft3

ƒ Plug the known values into the organic loading rate formula.

Vol. Organic Loading Rate = Organic Material Entering Aeration Tank (lbs/day)
Volume of Aeration Tank (ft3/1,000)

Vol. Organic Loading Rate = 1,520 lbs/day BOD5 = 22.3 lbs of BOD5/day/1,000 ft3
68.06 x 1,000 ft3

9. An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant desires to maintain an SRT of 20

days. How many gallons of sludge should be wasted from the process given the
following plant data?
ɹ Flow = 1.4 mgd
ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 650,000 gallons
ɹ MLSS = 2,800 mg/L
ɹ RAS and WAS Concentration = 11,000 mg/L
ɹ RAS and WAS Specific Gravity = 1.015
ɹ Effluent TSS = 12 mg/L

Q = 1.4 mgd Aeration Tank

Vol = 0.65 mg
Final
MLSS = 2,800 mg/L Clarifier
Q = 1.4 mgd
TSS = 12 mg/L

RAS = 11,000 mg/L Waste Sludge = gals/day?

 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 257

ƒ The SRT is the total solids in the system divided by the solids removed by the system
in one day. This can be represented by the following equation.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank + Solids in Clarifiers

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

Note that in this problem, the solids in the clarifier cannot be determined
because the required clarifier information is not provided. Therefore, the revised
the SRT formula, as shown below, is used.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

ƒ Calculate the solids in the aeration tank using the “Mass” version of the pounds
formula.

Aeration Tank Solids

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 0.65 mg x 2,800 mg/L x 8.34 = 15,180 lbs

ƒ Calculate the solids in the effluent using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds
formula.

Effluent Solids
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 1.4 mgd x 12 mg/L x 8.34 = 140 lbs/day

ƒ Plug the known values into the SRT formula.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

20 days = 15,180 lbs

lbs/day of WAS + 140 lbs/day

ƒ Rearrange and solve the above equation for lbs of WAS.

20 days x (lbs/day of WAS + 140 lbs/day) = 15,180 lbs

20 lbs of WAS + 2,800 lbs = 15,180 lbs
258 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

20 lbs of WAS = 12,380 lbs

lbs of WAS = 619 lbs

ƒ Calculate the volume of waste sludge using the “Mass” version of the pounds
formula (modified to include the specific gravity) and convert million gallons to
gallons.

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x S.G.

619 lbs = Volume (mg) x 11,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.015

Solve for Volume in the above equation.

Volume (mg) = 619 lbs = 0.00665 mg

11,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.015
Convert million gallons to gallons.
0.00665 mg = 0.00665 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 6,650 gallons
1 mg

10. An activated sludge wastewater treatment plant’s goal is to achieve a “target”

MLSS concentration of 2,400 mg/L. Calculate the pounds and gallons of solids
that need to be wasted from the process.
ɹ Flow = 2.1 mgd
ɹ Aeration Tank Volume = 900,000 gals
ɹ Current MLSS = 2,800 mg/L
ɹ RAS and WAS Concentration = 10,500 mg/L
ɹ Return Sludge Specific Gravity = 1.012

Q = 2.1 mgd
Aeration Tank Final
Q = 2.1 mgd Vol = 900,000 gals Clarifier
MLSS = 2,800 mg/L

RAS = 10,500 mg/L WAS ?

 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 259

ƒ Calculate the current pounds of solids in the aeration tank and the “target” pounds
of solids in the aeration tank using the “Mass” version of the pounds formula.
(Convert the units of volume for the aeration tank from gallons to million gallons
before using the formula.)

Current Pounds under Aeration

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 0.90 mg x 2,800 mg/L x 8.34 = 21,020 lbs

“Target” Pounds under Aeration

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 0.90 mg x 2,400 mg/L x 8.34 = 18,010 lbs

ƒ Subtract the current pounds from the “target” pounds to determine the pounds to
be wasted.

Pounds to be Wasted = Current Pounds – Target Pounds

Pounds to be Wasted = 21,020 lbs – 18,010 lbs = 3,010 lbs

ƒ Determine the volume (in gallons) to be wasted using the “Mass” version of the
pounds formula, modified to include the specific gravity.

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.

3,010 lbs = Volume (mg) x 10,500 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.012

Rearrange the equation and solve for the unknown million gallons.

Volume (mg) = 3,010 lbs = 0.0340 mg

10,500 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.012

Convert million gallons to gallons.

0.0340 mg = 0.0340 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 34,000 gallons

1 mg

11. Calculate the detention time, surface overflow rate and solids loading rate for a
final clarifier at an activated sludge wastewater treatment plant given the
following information.
ɹ Plant Flow = 1.6 mgd
260 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ɹ Return Sludge Rate = 75%

ɹ MLSS = 2,250 mg/L
ɹ Final Clarifier Diameter = 60 feet
ɹ Average Final Clarifier Depth = 12 feet

Detention Time

ƒ Calculate the volume of the final clarifier in units of ft3 using the volume of a
cylinder formula. Convert the units of ft3 to mg to be consistent with the units of
flow.

Volume (ft3) = 0.785 x Diameter (ft)2 x Depth (ft)

Volume (ft3) = 0.785 x 60 ft x 60 ft x 12 ft = 33,910 ft3

33,910 ft3 = 33,910 ft3 x 7.48 gals x mg = 0.254 mg

3
ft 1,000,000 gals

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and volume into the detention time formula.
Convert the units of time from day to hours.

Final Clarifier Detention Time = Volume of Final Clarifier = 0.254 mg = 0.159 day
Flow 1.6 mgd

0.159 day = 0.159 day x 24 hrs = 3.82 hrs

day

Surface Overflow Rate

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the final clarifier in units of ft2 using the area of a circle
formula.

Area (ft2) = 0.785 x Diameter (ft)2 = 0.785 x 60 ft x 60 ft = 2,826 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and surface area into the surface overflow rate
formula. First convert the units of flow from mgd to gpd.

1.6 mgd = 1.6 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 1,600,000 gpd

day mg
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 261

Surface Overflow Rate (gpd/ft2) = 1,600,000 gpd = 566 gpd/ft2

2,826 ft2

Solids Loading Rate

ƒ Calculate the solids loading to the clarifier in lbs/day using the “Mass Flow” version
of the pounds formula. First determine the total flow to the clarifier, which is the
plant flow plus the return sludge flow.

Total Clarifier Flow = Plant Flow + Return Sludge Flow

Total Clarifier Flow = 1.6 mgd + (1.6 mgd x 0.75) = 1.6 mgd + 1.2 mgd = 2.8 mgd

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 2.8 mgd x 2,250 mg/L x 8.34 = 52,540 lbs/day

ƒ Plug the known values for solids loading and surface area into the solids loading rate
formula.

Solids Loading Rate (lbs/day/ft2) = Solids Loading (lbs/day)

Surface Area (ft2)

Solids Loading Rate (lbs/day/ft2) = 52,540 lbs/day = 18.6 lbs/day/ft2

2,826 ft2

12. Calculate the SVI and SDI of an activated sludge plant given the following
information
ɹ Settled Sludge Volume = 350 mL/L
ɹ MLSS = 3,200 mg/L

ƒ Plug the known values for settled sludge volume and mixed liquor suspended solids
into the equation for SVI.

SVI (mL/g) = Settled Sludge Volume SSV30 (mL/L) x 1,000 mg/g

MLSS (mg/L)
262 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

SVI (mL/g) = 350 mL/L x 1,000 mg/g = 109 mL/g

3,200 mg/L

ƒ Plug the known value for SVI into the equation for SDI.

SDI (g/mL) = 100 = 100 = 0.92 g/mL

SVI 109 mL/g

13. Calculate the volume in million gallons of the oxidation ditch shown below.

20 ft

Radius = 35 ft L = 200 ft 10 ft

8 ft

X - Section
Plan View Centerline Length

ƒ The volume of the oxidation ditch is the cross-sectional area times the centerline
length of the ditch (shown as a dashed line).

ƒ The cross-sectional area can be calculated using the area of a trapezoid formula.

Area = Height x (Length1 + Length2) = 10 ft x (8 ft + 20 ft) = 140 ft2

2 2

ƒ The centerline length is the sum of the two straight lengths (L) and the
circumference of a circle with a radius of 35 ft. One half of the circumference is on
each side of the ditch. (Circumference = ư x Diameter = ư x 2 x Radius.)

Centerline Length = L + L + (ư x 2 x R) = 200 ft + 200 ft + (3.14 x 2 x 35)

Centerline Length = 400 ft + 220 ft = 620 ft

ƒ Calculate the volume of the oxidation ditch by multiplying the cross-sectional area by
the centerline length.
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 263

Volume = Area x Length = 140 ft2 x 620 ft = 86,800 ft3

ƒ Convert the units of volume from ft3 to mg.

86,800 ft3 = 86,800 ft3 x 7.48 gals/ft3 = 0.65 mg

1,000,000 gals/mg

14. Listed below are the wastewater characteristics for the oxidation ditch in the
previous example.

ɹ Influent Flow = 0.85 mgd

ɹ Influent BOD5 = 190 mg/L
ɹ Influent TSS = 225 mg/L
ɹ MLSS = 2,650 mg/L
ɹ Volatile MLSS = 78%
ɹ Effluent TSS = 18 mg/L
ɹ RAS and WAS = 9,000 mg/L
ɹ RAS and WAS Specific Gravity = 1.012
ɹ WAS Rate = 5,200 gpd

Calculate the following operational parameters.

î Detention Time (in hours, return sludge flow not included)
î Organic Loading Rate
î F:M Ratio
î SRT

Detention Time

ƒ Detention time equals volume divided by flow. Plug the known values for volume
and flow into the detention time formula. Convert the units of time from days to
hours.

Detention Time = Volume = 0.65 mg = 0.764 day

Flow 0.85 mg/day

0.764 day = 0.764 day x 24 hours = 18.3 hours

day
264 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate equals the amount of organic material entering the ditch
divided by the volume of the ditch. Ditch volume is expressed in units of 1,000 ft3.

Organic Loading Rate = lbs of BOD5 per day

1,000 ft3

ƒ Calculate the BOD5 in the influent using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds
formula.

Influent BOD5
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.85 mgd x 190 mg/L x 8.34 = 1,350 lbs/day of BOD5

ƒ Calculate the volume of the oxidation ditch in units of 1,000 ft3. The volume of
86,800 ft3 was calculated in the previous example.

86,800 ft3 = 86.8 x 1,000 ft3

ƒ Insert the known values for BOD5 and volume in the organic loading rate formula.

Organic Loading Rate = lbs of BOD5 per day

1,000 ft3
3
Organic Loading Rate = 1,350 lbs of BOD5 per day = 15.6 lbs of BOD5/day/1,000 ft
86.8 x 1,000 ft3

F:M Ratio

ƒ The F:M Ratio is the ratio of the food (F), specifically the BOD5, entering the
aeration tank per day to the mass (M) of active microorganisms in the aeration tank.
(or F divided by M)

ƒ Calculate the pounds of BOD5 using the “Mass Flow” version of the pounds
formula.
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 265

Influent BOD5
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.85 mgd x 190 mg/L x 8.34 = 1,350 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the concentration of active microorganisms (MLVSS) in the aeration tank.

MLVSS = MLSS x % Volatile MLSS = 2,650 mg/L x 0.78 = 2,067 mg/L

ƒ Calculate the pounds of MLVSS in the aeration tank using the “Mass” version of the
pounds formula and the oxidation ditch volume calculated in the previous example.

Pounds under Aeration

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x MLVSS Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 0.65 mg x 2,067 mg/L x 8.34 = 11,200 lbs

ƒ Divide the pounds of BOD5 entering the tank (F) by the pounds of MLVSS under
aeration (M).

F:M = F/M = 1,350 lbs/day = 0.12 /day

11,200 lbs

SRT

ƒ SRT represents the average time sludge remains in the activated sludge system.
Sometimes both the aeration tank solids and the final clarifier solids are included in
the calculations and sometimes they are not. Since no information is provided for
the final clarifier, only the aeration tank (oxidation ditch) solids will be used in the
calculation for SRT. The formula to be used for SRT is shown below.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids in the aeration tank using the “Mass” version of the
pounds formula and the oxidation ditch volume calculated previously.

Pounds of Solids in Aeration Tank

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x MLSS Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass (lbs) = 0.65 mg x 2,650 mg/L x 8.34 = 14,370 lbs
266 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Calculate the pounds of WAS solids removed per day using the “Mass Flow” version
of the pounds formula, modified to include the specific gravity. Convert the WAS
flow units from gpd to mgd before plugging into the pounds formula.

Pounds of WAS Removed per Day

Convert WAS from gpd to mgd.

5,200 gpd = 5,200 gals/day = 0.0052 mgd

1,000,000 gals/mg

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x WAS Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.0052 mgd x 9,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.012 = 395 lbs

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids per day in the effluent using the “Mass Flow” version
of the pounds formula.

Pounds per Day of Effluent Solids

Mass Flow (lbs) = Flow (mgd) x Effluent TSS Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs) = 0.85 mgd x 18 mg/L x 8.34 = 128 lbs

ƒ Plug the known values calculated above into the SRT formula.

SRT = Solids in Aeration Tank

Solids Removed in WAS per day + Solids in Effluent per day

SRT = 14,370 lbs = 14,370 lbs = 27.5 days

395 lbs/day + 128 lbs/day 523 lbs/day

15. A peripheral overflow final clarifier at an oxidation ditch treatment plant has a
diameter of 75 feet and a side water depth of 14 feet. Assuming a flow of 4.2
mgd determine the following.

ɹ Detention Time (in hours)

ɹ Surface Overflow Rate (in gpd/ft2), and
ɹ Weir Overflow Rate (in gpd/ft)
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 267

Q = 4.2 mgd
14 ft
Final Clarifier

75 ft

Detention Time

ƒ Detention time equals volume divided by flow.

ƒ Calculate the volume of the final clarifier using the volume of a cylinder equation.

Volume = 0.785 x Diameter2 x Height

Volume (ft3) = 0.785 x 75 ft x 75 ft x 14 ft = 61,820 ft3

ƒ Convert the units of volume from ft3 to mg to be consistent with the units for flow.

61,820 ft3 = 61,820 ft3 x 7.48 gals/ft3 = 0.462 mg

1,000,000 gals/mg

ƒ Plug the known values into the detention time formula. Convert days to hours.

Detention Time = Volume/Flow = 0.462 mg = 0.11 day

4.2 mg/d

0.11 day = 0.11 day x 24 hrs/day = 2.64 hours

Surface Overflow Rate

ƒ Surface Overflow Rate is defined by the following equation.

Surface Overflow Rate (SOR) = Flow to Tank (gpd)

Surface Area of Tank (ft2)

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the final clarifier using the area of a circle equation.

Area = 0.785 x Diameter2

268 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Area (ft3) = 0.785 x 75 ft x 75 ft = 4,420 ft2

ƒ Convert the units of flow from mg to gpd.

4.2 mgd = 4.2 mg/d x 1,000,000 gals/mg = 4,200,000 gpd

ƒ Plug the known values into the Surface Overflow Rate formula.

SOR = Flow to Tank (gpd) = 4,200,000 gpd = 950 gpd/ft2

Surface Area of Tank (ft2) 4,420 ft2

Weir Overflow Rate

ƒ Weir Overflow Rate is defined by the following equation.

Weir Overflow Rate = Flow to Clarifier

Length of Weir

ƒ Calculate the circumference of the final clarifier. The circumference approximates

the length of the weir in a peripheral overflow clarifier.

Circumference = ư x Diameter = 3.14 x 75 ft = 236 ft

ƒ Plug the known values into the Weir Overflow Rate formula.

WOR = Flow to Clarifier (gpd) = 4,200,000 gpd = 17,800 gpd/ft

Length of Weir (ft) 236 ft

16. Determine the organic loading rate (in units of lbs of BOD5/1,000 ft3) and the
hydraulic loading rate (in units of gpd/ft2) of a trickling filter given the following
information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 250,000 gpd

ɹ Recirculation Flow = 375,000 gpd Q = 250,000 gpd
ɹ Influent BOD5 = 200 mg/L BOD5 = 200 mg/L
ɹ Trickling Filter Diameter = 75 ft
ɹ Media Depth = 6 ft
6 ft
Trickling Filter

75 ft Diameter
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 269

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate is defined by the following formula;

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (1,000ft3)

ƒ Calculate the organic loading on the trickling filter in pounds per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula. Convert the flow from gpd per mgd
before using the formula.

Organic Loading
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.250 mgd x 200 mg/L x 8.34 = 417 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the volume of the media in units of cubic feet by using the volume of a
cylinder formula. Convert the volume units from cubic feet to 1,000 cubic feet.

Volume = 0.785 x (Diameter of Trickling Filter)2 x Depth of Media

Volume = 0.785 x 75 ft x 75 ft x 6 ft = 26,490 ft3

26,490 ft3 = 26.49 x 1,000 ft3

ƒ Plug the known values into the organic loading rate formula.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (1,000 ft3)

Organic Loading Rate = 417 lbs/day = 15.7 lbs of BOD5/day /1,000 ft3
26.49 x 1,000 ft3

Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ The hydraulic loading rate is defined by the following formula;

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (gpd)

Surface Area (ft2)
270 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the trickling filter using the area of a circle formula.

Area = 0.785 x Diameter2 = 0.785 x 75 ft x 75 ft = 4,420 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values into the hydraulic loading rate formula. The total flow rate is
the influent flow plus the recirculation flow.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (gpd) = 250,000 gpd + 375,000 gpd = 141 gpd/ft2
Surface Area (ft2) 4,420 ft2

17. A trickling filter with a diameter of 95 feet has a design organic loading rate of
100 lbs of BOD5 per 1,000 ft3. Determine the depth of media required to
accommodate the organic load given the following information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 4.40 mgd

ɹ Influent BOD5 = 150 mg/L
Q = 4.40 mgd
BOD5 = 150 mg/L

Media Depth = ?
Trickling Filter

95 ft

ƒ The depth of the trickling filter can be determined by rearranging the volume of a
cylinder formula and solving for depth, as shown below.

Depth = Volume
0.785 x Diameter2

ƒ Calculate the organic loading on the trickling filter in pounds per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Organic Loading
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 4.40 mgd x 150 mg/L x 8.34 = 5,504 lbs/day
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 271

ƒ Calculate the volume of media required to accommodate this organic load using a
rearranged version of the organic loading rate formula, as shown below.

Media Volume (1,000 ft3) = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Organic Loading Rate (lbs/day/1,000 ft3)

Media Volume (1,000 ft3) = 5,504 lbs BOD5/day

100 lbs BOD5/day/1,000 ft3

Media Volume (1,000 ft3) = 55.04 x 1,000 ft3 = 55,040 ft3

ƒ Plug the known values into the rearranged volume of a cylinder formula.

Depth = Volume = 55,040 ft2 x ft = 7.8 feet

0.785 x Diameter2 0.785 x 95 ft x 95 ft

18. A trickling filter with an influent flow of 2.35 mgd recirculates final clarifier
effluent at a rate of 3,264 gpm. What is the recirculation ratio?

ƒ Recirculation ratio is the recirculation flow divided by the influent flow as shown in
the equation below.

Recirculation Ratio = Recirculation Flow

Influent Flow

ƒ Convert the recirculation flow from gallons per minute to million gallons per day to
be consistent with the units for influent flow.

3,264 gpm = 3,264 gals/min x 60 min/hr x 24 hrs/day = 4.70 mgd

1,000,000 gals/mg

ƒ Plug the known values into the recirculation ratio formula.

Recirculation Ratio = Recirculation Flow = 4.70 mgd = 2.0

Influent Flow 2.35 mgd
272 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

19. A trickling filter wastewater treatment plant has four units, each with a diameter
of 120. The depth of the filter media is 18 feet. Determine the hydraulic loading
rate in mgd/acre and the organic loading rate in lbs BOD5/day/ac-ft using the
information provided below.

ɹ Influent Flow = 2.8 mgd

ɹ Recirculation Ratio = 1.75
ɹ Influent BOD5 = 220 mg/L

TF TF
Influent Effluent

TF TF

120 ft Diameter

Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ The hydraulic loading rate is defined by the following formula.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (mgd)

Surface Area (acre)

ƒ Calculate the flow rate using the flow equation for trickling filters that includes the
recirculation ratio.

Total Flow = Influent Flow x (1 + Recirculation Ratio)

Total Flow = 2.8 mgd x (1 + 1.75) = 7.7 mgd

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the four trickling filters using the area of a circle
formula. Convert the units of area from ft2 to acres.

Area of One Filter = 0.785 x Diameter2

Area of One Filter = 0.785 x 120 ft x 120 ft = 0.785 x 14,400 ft2 = 11,300 ft2
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 273

Area of Four Filters = 4 x 11,300 ft2 = 45,200 ft2

45,200 ft2 = 45,200 ft2 x 1 acre = 1.04 acres

43,560 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values into the hydraulic loading rate formula.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (mgd) = 7.7 mgd = 7.4 mgd/acre
Surface Area (acre) 1.04 acre

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate is defined by the following formula;

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (acre-foot)

ƒ Calculate the organic loading on the trickling filter in pounds per day by using the
“Mass Fow” version of the pounds formula.

Organic Loading
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 2.8 mgd x 220 mg/L x 8.34 = 5,140 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the volume of the media in units of cubic feet by using the volume of a
cylinder formula. Convert the volume units from cubic feet to acre-feet.

Volume = 0.785 x (Diameter of Trickling Filter) 2 x Depth of Media

Volume = 0.785 x 120 ft x 120 ft x 18 ft = 203,500 ft3
Volume of Four Filters = 4 x 203,500 ft3 = 814,000 ft3

814,000 ft3 = 814,000 ft3 x ft x 1 acre = 18.69 acre-feet

43,560 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values into the organic loading rate formula.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Volume (ac-ft)
274 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Organic Loading Rate = 5,140 lbs/day = 275 lbs of BOD5/day /ac-ft

18.69 ac-ft

20. Calculate the k factor of the wastewater in an RBC process given the following
information.

ɹ RBC Influent TSS = 205 mg/L

ɹ RBC Influent TBOD5 = 190 mg/L
ɹ RBC Influent SBOD5 = 70 mg/L

ƒ Plug the known values into the k-factor formula and solve for k.

TBOD5 = SBOD5 + (k x TSS)

190 mg/L = 70 mg/L + (k x 205 mg/L)
120 mg/L = k x 205 mg/L

k = 120 mg/L = 0.59

205 mg/L

21. Determine the surface area of the media in a two-stage RBC wastewater
treatment plant given the following information.

Stage 1
ɹ No. of Shafts = 4
ɹ No. of Discs per Shaft = 16
ɹ Disc Diameter = 6 feet

Stage 2
ɹ No. of Shafts = 3
ɹ No. of Discs per Shaft = 12
ɹ Disc Diameter = 6 feet

Stage 1 Surface Area

ƒ Determine the total number of Discs in Stage 1.

Total Stage 1 Discs = No. of Shafts x No. of Discs per Shaft

Total Stage 1 Discs = 4 x 16 = 64 Discs
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 275

ƒ Determine the surface area of each disc by using the area of a circle formula.
Multiply by 2 to account for both sides of the disc.

Area (One Side of Disc) = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x (6 ft)2 = 28.26 ft2

Total Disc Area (Both Sides of Disc) = 28.26 ft2 x 2 = 56.52 ft2

ƒ Determine the total Stage 1 surface area by multiplying the total number of discs by
the total area of each disc.

Stage 1 Area = No. of Discs x Total Disc Area = 64 x 56.52 ft2 = 3,617 ft2

Stage 2 Surface Area

ƒ The Stage 2 surface area is calculated in the same manner as Stage 1 as shown below.

Total Stage 2 Discs = 3 Shafts x 12 Discs per Shaft = 36 Discs

Stage 2 Area = No. of Discs x Total Disc Area = 36 x 56.52 ft2 = 2,035 ft2

Total RBC Media Area

Total RBC Media Area = Stage 1 Area + Stage 2 Area

= 3,617 ft2 + 2,035 ft2 = 5,652 ft2

22. Determine the hydraulic loading rate (in units of gpd/ft2) and the organic loading
rate (in units of lbs of SBOD5/1,000 ft2) of an RBC wastewater treatment plant
given the following information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 1.2 mgd

ɹ Influent TBOD5 = 200 mg/L
ɹ Influent TSS = 240 mg/L
ɹ k factor = 0.55
ɹ Total RBC Media Surface Area = 375,000 ft2

Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ Plug the known values for influent flow and media surface area into the hydraulic
loading rate formula. First, convert the flow units from mgd to gpd.

1.2 mgd = 1.2 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 1,200,000 gpd

day mg
276 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow Rate (gpd) = 1,200,000 gpd = 3.2 gpd/ft2
Surface Area (ft2) 375,000 ft2

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ Calculate the SBOD5 by plugging the known values for TBOD5, TSS and k into the
“k value” formula.

TBOD5 = SBOD5 + (k x TSS)

200 mg/L = SBOD5 + (0.55 x 240 mg/L)
SBOD5 = 200 mg/L – (0.55 x 240 mg/L)
SBOD5 = 200 mg/L – 132 mg/L
SBOD5 = 68 mg/L

ƒ Calculate the organic loading (SBOD5) on the RBCs in pounds per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Organic Loading
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 1.2 mgd x 68 mg/L x 8.34 = 681 lbs/day

ƒ Plug the known values into the organic loading rate formula.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day) = 681 lbs/day SBOD5

Media Surface Area (1,000 ft2) 375 x 1,000 ft2

Organic Loading Rate = 1.82 lbs of SBOD5/day/1,000 ft2

23. Determine the square feet of RBC media required given the following
information.

ɹ Influent Flow = 1.75 mgd

ɹ Influent SBOD5 = 72 mg/L
ɹ Organic Loading Rate = 5.5 lbs of SBOD5/day/1,000 ft2

ƒ Calculate the organic loading on the RBCs in pounds per day by using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula.
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 277

Organic Loading
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 1.75 mgd x 72 mg/L x 8.34 = 1,050 lbs/day

ƒ Using the organic loading rate formula, plug in the known values for organic loading
and organic loading rate and solve for the media surface area.

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Loading (lbs/day)

Media Surface Area (1,000 ft2)

5.5 lbs of SBOD5/day/1,000 ft2 = 1,050 lbs/day of SBOD5

Media Surface Area (1,000 ft2)

Media Surface Area (1,000 ft2) = 1,050 lbs/day of SBOD5

5.5 lbs of SBOD5/day /1,000 ft2

Media Surface Area (ft2) = 191 = 191,000 ft2

1/1000 ft2

24. Calculate the volume in million gallons of a wastewater lagoon with the
following dimensions.

ɹ Surface Length = 150 feet

ɹ Bottom Length = 90 feet
ɹ Surface Width = 100 feet
ɹ Bottom Width = 40 feet
ɹ Depth = 10 feet

ƒ The equation for the volume of the lagoon is;

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth

ƒ Calculate the mean length and mean width.

Mean Length = Surface Length + Bottom Length = 150 ft + 90 ft = 120 ft

2 2

Mean Width = Surface Width + Bottom Width = 100 ft + 40 ft = 70 ft

2 2
278 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Plug the known values into the volume equation.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth = 120 ft x 70 ft x 10 ft = 84,000 ft3

ƒ Convert the units of volume from ft3 to million gallons.

84,000 ft3 = 84,000 ft3 x 7.48 gals/ft3 = 0.63 mg

1,000,000 gals/mg

25. Calculate the volume of the wastewater lagoon in the previous example using
the formula for smaller lagoons that includes the additional volume in the
corners.

ƒ The equation for the volume of the lagoon that considers the corner volume is;
Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth + (A x A x Depth)
3
ƒ Draw a sketch of the lagoon to determine the A dimension.

Surface Length = 150 ft

A

30 ft Bottom Length = 90 ft 30 ft

ƒ Mathematically, A can be calculated as shown below.

A = Surface Length – Bottom Length = 200 ft – 140 ft = 30 ft

2 2

ƒ Plug in the known values of A, Depth and the Mean Length and Mean Width
calculated in the previous Example.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth + (A x A x Depth)

3
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 279

Volume = 120 ft x 70 ft x 10 ft + (30 ft x 30 ft x 10 ft)

3

Volume = 84,000 ft3 + 3,000 ft3 = 87,000 ft3

ƒ Convert the units of volume from ft3 to million gallons.

87,000 ft3 = 87,000 ft3 x 7.48 gals/ft3 = 0.65 mg

1,000,000 gals/mg

ƒ Using the lagoon volume formula that includes the corner volume results in an
increase in total volume of about 3%.

26. The wastewater lagoon in the previous example has a flow of 35,000 gpd and
an influent BOD5 concentration of 218 mg/L. Calculate the following operating
parameters.

ɹ Detention Time (in days)

ɹ Organic Loading Rate (in pounds of BOD5 per day per acre)
ɹ Hydraulic Loading Rate (in inches per day)

Detention Time

ƒ Detention time is defined as volume divided by flow or,

DT = Volume/Flow

ƒ Convert the units of volume from million gallons to gallons to be consistent with the
units of flow.

0.65 mg = 0.65 mg x 1,000,000 gals/mg = 650,000 gals

ƒ Plug the known values into the detention time formula.

DT = Volume/Flow = 650,000 gals = 18.6 days

35,000 gals/day
280 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate in lagoons is the pounds of influent BOD5 per day divided
by the surface area of the lagoon in acres, or;

Organic Loading Rate = lbs/day of BOD5

Lagoon Area in Acres

ƒ Calculate the pounds of BOD5 per day in the influent wastewater using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula. First, convert the units of flow from gallons
per day to million gallons per day.

35,000 gpd = 35,000 gals x 1 mg = 0.035 mgd

day 1,000,000 gals

Influent BOD5
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.035 mgd x 218 mg/L x 8.34 = 63.6 lbs BOD5/day

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the lagoon using the length and width dimensions given
in Problem 24. Convert the units of area from ft2 to acres.

Lagoon Area (ft2) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 150 ft x 100 ft = 15,000 ft2

15,000 ft2 = 15,000 ft2 x 1 acre = 0.34 acre

43,560 ft2

ƒ Calculate the organic loading rate by dividing the pounds of BOD5 per day by the
surface area of the lagoon.

Organic Loading Rate = 63.6 lbs BOD5/day = 187 lbs of BOD5/day/acre

0.34 acre

Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ The hydraulic loading rate in lagoons is commonly expressed in units of inches per
day. This can be visualized as a volume of wastewater per day over the lagoon
surface area or volume divided by area.
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 281

ƒ Convert the units of wastewater flow from gallons per day to cubic feet per day.

35,000 gpd = 35,000 gals x 1 ft3 = 4,680 ft3/day

day 7.48 gals

ƒ Calculate the area of the lagoon in units of ft2.

Lagoon Area (ft2) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 150 ft x 100 ft = 15,000 ft2

ƒ Divide the “volume” of flow by the surface area of the lagoon. Convert the units of
hydraulic loading rate from ft/day to inches/day.

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Volume of Flow = 4,680 ft3/day = 0.312 ft/day

Surface Area 15,000 ft2

0.312 ft/day = 0.312 ft x 12 inches = 3.74 inches/day

day 1 ft

27. A wastewater treatment pond has a surface length of 850 feet and a surface
width of 600 feet and serves a population of 2,340. What is the population
loading of the lagoon in persons per acre?

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the lagoon in square feet. Convert the area from square
feet to acres.

Lagoon Area (ft2) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 850 ft x 600 ft = 510,000 ft2

510,000 ft2 = 510,000 ft2 x 1 acre = 11.71 acres

43,460 ft2

ƒ Calculate the population loading rate by dividing the population by the surface area
of the lagoon in acres.

Population Loading = Population = 2,340 people = 200 persons/acre

Area 11.71 acres
282 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

28. A wastewater treatment pond has a surface length of 320 feet, a surface width
of 200 feet, a depth of 10 feet and side slopes of 4:1, horizontal to vertical. The
average flow rate is 0.18 mgd and the influent BOD5 is 200 mg/L. Calculate the
detention time in hours and the organic loading rate in pounds of BOD5 per day/
acre.

Detention Time

ƒ Detention time equals volume divided by flow. The volume of a lagoon can be
calculated from the following equation.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth

ƒ The mean length and mean depth for a lagoon with given side slopes can be
calculated from the following equations.

Mean Length = Surface Length – (Depth x H:V)

Mean Length = 320 ft – (10 ft x 4:1) = 320 ft – 40 ft = 280 ft

Mean Width = Surface Width – (Depth x H:V)

Mean Width = 200 ft – (10 ft x 4:1) = 200 ft – 40 ft = 160 ft

ƒ Plug the known values into the lagoon volume equation to calculate the volume in
units of ft3. Convert the volume units from ft3 to million gallons to be consistent
with the units of flow.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth

Volume = 280 ft x 160 ft x 10 ft = 448,000 ft3

448,000 ft3 = 448,000 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 1 mg = 3.35 mg

3
ft 1,000,000 gals

ƒ Plug the known values into the detention time formula.

Detention Time = Volume/Flow = 3.35 mg = 18.6 days

0.18 mg/d
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 283

Organic Loading Rate

ƒ The organic loading rate in lagoons is the pounds of influent BOD5 per day divided
by the surface area of the lagoon in acres, or;

Organic Loading Rate = lbs/day of BOD5

Lagoon Area in Acres

ƒ Calculate the pounds of BOD5 per day in the influent wastewater using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula.

Influent BOD5
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.18 mgd x 200 mg/L x 8.34 = 300 lbs BOD5/day

ƒ Calculate the surface area of the lagoon using the length and width dimensions given.
Convert the units of area from ft2 to acres.

Lagoon Area (ft2) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 320 ft x 200 ft = 64,000 ft2

64,000 ft2 = 64,000 ft2 x 1 acre = 1.47 acres

43,460 ft2

ƒ Calculate the organic loading rate by dividing the pounds of BOD5 per day by the
surface area of the lagoon.

Organic Loading Rate = 300 lbs BOD5/day = 204 lbs of BOD5/day/acre

1.47 acres

29. A controlled-discharge pond must hold treated effluent for 180 days. The
average flow for the storage period is 425,000 gpd. If the lagoon has a mean
length of 750 feet and a mean width of 500 feet, how deep must the lagoon be
to store this effluent? Add a safety factor of 20% to account for precipitation and
flows that may be greater than the average flow.

ƒ The equation for the volume of a lagoon is shown below.

Volume = Mean Length x Mean Width x Depth

284 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ This equation can be rearranged to solve for depth.

Depth = Volume
Mean Length x Mean Width

ƒ Calculate the volume of the effluent generated (in units of million gallons per day)
for the 180 day period.

Effluent Volume = 425,000 gals x 1 mg x 180 days = 76.5 mg

day 1,000,000 gals

ƒ Add the 20% safety factor by multiplying the effluent volume by 120% or 1.2.
Convert the volume from million gallons to cubic feet to be consistent with the units
for the length and width of the lagoon.

Effluent Volume = 76.5 mg x 1.2 = 91.8 mg

91.8 mg = 91.8 mg x 1 ft3 x 1,000,000 ft3 = 12,273,000 ft3

7.48 gal mft3

ƒ Plug the known values into the “rearranged” lagoon volume equation.

Depth = Volume = 12,273,000 ft3 = 32.7 ft

Mean Length x Mean Width 750 ft x 500 ft
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 285

30. Determine the Filter Flow Rate and the Filter Backwash Flow Rate given the
parameters shown in the diagram.

Filter Influent Flow (QIN) = 800 gpm

Filter Length = 30 feet

Filter Width = 15 feet

Filter Effluent Flow

(QOUT)
Filter Backwash to
Waste Filter Backwash Flow
(QBACK) = 12,000 gpm

ƒ The filter flow rate and the filter backwash flow rate can be determined by using the
equations shown below. Plug into these equations the known values for length,
width, filter influent flow and filter backwash flow and calculate the respective flow
rates.

Filter Flow Rate = Filter Influent (QIN) = 800 gpm = 1.78 gpm/ft2
Length x Width 30 ft x 15 ft

Filter Backwash Flow Rate = Filter Backwash (QBACK) = 12,000 gpm = 26.7 gpm/ft2
Length x Width 30 ft x 15 ft

31. The chlorine demand of a 2.35 mgd activated sludge treatment plant effluent is
12.0 mg/L. If a chlorine residual of 1.0 mg/L is desired, calculate the pounds per
day of 12% sodium hypochlorite required for disinfection.

ƒ Determine chlorine dose required.

Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = Chlorine Dose (mg/L) − Chlorine Residual (mg/L), or

Chlorine Dose (mg/L) = Chlorine Demand (mg/L) + Chlorine Residual (mg/L),or

286 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Chlorine Dose (mg/L) = 12.0 mg/L + 1.0 mg/L = 13.0 mg/L

ƒ Calculate the pounds of sodium hypochlorite required per day by using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula modified for chemical feed applications.

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = 2.35 mgd x 13 mg/L x 8.34 = 2,123 lbs/day

0.12

32. A 575 gpm primary treatment plant requires a chlorine residual of 8 mg/L for
disinfection. If the chlorine demand of the wastewater is 18 mg/L and a solution
of calcium hypochlorite with 1.7% available chlorine is used, at what flow rate
(in gpm) should the chlorine solution feed pump be set. Assume the solution of
calcium hypochlorite has a specific gravity of 1.05.

ƒ Determine chlorine dose required by adding chlorine demand and chlorine residual.

Chlorine Dose (mg/L) = Chlorine Demand (mg/L) + Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Chlorine Dose (mg/L) = 18.0 mg/L + 8.0 mg/L = 26.0 mg/L

ƒ Calculate the pounds of calcium hypochlorite solution required per day by using the
“Mass Flow” version of the pounds formula modified for chemical feed applications.
First convert the units of flow from gallons per minute to million gallons per day.

575 gpm =575 gals x 1,440 min x mg = 0.828 mgd

min day 1,000,000 gals

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = 0.828 mgd x 26 mg/L x 8.34 = 10,560 lbs/day

0.017

ƒ Determine the density of the calcium hypochlorite solution using the formula for
specific gravity.
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 287

SG CALCIUM HYPO. SOLUTION = Density CALCIUM HYPO. SOLUTION (lbs/gal)

Density WATER (lbs/gal)

Density CALCIUM HYPO. SOLUTION (lbs/gal) = SG CALCIUM HYPO. SOL. x Density WATER (lbs/gal)

Density CALCIUM HYPO. SOLUTION = 1.05 x 8.34 lbs/gal = 8.76 lbs/gal

ƒ Convert pounds per day of calcium hypochlorite solution to gallons per minute.

10,560 lbs/day = 10,560 lbs x 1 gal x day = 0.84 gpm

day 8.76 lbs 1,440 min

33. Calculate the flow in gallons per hour of sodium metabisulfite solution (at 39%
purity with a specific gravity of 1.1) required to dechlorinate the effluent in
Problem 32 to a final chlorine residual of 1.0 mg/L.

ƒ From Problem 32, the “target” residual necessary to achieve adequate disinfection is
8 mg/L. To achieve a 1.0 mg/L residual after dechlorination, the dechlorination
chemical must remove 7.0 mg/L of chlorine.

ƒ Using the dosage ratio for sodium metabisulfite (shown in the Table in Chapter 7),
calculate the dosage of sodium metabisulfite required.

Na2S2O5 (mg/L) = 1.5 mg/L Na2S2O5 x 7 mg/L Cl2 = 10.5 mg/L Na2S2O5
1 mg/L Cl2

ƒ Calculate the pounds of sodium metabisulfite per day by using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula modified for chemical feed applications.

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = 0.828 mgd x 10.5 mg/L x 8.34 = 186 lbs/day
0.39

ƒ Determine the density of the sodium metabisulfite solution using the formula for
specific gravity.
288 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

SG SOD. META. SOLUTION = Density SOD. META. SOLUTION (lbs/gal)

Density WATER (lbs/gal)

Density SOD. META. SOLUTION (lbs/gal) = SG SOD. META. SOLUTION x Density WATER (lbs/gal)

Density SOD. META. SOLUTION = 1.1 x 8.34 lbs/gal = 9.17 lbs/gal

ƒ Determine the gallons of sodium metabisulfite solution required per day. Convert
the units of flow from gallons per day to gallons per hour.

186 lbs/day = 186 lbs x 1 gal = 20.28 gpd

day 9.17 lbs

20.28 gpd = 20.28 gals x 1 day = 0.85 gph

day 24 hrs

34. Sodium bisulfite at a 39% solution with a density of 11.4 lbs/gallon is used to
dechlorinate a 3.3 mgd effluent to 0.75 mg/L total residual chlorine. The
residual chlorine leaving the chlorine contact tank is 3.0 mg/L. Determine the
flow rate of the sodium bisulfite solution required in gallons per hour.

ƒ To achieve a 0.75 mg/L TRC after dechlorination, the dechlorination chemical must
remove 3.0 mg/L minus 0.75 mg/L, or 2.25 mg/L TRC.

ƒ Using the dosage ratio for sodium bisulfite shown in the Table in Chapter 7,
calculate the dosage of sodium bisulfite required.

NaHSO3 (mg/L) = 1.6 mg/L NaHSO3 x 2.25 mg/L Cl2 = 3.60 mg/L NaHSO3
1 mg/L Cl2

ƒ Calculate the pounds of sodium bisulfite required per day by using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula modified for chemical feed applications.

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = 3.3 mgd x 3.60 mg/L x 8.34 = 254 lbs/day
0.39
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 289

ƒ Using the density of sodium bisulfite and the appropriate time conversion, the
required flow of sodium bisulfite can be calculated.

254 lbs/day = 254 lbs x 1 gal x 1 day = 0.93 gph

day 11.4 lbs 24 hrs

35. Determine the minimum area required for a spray irrigation land application
wastewater facility given the information shown below. The net loss/gain from
precipitation/evaporation in the storage lagoon is zero.

ɹ Average Daily Flow = 120,000 gpd

ɹ Maximum Application Rate = 1.25 inches/week
ɹ Spray Irrigation Period = 26 weeks

ƒ Calculate the annual wastewater volume in units of ft3.

Wastewater Volume (gals) = 120,000 gals x 365 days = 43,800,000 gals/yr

day year

43,800,000 gals/yr = 43,800,000 gals x 1 ft3 = 5,856,000 ft3/yr

yr 7.48 gals

ƒ Determine the maximum inches of wastewater that can be applied annually. Convert
the application rate from inches to cubic feet per acre.

Inches per Year = Maximum Application Rate (inches/week) x No. of Spray Weeks

Inches per Year = 1.25 inches x 26 weeks = 32.5 inches/year

week year

32.5 inches/year = 32.5 inches x 1 ft x 43,560 ft2 = 117,970 ft3/acre/year

year 12 inches acre

ƒ Divide the annual wastewater volume by the application rate.

Area (acres) = 5,856,000 ft3 /year = 50 acres

117,970 ft3/acre/year
290 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

36. Calculate the maximum flow rate (in units of gallons per minute) of a spray
irrigation pumping system given the following conditions.

ɹ No. of Spray Fields = 6

ɹ Spray Field Diameter = 75 feet
ɹ Maximum Hydraulic Loading Rate = 0.40 inches/hour

ƒ Determine the area of the spray fields using the area of a circle formula.

Area of Each Spray Field = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 75 ft x 75 ft = 4,416 ft2

Area of All Spray Fields = 6 fields x 4,416 ft2 = 26,500 ft2

field

ƒ Calculate the hydraulic loading rate (flow) over the entire spray field area in terms of
cubic feet per hour. First, convert the hydraulic loading rate from inches per hour to
feet per hour. Multiply the converted hydraulic loading rate by the spray field area.

0.40 inches/hour = 0.40 inches x 1 ft = 0.0333 ft/hr

hr 12 inches

0.0333 ft/hr x 26,500 ft2 = 882 ft3/hr

ƒ Convert the flow rate from ft3/hour to gpm.

882 ft3/hr = 882 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 1 hr = 110 gpm

hr ft3 60 min

37. Calculate the hydraulic overflow rate of a gravity thickener in gpd/ft2 given the
following information.

ɹ Thickener Diameter = 125 feet

ɹ Total Thickener Flow = 15 mgd

ƒ Determine the surface area of the gravity thickener using the area of a circle formula.

Thickener Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 125 ft2 = 0.785 x 125 ft x 125 ft = 12,270 ft2
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 291

ƒ Convert the units of flow from million gallons per day to gallons per day.
15 mgd = 15 million gallons x 1,000,000 gals = 15,000,000 gpd
day 1 million gallons

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and area into the Hydraulic Overflow Rate formula.

Hydraulic Overflow Rate (HOR) = Total Thickener Flow (gallons per day)
Thickener Surface Area (square feet)

HOR = 15,000,000 gpd = 1,220 gpd/ft2

12,270 ft2

38. Calculate the solids loading rate of the gravity thickener in the previous
example if the influent sludge concentration is 9,250 mg/L. The sludge has a
specific gravity of 1.015.

ƒ Calculate the pounds of TSS per day in the influent sludge using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula that includes the specific gravity.

Influent Sludge TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 15 mgd x 9,250 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.015 =1,175,000 lbs TSS/day

ƒ Plug the known values for flow and area into the Solids Loading Rate formula.

Solids Loading Rate (SLR) = Solids Entering Thickener (pounds per day)
Thickener Surface Area (square feet)

SLR = 1,175,000 lbs TSS/day = 96 lbs of TSS/day/ft2

12,270 ft2

39. A DAF thickener is designed to operate at a hydraulic loading rate of 1.25

gallons per minute per square foot. If the DAF tank is 20 feet long and 10 feet
wide, what is the design flow of the unit?

ƒ Rearrange the hydraulic loading rate formula to isolate the DAF flow on one side of
the equation.
292 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) = DAF Influent Flow (gallons per minute)
DAF Surface Area (square feet)

DAF Influent Flow = Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) x DAF Surface Area (ft2)

ƒ Calculate the DAF surface area using the area of a rectangle formula.

Area = Length (ft) x Width (ft) = 20 ft x 10 ft = 200 ft2

ƒ Plug the known values for hydraulic loading rate and area into the rearranged
Hydraulic Loading Rate formula.

DAF Influent Flow = Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) x DAF Surface Area (ft2)

DAF Influent Flow = 1.25 gpm/ft2 x 200 ft2 = 250 gpm

40. A 2-meter GBT is designed to operate at a hydraulic loading rate of 100

gpm/meter for a 1.25% waste activated sludge with a specific gravity of 1.02. At
a polymer feed rate of 5 pounds per ton, how many pounds of polymer are
required for an 8-hour shift?

ƒ Find the design sludge flow to the GBT. Rearrange the hydraulic loading rate
formula to isolate the GBT influent sludge flow on one side of the equation.

Influent Sludge Flow (gpm) = Hydraulic Loading Rate (gpm/meter) x Width of Belt (meters)

Influent Sludge Flow (gpm) = 100 gpm/meter x 2 meters = 200 gpm

ƒ Calculate the total sludge volume to the GBT over the 8-hour shift.

Sludge Flow (gpm) x Time (minutes) = Total Sludge Volume (gals)

(200 gals/minute) x (8 hours x 60 minutes/hour) = 96,000 gals

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the influent sludge using the “Mass” version
of the pounds formula with the specific gravity correction. Convert the volume from
gallons to million gallons before plugging into the pounds formula. Also, note that
1.25% sludge solids is equal to 12,500 mg/L.
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 293

Influent Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.
Mass (lbs) = 0.096 mg x 12,500 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.02 = 10,210 lbs TSS

ƒ Calculate the pounds of polymer required. First, convert the units of TSS from
pounds to tons.

Tons of TSS = 10,210 lbs x 1 Ton = 5.1 Tons

2,000 lbs

Lbs. of Polymer = 5 lbs of polymer x 5.1 Ton = 26 lbs

Ton

41. A RDT has a sludge feed rate of 200 gpm. The thickened sludge flow rate is
estimated at 30 gpm. If the feed sludge has a concentration of 11,000 mg/L and
the thickened sludge is 6.5% solids, calculate the percent of the influent solids
remaining in the filtrate. Assume the specific gravities of the feed sludge and
thickened sludge are 1.02 and 1.04, respectively.

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the feed sludge flow using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula modified to include specific gravity. Convert the flow
from gallons per minute to million gallons per day before plugging into the pounds
formula.

200 gpm = 200 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x 1 mg = 0.288 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals

Feed Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.288 mgd x 11,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.02 = 26,950 lbs/day TSS

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the thickened sludge flow using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula modified to include specific gravity. Convert
the flow from gallons per minute to million gallons per day and convert the
thickened sludge concentration from percent solids to milligrams per liter before
plugging into the pounds formula.

30 gpm = 30 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x 1 mg = 0.0432 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals
294 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

6.5% = 0.065 = 0.065 x 1,000,000 parts = 65,000 ppm = 65,000 mg/L

million

Thickened Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x 1.04
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.0432 mgd x 65,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.04 = 24,360 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the solids in the filtrate.

Filtrate Solids = Feed Sludge Solids – Thickened Sludge Solids

Filtrate Solids = 26,950 lbs/day – 24,360 lbs/day = 2,590 lbs/day

ƒ Calculate the percent of the influent solids in the filtrate.

% solids in filtrate = Solids in Filtrate = 2,590 lbs/day = 0.096 = 9.6 %

Solids in Influent 26,950 lbs/day

42. An aerobic digester has a diameter of 24 feet and a depth of 22 feet. If the
design volatile solids loading rate is 0.14 lbs VS/day/ft3, what is the maximum
volume of sludge in lbs VS/day, that can be pumped to the digester?

ƒ Calculate the volume of the digester in cubic feet using the volume of a cylinder
formula.

Volume = 0.785 x Diameter (ft)2 x Height (ft) = 0.785 x 24 ft x 24 ft x 22 ft = 9,950 ft3

ƒ Plug the known values for volatile solids loading rate and digester volume into the
volatile solids loading formula. First, rearrange the volatile solids loading formula to
solve for the unknown sludge feed.

Volatile Solids Loading (lbs VS/day/ft3) = Feed Sludge (lbs VS/day) or;
Digester Volume (ft3)

Feed Sludge (lbs VS/day) = Volatile Solids Loading (lbs VS/day/ft3) x Digest. Vol. (ft3)

Feed Sludge (lbsVS/day) = 0.14 lbs VS/day x 9,950 ft3 = 1,390 lbs of VS/day
ft3
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 295

43. Sludge is added to an anaerobic digester at a rate of 2,300 gallons per day. If
the digester is 22 feet in diameter and 18 feet high, what is the digester
detention time is days?

ƒ Calculate the volume of the digester in cubic feet using the volume of a cylinder
formula. Convert the volume from cubic feet to gallons.

Volume = 0.785 x Diameter (ft)2 x Height (ft) = 0.785 x 222 x 18 ft = 6,840 ft3

6,840 ft3 = 6,840 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 51,160 gallons

ft3

ƒ Plug the known values for digester volume and sludge feed rate into the detention
time formula.

Detention Time (days) = Digester Volume (gallons) = 51,160 gallons = 22.2 days
Feed Sludge (gallons/day) 2,300 gallons/day

44. The volatile solids content of the raw sludge entering a digester is 72% and the
sludge leaving the digester has a volatile solids content of 55%. Determine the
percent volatile solids reduced in the digester.

ƒ Using the first formula given for Volatile Solids Reduction (see Chapter 7 under
Sludge Digestion), plug in the known values for % volatile solids In and % volatile
solids Out. Change the % values to decimals.

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = % VS In – % VS Out x 100

% VS In – (% VS In x % VS Out)

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = 0.72 – 0.55 x 100

0.72 – (0.72 x 0.55)

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = 0.17 x 100 = 0.17 x 100 = 52.5%

0.72 – 0.396 0.324

45. Solve Problem 44 using the second formula given for Volatile Solids Reduction
(see Chapter 7 under Sludge Digestion). Assume the total solids in (volatile
solids plus fixed solids) is 100 pounds.
296 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

ƒ Show the raw solids entering the digester and digested solids leaving the digester in
diagram form.

Volatile Solids = 72% 72 lbs

? lbs Volatile Solids = 55%

Fixed Solids = 28% Fixed Solids = 45%

(28 pounds) (28 pounds)

Raw Sludge Digested Sludge

ƒ The diagram shows that the total solids are reduced but the fixed solids remain the
same. The total digested solids and volatile solids in the digested sludge can be
calculated as shown below.

Total Digested Solids (lbs) = Fixed Digested Solids (lbs) = 28 lbs = 62.2 lbs
% Fixed Digested Solids 0.45

Digested Volatile Solids (lbs) = Total Digested Solids (lbs) – Fixed Digested Solids (lbs)
Digested Volatile Solids (lbs) = 62.2 lbs – 28 lbs = 34.2 lbs

ƒ Using the second formula shown in Chapter 7 for volatile solids reduction, plug in
the known values.

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = VS Reduced (lbs) x 100% = VS In – VS Out x 100%

VS In (lbs) VS In (lbs)

Volatile Solids Reduced (%) = 72 lbs – 34.2 lbs x 100% = 37.8 lbs x 100% = 52.5%
72 lbs 72 lbs

46. An anaerobic digester produces 14 ft3 of gas per pound of volatile solids
reduced. If the volatile solids content entering the digester is 5,300 lbs/day and
62% of the volatile solids are reduced, what is the daily gas production?

ƒ Plug the known values into the second equation shown for Gas Production (see
Chapter 7 under Sludge Digestion). Insert the % VS reduction as a decimal.
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 297

Gas Produced (ft3/day) =

Feed Sludge (lbs VS/day) x % VS Reduction x Gas Produced (ft3/lbs VS Reduced)

Gas Produced (ft3/day) = 5,300 lbs VS x 0.62 x 14 ft3 = 46,000 ft3/day

day lbs VS

47. The sludge feed rate to a 2.5 meter belt filter press is 120 gpm. If the sludge
has a solids concentration of 4.5% and a specific gravity of 1.04, calculate the
hydraulic loading rate and solids loading rate to the BFP.

Hydraulic Loading Rate

ƒ The hydraulic loading rate is defined by the following equation.

Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) = Influent Sludge Flow (gallons per minute)
Width of Belt (meters)

ƒ Plug the known values for influent sludge flow and BFP size into the HLR equation.

Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) = 120 gpm = 48 gpm/meter

2.5 meters

Solids Loading Rate

ƒ The solids loading rate is defined by the following equation.

Solids Loading Rate (SLR) = Pounds of Solids (lbs/hr)

Width of Belt (meters)

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the influent sludge flow using the “Mass
Flow” version of the pounds formula modified for specific gravity. Convert the flow
from gallons per minute to million gallons per day and the solids concentration from
percent to mg/L before plugging into the pounds formula.

120 gpm = 120 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x 1 mg = 0.173 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals

4.5% = 0.045 = 0.045 x 1,000,000 parts = 45,000 ppm = 45,000 mg/L

million
298 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Influent Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x 1.03
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.173 mgd x 45,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.04 = 67,520 lbs/day TSS

Covert the TSS from lbs/day to lbs/hr.

67,520 lbs/day = 67,520 lbs x 1 day = 2,810 lb/hr

day 24 hrs

ƒ Plug the known values for pounds of solids per hour and BFP size into the SLR
equation.

Solids Loading Rate (SLR) = 2,810 lb/hr = 1,124 lbs/hr/meter

2.5 meters

48. Primary sludge is feed to a vacuum filter that is six feet in diameter and 10 feet
long at a rate of 45 gpm. If the sludge has a solids concentration of 5.5% and a
specific gravity of 1.05, what is the filter loading rate?

ƒ The filter loading rate for a vacuum filter is defined by the following equation.

Filter Loading Rate (FLR) = Pounds of Solids/Hour (lbs/hr)

ư x Diameter (ft) x Length (ft)

ƒ Calculate the pounds of solids (TSS) in the feed sludge flow using the “Mass Flow”
version of the pounds formula modified for specific gravity. Convert the flow from
gallons per minute to million gallons per day and the solids concentration from
percent to mg/L before plugging into the pounds formula.

45 gpm = 45 gals x 60 min x 24 hrs x 1 mg = 0.0648 mgd

min hr day 1,000,000 gals

5.5% = 0.055 = 0.055 x 1,000,000 parts = 55,000 ppm = 55,000 mg/L

million

Feed Sludge Solids - TSS

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x 1.05
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = 0.0648 mgd x 55,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.05 = 31,210 lbs/day TSS
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 299

Covert the TSS from lbs/day to lbs/hr.

31,210 lbs/day = 31,210 lbs x 1 day = 1,300 lb/hr

day 24 hrs

ƒ Using the FLR equation, plug in the known values for feed sludge, vacuum filter
diameter and vacuum filter length.

Filter Loading Rate (FLR) = Pounds of Solids/Hour (lbs/hr)

ư x Diameter (ft) x Length (ft)
Filter Loading Rate (FLR) = 1,300 lbs/hr = 6.9 lb/hr/ft2
3.14 x 6 ft x 10 ft

49. A primary wastewater treatment plant has four sand drying beds, each 40 feet
wide by 60 feet long. If the design maximum solids loading rate is 25 lbs/ft2/year
what is the maximum volume of sludge (in gallons) that can be applied to the
beds annually if the sludge is 3.0% solids and has a specific gravity of 1.02.

ƒ Calculate the maximum annual solids loading to the sand drying beds. Multiply the
design loading rate by the total bed area.

Solids Loading (lbs/year) = Design Loading Rate (lbs/ft2/year) x Bed Area (ft2)

Solids Loading (lbs/year) = 25 lbs x (40 ft x 60 ft) x 6 beds = 360,000 lbs/yr

ft2- year bed

ƒ Calculate the annual volume (flow) of sludge using the “Mass Flow” version of the
pounds formula modified for specific gravity. The pounds formula needs to be
rearranged to solve for the unknown flow. Convert the solids concentration from
percent to mg/L before plugging into the pounds formula. Finally, convert the flow
from million gallons per year to gallons per year.

3.0% = 0.030 = 0.030 x 1,000,000 parts = 30,000 ppm = 30,000 mg/L

million

Mass Flow (lbs/year) = Flow (mg/year) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G., or

300 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Flow (mg/yr) = Mass Flow (lbs/year) = 360,000 lbs/yr = 1.41 mg/yr

Conc. (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G. 30,000 mg/L x 8.34 x 1.02

1.41 mg/yr = 1.41 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 1,410,000 gals/yr

yr mg

50. A wastewater treatment plant with an annual average daily flow of 325 gpm is
prohibited from discharging wastewater during June, July and August.
Determine the volume of the lagoon (in million gallons) required to store
wastewater during these three months. Add 25% to the calculated volume to
allow for precipitation.

ƒ Storage must be provided to accommodate the wastewater generated during the

three month period from June to August. Calculate the days of storage required.

Days of Storage = Days in June + Days in July + Days in August

Days of Storage = 30 + 31 + 31 = 92 days

ƒ The storage volume required for wastewater equals the volume of wastewater
generated in 92 days. Calculate the volume of wastewater generated.

Wastewater Generated (gals) = Average Daily Flow (gpd) x 92 days

Wastewater Generated (gals) = 325 gals x 1,440 min x 92 days = 43,056,000 gals
min day

ƒ Multiply the volume by 1.25 to account for the precipitation volume. Convert the
volume units from gallons to million gallons.

43,056,000 gals x 1.25 = 53,820,000 gals

53,820,000 gals = 53,820,000 gals x 1 mg = 53.8 mg

1,000,000 gals

51. The receiving water for a wastewater treatment plant has a BOD5 limitation of
25 lbs/day. If the maximum daily effluent BOD5 concentration is 15 mg/L, what
is the maximum allowable daily flow in units of gallons per minute?
 Appendix C – Solutions to Chapter 7 Review Problems 301

ƒ Calculate the maximum allowable daily flow using the “Mass Flow” version of the
pounds formula. Rearrange the formula to solve for the unknown value for flow.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Flow (mgd) = Mass Flow (lbs/day)

Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34

Flow (mgd) = 25 lbs/day = 0.20 mgd

15 mg/L x 8.34

ƒ Convert the flow units from million gallons per day to gallons per minute.

0.20 mgd = 0.20 mg x 1,000,000 gals x 1 day = 139 gpm

day mg 1,440 min
 APPENDIX D
Common Formulas

6 Circumference of a Circle

Circumference

Circumference = ư x D
= 3.14 x D
where:
D = Diameter
Diameter

6 Area of a Circle

2
Area = 0.785 x D

where:
D = Diameter
Diameter

6 Area of a Rectangle
Length

Area = Length x Width

Width

303
304 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

6 Volume of a Rectangular Tank

Volume = Length x Width x Height

Width

Height

Length

6 Volume of a Cylinder

Diameter 2
Volume = 0.785 x D x H

where:
Height
D = Diameter
H = Height

6 Volume of a Cone

2
Volume = 0.785 x D x H
Diameter
3
where:
Height
D = Diameter
H = Height
 Appendix D – Common Formulas 305

6 Volume of a Sphere

3
Volume = ư x D
6

Diameter
where:
D = Diameter
ư = 3.14

6 Velocity

Velocity = Distance
Time

time 1 time 2

Distance

6 Flow Rate (in full pipes and open channels)

Flow Rate = Q = Area x Velocity

Area time 1 time 2

Area

Velocity (V)

This formula can be rearranged to solve for velocity.

306 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Velocity = Flow Rate

Area

6 Detention Time (DT)

DT = Volume
Flow (Q)

Q Volume Q

6 Filter Flow Rate and Filter Backwash Rate

For water and wastewater filtration systems

Filter Flow Rate = Filter Flow (gpm)

2
Filter Area (ft )

Filter Backwash Rate = Backwash Flow (gpm)

2
Filter Area (ft )

6 Surface Overflow Rate (or Loading Rate)

For sedimentation basins

Surface Overflow Rate = Flow (gpd)

2
Tank Area (ft )
 Appendix D – Common Formulas 307

6 Weir Overflow Rate

For sedimentation basins

Weir Overflow Rate = Tank Flow (gpd)

Weir Length (ft)

6 Percent Removal (Process Removal Efficiency)

% Removal = (In î Out) x 100

In
Contaminant In

Contaminant Out

Treatment Unit

6 Pounds Formulas

Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.

Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34 x S.G.

Chem. Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

Percent Purity (in decimal form)
308 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

6 Solution Formula

V1 x C1 = V2 x C2

where:
V1 = volume of concentrated solution
C1 = concentration of concentrated solution
V2 = volume of diluted solution
C2 = concentration of diluted solution

6 Temperature Conversion Formulas

°C = (°F î 32)
1.8

°F = (°C x 1.8) + 32

where:
°C = temperature in Centigrade
°F = temperature in Fahrenheit

6 Horsepower Formulas

Hp (Brake) = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960 x Pump Eff.

Hp (Motor) = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960 x Pump Eff. x Motor Eff.

Hp (Water) = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960
Pump and motor efficiencies are in decimal format.
 Appendix D – Common Formulas 309

6 Efficiency Formulas

Motor Eff. (%) = Brake Horsepower x 100

Motor Horsepower

Pump Eff. (%) = Water Horsepower x 100

Brake Horsepower

Wire-to-Water Eff. (%) = Water Horsepower x 100

Motor Horsepower

The location of motor, brake and water horsepower are shown in the following
diagram.

Storage Tank
PUMP

MOTOR
Water HP

Treatment Brake HP
Plant
Motor HP
 APPENDIX E
Conversion Tables

One Equals or Contains

acre 0.405 hectare
acre 4,047 square meters
acre 43,560 square feet
acre - foot 1,233 cubic meters
acre - foot 325,853 gallons
acre - foot 43,560 cubic feet
centimeter 0.0328 feet
centimeter 0.3937 inch
cubic centimeter 0.0610 cubic inch
cubic decimeter 61.024 cubic inches
cubic foot 1,728 cubic inches
cubic foot 28,317 cubic centimeters
cubic foot of water 28.317 liters @ 4 °C
cubic foot of water 62.43 pounds @ 4 °C
cubic foot of water 7.48 gallons
cubic foot of water 28,317 grams
cubic foot per second 0.02832 cubic meters per second
cubic foot per second 0.6463 million gallons per day
cubic foot per second 448.83 gallons per minute
cubic inch 16.387 cubic centimeters
cubic meter 0.000811 acre-feet
cubic meter 1,000 liters
cubic meter 1.308 cubic yards
cubic meter 264.17 gallons

311
312 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

One Equals or Contains

cubic meter 35.315 cubic feet
cubic meter 61,024 cubic inches
cubic yard 0.7646 cubic meter
cubic yard 27 cubic feet
day 1,440 minutes
decimeter 3.937 inches
foot 0.3048 meter
foot 12 inches
foot 3.048 decimeters
foot of water @ 4 °C 0.433 pounds per square inch
foot of water @ 4 °C 304.80 kilograms per square meter
foot per second 0.3048 meters per second
foot per second 0.6818 miles per hour
foot per second 1.0973 kilometers per hour
gallon 0.1337 cubic foot
gallon 128 fluid ounces
gallon 231 cubic inches
gallon 3,785 cubic centimeters
gallon 3.785 liters
gallon 3,785 milliliters
gallons per minute 1,440 gallons per day
gallons per minute 227.12 liters per hour
gallons per minute 0.00144 million gallons per day
gallons per minute 0.00223 cubic feet per second
grain 64.799 milligrams
grain 0.06480 grams
grains per gallon 17.12 milligrams per liter
 Appendix E – Conversion Tables 313

One Equals or Contains

gram 0.03527 ounce
gram 15.432 grains
grams per liter 1,000 milligrams per liter
hectare 2.471 acre
horsepower 0.746 kilowatt
horsepower 550 foot-pounds per second
horsepower 746 watts
horsepower-hours 0.746 kilowatt-hours
inch 2.54 centimeters
kilogram 2.205 pounds
kilometer 3,281 feet
kilometer 0.6214 mile
kilometers per hour 0.2778 meters per second
kilowatt 1,000 watts
kilowatt 1.340 horsepower
liter 0.03531 cubic feet
liter 0.2642 gallons
liter 61.024 cubic inches
meter 1.0936 yards
meter 3.2808 feet
meter 39.370 inches
meters per second 2.237 miles per hour
mile 1,609 meters
mile 1,760 yards
mile 5,280 feet
miles per hour 0.4470 meters per second
miles per hour 1.4667 feet per second
314 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

One Equals or Contains

milligram 0.01543 grain
milligram per liter 1 part per million
millimeter 0.03937 inch
million gallons per day 1.547 cubic feet per second
million gallons per day 694.4 gallons per minute
ounce (liquid) 1.805 cubic inches
ounce (liquid) 29.573 milliliters
ounce 28.350 grams
part per million 1 milligram per liter
percent 10,000 milligram per liter
pound 0.4536 kilogram
pound 453.6 grams
pounds per square foot 4.882 kilograms per square meter
pounds per square inch 2.307 feet of water @ 4 °C
pounds per square inch 70.307 grams per square centimeter
square centimeter 0.1550 square inch
square decimeter 15.500 square inches
square foot 144 square inches
square foot 929.03 square centimeters
square inch 6.4516 square centimeters
square kilometer 100 hectares
square kilometer 247.11 acres
square meter 1.196 square yards
square meter 10.764 square feet
square mile 27,878,400 square feet
square mile 258.0 hectares
square mile 640 acres
 Appendix E – Conversion Tables 315

One Equals or Contains

square yard 0.8361 square meter
square yard 9 square feet
ton (short or US) 0.8929 long ton
ton (short or US) 0.9072 metric ton
ton (short or US) 2,000 pounds
ton (short or US) 907.2 kilograms
watts 0.001340 horsepower
yard 0.9144 meter
yard 3 feet
 APPENDIX F

Abbreviations

Abbreviation Term
ac acre
ac-ft acre foot
BFP Belt Filter Press
bhp or bHp brake horsepower
BOD biochemical oxygen demand
CBOD carbonaceous oxygen demand
cc cubic centimeter
3
cf or ft cubic foot
cfs cubic feet per second
cm centimeter
COD chemical oxygen demand
DAF Dissolved Air Flotation
dm decimeter
DT detention time
fps or ft/sec or ft/s feet/second
ft feet
F:M food to mass ratio
g gram
gal gallon
GBT Gravity Belt Thickener
gpcd gallons per capita per day
gpd gallons per day
gpg grains per gallon

317
318 Math Handbook for Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators

Abbreviation Term
hp or Hp horsepower
hr hour
in inches
kg kilogram
km kilometer
km/hour kilometers per hour
kW kilowatt
kWh kilowatt-hours
L liter
lbs pounds
m meter
m3 cubic meters
mg milligram
mg/L milligrams per liter
mgd million gallons per day
mhp or mHp motor horsepower
mi mile
min minute
mL milliliter
MLSS mixed liquor suspended solids
MLVSS mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
mph miles per hour
oz ounce
pi or ư 3.14159
ppb parts per billion
ppm parts per million
 Appendix F – Abbreviations 319

Abbreviation Term
psi pounds per square inch
Q flow
RDT Rotary Drum Thickener
RBC Rotating Biological Contactor
sec or s second
2
sf or ft square foot
SBOD soluble biochemical oxygen demand
SBR Sequencing Batch Reactor
SS suspended solids
TSS total suspended solids
VS volatile solids
VSS volatile suspended solids
whp or wHp water horsepower
yd yard
Ƭg microgram