Design Concepts of Substructures ( May/June 2010 )

1.a. Describe the general procedure used for making boring and obtaining soil
samples for classification and testing of soils.

Ans: In areas which have been previously explored, advantage should be taken of
existing local knowledge, records of trial pits, bore holes, etc, in the vicinity, and the
behavior of existing structures, particularly those of a nature similar to that of the
proposed structure

If the existing information is not sufficient or is inconclusive the site should be

explored in detail so as to obtain a knowledge of the type, uniformity, consistence,
thickness, sequence and dip of the strata and of the ground water conditions.

Reconnaissance Survey

1. The general topography of the site, possible existence of drainage ditches,

abandoned dumps of debris, or other materials. Also, evidence of creep of slopes and deep,
wide shrinkage cracks at regularly spaced intervals may be indicative of expansive soils.

2. Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for construction of nearby
highways and railroads.

3. Type of vegetation at the site, which may indicate the nature of the soil. For
example, a mesquite cover in central Texas may indicate the existence of expansive
clays that can cause possible foundation problems.

4. High-water marks no nearby buildings and bridge abutments.

5. Ground water levels, which can be determined by checking nearby wells.

6. Types of construction nearby and existence of any cracks in walls or other

problems.

Site Investigation

The site investigation phase of the exploration program consists of planning making test
boreholes, and collecting soil samples at desired intervals for subsequent observation and
laboratory tests. The approximate required minimum depth of the borings should be
predetermined. The depth can be changed during the drilling operation, depending on the
subsoil encountered

1. Determining the net increase of stress, ∆σ, under a foundation with a depth as
shown in figure 2.9.

2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, σ′vwith depth.

3. Determine the depth, D=D1, at which the stress increase ∆σ is equal to 0.1q
(q=estimated net stress on the foundation).

4. Determine the depth, D=D2, at which ∆σ/σ′v =0.05.

5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two depths, D1and D2 is the
approximate minimum depth of boring required.
When deep excavations are anticipated, the length of boring should be at least 1.5 times the
depth of excavation. Sometimes subsoil conditions require that the foundation load be
transmitted to bedrock. The minimum depth of core boring into the bedrock is about 3 m (10
ft). if the bedrock is irregular or weathered, the core borings may have to be deeper.

Approximate Spacing of Boreholes

Type of project (m) (ft)
Multi storey Building 10-30 30-100
1 Storey Industrial Plant 20-60 60-200
Highways 250-500 800-1000
Residential subdivision 250-500 800-1600
Dams 40-80 130-260
The exploration cost generally should be 0.1-0.5% of the cost of the structure. Soil borings
can be made by several methods, including auger boring, wash boring, percussion drilling,
and rotary drilling.

Number and Disposition of Trial Pits and Borings - The disposition and spacing of
the trial pits and borings should be such. as to reveal any major changes in
thickness, depth or properties of the strata over the base area of the structure and
its immediate surroundings. The number and spacing of bore holes or trial pits will
depend upon the extent of the site and the nature of structures coming on it. For a
compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectare, one bore hole or trial
pit in each corner and one in the centre should be adequate. For smaller and less
important buildings even one bore hole or trial pit in the centre will suffice.

For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the geolo- gical
nature of the terrain will help in deciding the number of bore holes or trial pits. Cone
penetration tests may be performed at every 50 m by dividing the area in a grid
pattern and number of bore holes or trial pits decided by examining the variation in
the penetration curves. The cone penetration tests may not be possible at sites
having gravelly or boulderous strata. In such cases geophysical methods may be
useful.

Exploratory borings in the field

Types of Borings:

a. Solid Stem Continuous Flight Augers: Solid stem continuous flight auger drilling is
generally limited to stiff cohesive soils where the boring walls are stable for the whole
depth of boring. This type of drilling is not suitable for investigations requiring soil
sampling.
b. Hollow Stem Continuous Flight Augers: Hollow stem augering methods are
commonly used in clay soils or in granular soils above the groundwater level, where
the boring walls may be unstable. These augering methods allow for sampling
undisturbed soil below the bit.
c. Rotary Wash Borings: The rotary wash boring method is generally suitable for use
below groundwater level. When boring, the sides of the borehole are supported with
either casing or the use of drilling fluid.
 d. Bucket Auger Borings: Bucket auger drills are used where it is desirable to remove
and/or obtain large volumes of disturbed soil samples. This method is appropriate for
most types of soils and for soft to firm bedrock. Drilling below the water table can be
conducted where materials are firm and not inclined to large-scale sloughing or water
infiltration.
e. Hand Auger Borings: Hand augers are often used to obtain shallow subsurface
information from the site with difficult access or terrain that a vehicle cannot easily
reach.
f. Exploration Pit Excavation: Exploration pits and trenches permit detailed
examination of the soil and rock conditions at shallow depths at relatively low cost.
They can be used where significant variations in soil conditions, large soil, and/or
non-soil materials exist (boulders, cobbles, debris, etc.) that cannot be sampled with
conventional methods, or for buried features that must be identified.

Auger boring is the simplest method of making exploratory boreholes. Figure shows two
types of hand auger-the past hole auger and the helical auger. Hand augers cannot be used
for advancing holes to depths exceeding 3-5 m (10-16 ft). However, they can be
used for soil exploration work for some highways and small structures. Portable powerdriven
helical augers (76-2 mm to 304.8 mm in diameter) are available for making deeper
boreholes. The soil samples obtained from such borings are highly disturbed. In
some noncohesive soils or soils having low cohesion, the walls of the boreholes will not
stand unsupported. In such circumstances, a metal pile is used as a casing to prevent the
soil from caving in.

Hand tools: (a) post hole auger; (b) helical auger

When power is available, continuous-flight augers are probably the most common
method used for advancing a borehole. The power for drilling is delivered by truck or
tractor-mounted drilling rigs. Boreholes up to about 60-70 m (200-230 ft) can be easily made
by this method. Continuous flight augers are available in sections of about 1-2 m (3-6 ft) with
either a solid or hollow stem. Some of the commonly used solid stem augers have outside
diameters of 66.68 mm , 82.55 mm, 101.6 mm and 114.3 mm

Wash boring is another method of advancing boreholes. In this method, a casing about 2-3
m (6-10 ft) long is driven into the ground. The soil inside the casing is then removed by
means of a chopping bit attached to a drilling rod. Water is forced through the drilling rod and
exits at a very high velocity through the holes at the bottom of the chopping bit (see
fig). The water and the chopped soil particles rise in the drill hole and overflow at the top of
the casing through a T connection. The washwater is collected in a container. The casing
can be extended with additional pieces as the borehole progresses; however, that is not
required if the borehole will stay open and not cave in.

Figure : Wash boring

Rotary drilling is a procedure by which rapidly rotating drilling bits attached to the
bottom of drilling rods cut and grind and soil and advance the boreholes. There are
several types of drilling bit. Rotary drilling can be used in sand, clay, and rocks (unless badly
fissured). Water, or drilling mud, is forced down the drilling rods to the bits, and the return
flow forces the cuttings to the surface. Boreholes with diameters of 50.8-203.2 mm (2-8 in.)
can be easily made by this technique. The drilling mud is slurry of water and bentonite.
Generally it is used when the soil encountered is likely to cave in. When soil samples are
needed, the drilling rod is raised and the drilling bit is replaced by a sampler.

Percussion drilling is an alternative method of advancing a borehole, particularly through

hard soil and rock. A heavy drilling bit is raised and lowered to chop the hard soil. The
chopped soil particles are brought up by circulation of water. Percussion drilling may
require casing.
1.b. What are the criteria to be adopted for selecting the type of foundation and
what are the basic requirements of a foundation?

Ans: Selection criteria for foundation for buildings depend on two factors, i.e. factors
related to ground (soil) conditions and factors related to loads from the structure. The
performance of foundation is based on interface between the loadings from the structure and
the supporting ground or strata. The nature and conditions of each of these varies, so, the
selection of appropriate foundation becomes necessary for these variations depending on
circumstances.

Selection of Foundation based on Ground Conditions:

The ground or soil condition is necessary for determining the type of suitable foundation. The
soil on which the industrial, commercial or residential building rests may be stable, level and
of uniform composition, but in some situations it may be otherwise.

Following are criteria for selecting suitable foundation based on soil condition:

 Where soil close to the surface is capable of supporting structure loads, shallow
foundations can be provided.
 Where the ground close to surface is not capable of supporting structural loads, hard
strata is searched for, and in some cases, it may be very deep, like in case of multi-
storey buildings, where loads are very high. So, deep foundations are suitable for such
cases.
 Field up ground have low bearing capacity, so deep foundation is required at that
place, whereas uniform stable ground needs relatively shallow foundation.
 Level of the ground also affects foundation selection. If the ground is not levelled,
and has gradient then step foundation may be preferred.

Selection of foundation based on Loads from Building:

The loading condition i.e. type and magnitude of loads, depends on the form and type of
building to be constructed. In case of low rise building with large span, the extent of loading
is relatively modest, so shallow foundation is preferred in this case. While high-rise building
with short span has high loads. Therefore, deep foundation is required in such cases. Deep
foundation is provided because ground at greater depth are highly compacted.

In case of framed structure multi-storey building, where loads are concentrated at the point
of application, the use of pads and piles are common. Where, loads of the buildings are
uniformly distributed, like from masonry claddings, the piles are not needed.
2.a. Explain Standard Penetration test for determining the bearing capacity of
Footing?

Ans: The ultimate bearing capacity of cohesion less soil is determined from the standard
penetration number N. The standard penetration test is conducted at a number of
selected points in the vertical direction below the foundation level at intervals of 75
cm or at point where there is a change of strata. An average value of N is obtained
between the level of the base of footing and the depth equal to 1.5 to 2 times the
width of the foundation. The value is obtained from the N value and the bearing
capacity factors are found.

1. Reference can be made to IS 2131 – 1981 for details on Standard Penetration Test.
2. It is a field test to estimate the penetration resistance of soil.
3. It consists of a split spoon sampler 50.8 mm OD, 35 mm ID, min 600 mm long and 63.5 kg
hammer freely dropped from a height of 750 mm.
4. Test is performed on a clean hole 50 mm to 150 mm in diameter.
5. Split spoon sampler is placed vertically in the hole, allowed to freely settle under its own
weight or with blows for first 150 mm which is called seating drive.
6. The number of blows required for the next 300 mm penetration into the ground is the
standard penetration number N
7. Apply the desired corrections (such as corrections for overburden pressure, saturated fine
silt and energy)
8. N is correlated with most properties of soil such as friction angle, undrained cohesion,
density etc.

Advantages of Standard Penetration Test are

1. Relatively quick & simple to perform
2. Equipment & expertise for test is widely available
3. Provides representative soil sample
4. Provides useful index for relative strength & compressibility of soil
5. Able to penetrate dense & stiff layers
6. Results reflect soil density, fabric, stress strain behavior
7. Numerous case histories available

Disadvantages of Standard Penetration Test are

1. Requires the preparation of bore hole.
2. Dynamic effort is related to mostly static performance
3. SPT is abused, standards regarding energy are not uniform
4. If hard stone is encountered, difficult to obtain reliable result.
5. Test procedure is tedious and requires heavy equipment.
6. Not possible to obtain properties continuously with depth.

2.b. Explain Immediate Settlement and Consolidation Settlement of Footing.

Ans: The components of settlement of a foundation are:

1. Immediate settlement
2. Consolidation Settlement, and
3. Secondary compression (creep)

ΔH = ΔHi + U ΔHc + ΔHs

ΔH = total settlement, ΔHc = consolidation settlement, ΔH = secondary compression, U =

average degree of consolidation. Generally, the final settlement of a foundation is of interest
and U is considered equal to 1 (i.e. 100% consolidation)

1. Immediate Settlement

 Immediate settlement takes place as the load is applied or within a time period of
about 7 days.
 Predominates in cohesion less soils and unsaturated clay
  Immediate settlement analysis are used for all fine-grained soils including silts and
clays with a degree of saturation < 90% and for all coarse grained soils with large co-
efficient of permeability (say above 10.2 m/s)

2. Consolidation Settlement (ΔHc)

 Consolidation settlements are time dependent and take months to years to develop.
The leaning tower of Pisa in Italy has been undergoing consolidation settlement for
over 700 years. The lean is caused by consolidation settlement being greater on one
side. This, however, is an extreme case. The principal settlements for most projects
occur in 3 to 10 years.
 Dominates in saturated/nearly saturated fine grained soils where consolidation theory
applies.
Here we are interested to estimate both consolidation settlement and how long a time
it will take or most of the settlement to occur.

3. Secondary Settlement/Creep (ΔHc)

 Occurs under constant effective stress due to continuous rearrangement of clay

particles into a more stable configuration.
 Predominates in highly plastic clays and organic clays.

Immediate settlement computation

Where q0 = intensity of contact pressure in units of Es (Undrained Modulus of Elasticity)

B’ = least lateral dimension of contributing base area in units of ΔHi
Es, μ = Elastic Soil Parameters.
m = number of corners contributing to settlement ΔHi. At the footing center m= 4; and at a
corner m = 1, at a side m = 2.
IF = Embedment reduction factor, which suggests that the settlement is reduced when it is
placed at some depth in the ground. For surface footing IF = I

Is = Influence Factor

The above equation for Is is strictly applicable to flexible bases on the half space. In practice,
most foundations are flexible because even every thick footing deflects when loaded by
superstructure load. If the base is rigid, reduce Is factor by about 7%. The half space may
consist of either cohesion less material or any water content, or unsaturated cohesive soils.
Consolidation Settlement Calculations

After primary consolidation the soil structure continues to adjust to the load for some
additional time. This settlement is termed secondary consolidation/secondary compression.
At the end of secondary consolidation the soil has reached a new Ko-state (at-rest state).

Secondary consolidation may be the larger component if settlement in some soils,

particularly in soils with a large organic component. Secondary consolidation is associated
with both immediate & consolidation type settlements, although it is usually not of much
significance with immediate settlements. The magnitude of secondary compression for a
given time is generally greater for NCC than for OCC.

The rate of secondary compression Jin the consolidation (oedometer) test can be defined by
the slope Cα of the final part of the compression/log time curve. Where Hsl=thickness of the
laboratory sample at time t1, ΔHsl = Change in sample thickness of soil sample between t1
and t2.

To find secondary consolidation settlement in the field (ΔHs),

H = Thickness of the field consolidating stratum at the end of primary consolidation.

Commonly initial thickness is used unless the primary consolidation is very large. Say more
than 10% of initial thickness.

t100 (f) = time taken for primary consolidation to complete in the field

Δt = time interval beyond t100(f)

t2 = t100 (f) + Δt = time for which secondary settlement is to be calculated.

To find t100 (f) following relationship is used

Where t100 (lab) and t100 (f) = time taken for primary consolidation to complete in the laboratory
df, dlab = are respectively maximum drainage paths in the field and laboratory. For one-way
drainage d= thickness of the layer of interest or sample thickness in the laboratory, for two-
way drainage d = half of the thickness of the layer of interest/sample.
3.a. How to determine the allowable bearing pressure for raft foundation in granular
and cohesive soils?

Ans Bearing Capacity of Mat Foundations

The gross ultimate bearing capacity of a mat foundation can be determined by the same
equation used for shallow foundations, or

qu = cNcFcsFcdFei + qNqFqsFqdFqi + 0.5γBNγFγsFγdFγi

Where

c = cohesion

𝑞 = effective stress at the level of the bottom of the foundation

𝛾 = unit weight of soil

𝐵 = width of foundation (−diameter for a circular foundation)

Fcs, Fqs, Fγs = shape factors

Fcd, Fqd, Fγd =depth factors

Fci, Fqi, Fγi = load inclination factors,

Nc, Nq, Nγ = bearing capacity factors

The term B in equation is the smallest dimension of the mat. The net ultimate capacity is

𝑞net(u) = 𝑞𝑢 − 𝑞

A suitable factor of safety should be used to calculate the net allowable bearing capacity. For
rafts on clay, the factor of safety should not be less that 3 under dead load and
maximum live load. However, under the most extreme conditions, the factor of safety
should be at least 1.75 to 2. For rafts constructed over sand, a factor of safety of 3 should
normally be used. Under most working conditions, the factor of safety against
bearing capacity failure of rafts on sand is very large.

For saturated clays with 𝜙=0 and vertical loading condition, equation gives

𝑞𝑢=𝑐𝑢N𝑐FcsF𝑐d + q

Where
𝑐𝑢 = undrained cohesion
(Note: Nc =5.14, N𝑞=1,and N𝛾 =0)
Figure shows a plot of 𝑞all(net)/𝑐𝑢 for various values of 𝐿/𝐵 and 𝐷𝑓/𝐵,

The net allowable bearing capacity for mats constructed over granular soil deposits can be
adequately determined from the standard penetration resistance numbers.
3.b. Define coefficient of subgrade reaction. What are the factors affecting the value
of subgrade reaction?

Ans: In the conventional rigid method of design of raft foundation, the mat is assumed
to be infinitely rigid. Also, the soil pressure is distributed in a straight line, and the
centroid of the soil pressure is coincidental with the line of action of the resultant
column loads (see figure).

In the approximate flexible method of design, the soil is assumed to be

equivalent to infinite number of elastic springs, as shown in figure b. It is
sometimes referred to as the Winkler foundation. The overall equivalent elastic
constant of these assumed springs is referred to as the coefficient of subgrade
reaction k.
 The co-efficient of subgrade reaction k depends on several factors, such as the
length, 𝐿, and width, 𝐵, of the foundation and also the depth of embedment of the
foundation. Terzaghi (1955) made a comprehensive study of the parameters
affecting the coefficient of subgrade reaction. It indicated that the value of the
coefficient of subgrade reaction decreases with the width of the foundation. In the
field, load tests can be carried out by means of square plate measuring 1 ft×1 ft
(0.3 m×0.3 m) and values of k can be calculated.

The modulus of elasticity of granular soils increases with depth. Because the
settlement of a foundation depends on the modulus of elasticity, the value of k
increases as the depth of the foundation increases

4.a. What are the assumptions made in the design of Strap Footings? Give the
principles of design

Ans: Strap or cantilever footings are designed on the basis of the following assumptions:

 The strap is infinitely stiff. It serves to transfer the column loads to the soil with
equal and uniform soil pressure under both the footings.
 The strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. To avoid
bearing on the bottom of the strap a few centimeters of the underlying soil may
be loosened prior to the placement of concrete.

A strap footing is used to connect an eccentrically loaded column footing close to the
property line to an interior column as shown in Fig. With the above assumptions, the
design of a strap footing is a simple procedure. It starts with a trial value of e, (refer
Fig). Then the reactions Rl and R2 are computed by the principle of statics. The
tentative footing areas are equal to the reactions Rl and R2 divided by the safe
bearing pressure qs. With tentative footing sizes, the value of e is computed. These
steps are repeated until the trial value of e is identical with the final one. The shears
and moments in the strap are determined, and the straps designed to withstand the
shear and moments. The footings are assumed to be subjected to uniform soil
pressure and designed as simple spread footings. Under the assumptions given
above the resultants of the column loads Ql and Q2 would coincide with the center of
gravity of the two footing areas. Theoretically, the bearing pressure would be uniform
under both the footings. However, it is possible that sometimes the full design live
load acts upon one of the columns while the other may be subjected to a small
amount of live load. In such a case, the full reduction of column load from Rl to R2
may not be realized. It seems justified then that in designing the footing under
column Q2, only the dead load or dead load plus reduced live load should be used on
column Q1. The equations for determining the position of the reactions (Fig)

where
R1 and R2 = reactions for the column loads Ql and Q2 respectively
e = distance of Rl from Ql
𝐿R = distance between Rl and R2.
4.b. Discuss stepwise procedure of designing combined footing using
conventional (rigid) method.

Ans: The conventional rigid method of mat foundation design can be explained step by
step with reference to figure 5.8. Figure 5.8a shows mat dimensions of L x B and
column loads Q1,Q2,…

 Calculate the total column load (Q) as Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + …

 Determine the pressure on the soil, q, below the mat at points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷,…, by
using the equation
Where

𝐴 = 𝐵𝐿
𝐼𝑥 =(1/12)𝐵𝐿3 = moment of inertia about the 𝑥𝑥 axis
𝐼𝑦=(1/12)𝐿𝐵3 = moment of inertia about the 𝑦𝑦 axis
𝑀𝑥 = moment of the column loads about the 𝑥 axis = 𝑄𝑒𝑦
𝑀𝑦 = moment of the column loads about the 𝑦 axis= 𝑄𝑒𝑥

The load eccentricities, 𝑒𝑥and 𝑒𝑦, in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions can be determined by
using (𝑥′,′) coordinates:

 Compare the values of the soil pressures determined in step 2 with the
net allowable soil pressure to determine whether 𝑞 ≥ 𝑞all(net).
 Divide the mat into several strips in x and y directions (see figure 5.8). Let the
width of any strip be 𝐵1.
 Draw the shear, V, and the moment, M, diagrams for each individual strip (in the
x and y directions). For example, the average soil pressure of the bottom strip in
the x direction of figure 5.8a is

Where

q𝐼 and 𝑞𝐹 = soil pressures at points 𝐼 and 𝐹 as determined from step 2.

  The total soil reaction is equal to 𝑞𝑎v𝐵1𝐵. Now obtain the total column load on the
strip as 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + 𝑄4
 The sum of the column loads on the strip will not equal 𝑞𝑎v𝐵1𝐵 because the shear
between the adjacent strips has not been taken into account. For this reason, the
soil reaction and the column loads need to be adjusted, or

Now, the modified soil reaction becomes

And the column modification factor is

So, the modified column loads are 𝐹𝑄1,2,𝐹𝑄3,and 𝐹𝑄4. This modified loading on the
strip under consideration is shown in figure 5.8b. The shear and the moment diagram for this
strip can now be drawn. This procedure is repeated for all strips in the x and y directions.

 Determine the effective depth of the mat d by checking for diagonal tension shear
near various columns.

For the critical section,

𝑈 = 𝑏𝑜𝑑 [(0.34)√(𝑓′𝑐)

 From the moment diagrams of all strips in one direction (x or y), obtain the
maximum positive and negative moments per unit width (that is, 𝑀′ =𝑀/𝐵1).
 Determine the areas of steep per unit width for positive and negative
reinforcement in the x and y directions.
5.a. What are the situations suitable for providing pile foundations? How are piles
classified

Ans: A pile transmits the load deeper into the subsoil where denser material can be found
to prevent collapse and uplift. They are thin columns of varying material properties, spaced
out at regular intervals and at the intersections of walls,that go down deep into the ground
where the bearing capacity is greater.

Pile foundations are only generally used when:-

1. There is a high water table

2. Removal costs for the excavated material are expensive
3. Soils such as clay are likely to swell or shrink excessively due to water content
4. Trenches are not very stable and health and safety is an issue

Pile foundations undergo the same principles as any other foundation. Firstly a site strip is
excavated, removing the first 150mm of soil and debris. This strip is then deepened to get a
working level and to rid the ground of any contaminants. The ground is then marked out to
show where the piles will go.

The piles are then placed in the ground in one of two ways as follows:-

1. Driven
2. Augured

Driving a pile into the ground uses a large machine that acts as a hammer, forcing the piles
into the ground to their required depth. These can be either pre-cast reinforced concrete or
steel.
Normally piles come in standard 3m lengths. If the required depth is larger than this, piles
are fixed on top of each other on site and continue to be driven into the ground.

Piles can also be augured into the ground, this consists of a large machine drilling to the
required depth. The drill itself is designed to remove the material as it pushes further into the
earth. Once the hole is drilled concrete is then poured and the tube is maneuvered out of the
hole as it fills with concrete. A steel tubular framework is then placed into the concrete to act
as the reinforcement.

Piles can by classified on the basis of following characteristics:

1. Mechanism of Load Transfer

2. Method of Installation
3. Type of Materials

Classification of Piles on the basis of load transfer

Types of piles based on the mechanism of Load Transfer:

End/Point Bearing Piles:

If a bedrock or rocklike material is present at a site within a reasonable depth, piles can be
extended to the rock surface. In this case, the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile depends
entirely on the underlying material; thus the piles are called end or point bearing piles. In
most of these cases the necessary length of the pile can be fairly well established.
Instead of bedrock, if a fairly compact and
hard stratum of soil is encountered at a
reasonable depth, piles can be extended a
few meters into the hard stratum.

Friction Piles:

In these types of piles, the load on pile is

resisted mainly by skin/friction resistance
along the side of the pile (pile shaft). Pure
friction piles tend to be quite long, since the
load-carrying. Capacity is a function of the
shaft area in contact with the soil. In cohesion
less soils, such as sands of medium to low
density, friction piles are often used to
increase the density and thus the shear
strength. When no layer of rock or rocklike material is present at a reasonable depth at a
site, point/end bearing piles become very long and uneconomical. For this type of subsoil
condition, piles ate driven through the softer material to specified depth.

Friction cum end bearing piles

In the majority of cases, however, the load-carrying capacity is dependent on both end-
bearing and shaft friction.

Classification of Piles according to the Method of Installation of piles

Driven or displacement piles

They are usually pre-formed

before being driven, jacked,
screwed or hammered into
ground. This category consists of
driven piles of steel or precast
concrete and piles formed by
driving tubes or shells which are
fitted with a driving shoe. The
tubes or shells which are filled
with concrete after driving. Also
included in this category are piles
formed by placing concrete as
the driven piles are withdrawn.

Bored or Replacement piles

They require a hole to be first

bored into which the pile is then
formed usually of reinforced
concrete. The shaft (bore) may
be eased or uncased depending
upon type of soil.

Types of Piles based on Materials

Timber piles

 Timber piles are made of-tree trunks driven with small end as a point
 Maximum length: 35 m; optimum length: 9 - 20m
 Max load for usual conditions: 450 kN; optimum load range = 80 - 240 kN

Disadvantages of using timber piles:

Difficult to splice, vulnerable to damage in hard driving, vulnerable to decay unless treated
with preservatives (If timber is below permanent Water table it will apparently last forever), if
subjected to alternate wetting & drying, the useful life will be short, partly embedded piles or
piles above Water table are susceptible to damage from wood borers and other insects
unless treated.

Advantages:

Comparatively low initial cost, permanently submerged piles are resistant to decay, easy to
handle, best suited for friction piles in granular material.

Steel piles

 Maximum length practically unlimited, optimum length: 12-50m

 Load for usual conditions = maximum allowable stress x cross-sectional area
 The members are usually rolled HP shapes/pipe piles. Wide flange beams & I beams
proportioned to withstand the hard driving stress to which the pile may be subjected.
In HP pile the flange thickness = web thickness, piles are either welded or seamless
steel pipes, which may be driven either open ended or closed end. Closed end piles
are usually filled with concrete after driving.
 Open end piles may be filled but this is not often necessary., dm

Advantages of steel piles:

Easy to splice, high capacity, small displacement, able to penetrate through light
obstructions, best suited for end bearing on rock, reduce allowable capacity for corrosive
locations or provide corrosion protection.

Disadvantages:

 Vulnerable to corrosion.
 HP section may be damaged/deflected by major obstruction

Concrete Piles

 Concrete piles may be precast, prestressed, cast in place, or of composite

construction
 Precast concrete piles may be made using ordinary reinforcement or they may be
prestressed.
 Precast piles using ordinary reinforcement are designed to resist bending stresses
during picking up & transport to the site & bending moments from lateral loads and to
provide sufficient resistance to vertical loads and any tension forces developed
during driving.
 Prestressed piles are formed by tensioning high strength steel prestress cables, and
casting the concrete about the cable. When the concrete hardens, the prestress
cables are cut, with the tension force in the cables now producing compressive
stress in the concrete pile. It is common to higher-strength concrete (35 to 55 MPa)
in prestressed piles because of the large initial compressive stresses from
prestressing. Prestressing the piles, tend to counteract any tension stresses during
either handling or driving.
 Max length: 10 - 15 m for precast, 20 - 30 m for prestressed
 Optimum length 10 - 12 m for precast. 18 - 25m prestressed
 Loads for usual conditions 900 for precast. 8500 kN for prestressed
 Optimum load range: 350 - 3500 kN

Advantages:
 1. High load capacities, corrosion resistance can be attained, hard driving possible
2. Cylinder piles in particular are suited for bending resistance.
3. Cast in place concrete piles are formed by drilling a hole in the ground & filling it with
concrete. The hole may be drilled or formed by driving a shell or casing into the
ground.

Disadvantages:

1. Concrete piles are considered permanent, however certain soils (usually organic)
contain materials that may form acids that can damage the concrete.
2. Salt water may also adversely react with the concrete unless special precautions are
taken when the mix proportions are designed. Additionally, concrete piles used for
marine structures may undergo abrasion from wave action and floating debris in the
water.
3. Difficult to handle unless prestressed, high initial cost, considerable displacement,
prestressed piles are difficult to splice.
4. Alternate freezing thawing can cause concrete damage in any exposed situation.

Composite piles

In general, a composite pile is made up of two or more sections of different materials or

different pile types. The upper portion could be eased cast-in-place concrete combined with
a lower portion of timber, steel H or concrete filled steel pipe pile. These piles have limited
application and arc employed under special conditions.