Weathering is the mechanical and chemical hammer that breaks down and sculpts

rock.These are two kinds of weathering: physical and chemical weathering.

1. Physical Weathering- (mechanical weathering) refers to the breakdown of

rocks without a change in composition. The breakdown would mean that the
rock is fractured, cracked, or fragmented into smaller pieces
Processes that can Caused Physical Weathering

 Thermal and Pressure Change- rocks like igneous and metamorphic which
are formed deep within the Earth (where the temperature and pressure are
always high) are exposed on the Earth's surface (where the temperature and
pressure are much lower) tend to expand. This expansion would, later on,
create cracks on the rock

 Wind and Waves-can all cause physical weathering. Tiny grains of sand
are picked up and carried off by the wind, which is then blasted on the
surface of rocks, smoothening them. On the seashore, the action of
waves chips away and cracks the rocks

 Freeze and Thaw- when water collects in the rock pores and slits, it expands
when it freezes. This freezing creates cracks. When the ice thaws, the water
seeps into new cracks and causes more cracks as it freezes. Soon the rocks
break apart

 Organic Activity-there are animals that dig holes on the ground and exposed
rocks

2. Chemical Weathering- is the decomposition of rocks due to chemical

reactions occurring between the minerals in rocks and the environment.
It transforms rocks and minerals exposed to water and gases in the
atmosphere into new chemical compounds thus, forming different rocks and
minerals
Processes that can Caused Chemical Weathering

 Hydration/ Hydrolysis- water is nature's versatile tool that can bring about

chemical weathering. There are other chemical compounds in water that become
the main agents of chemical weathering. Molecules of some substance in rocks
chemically combine with water molecules
  Oxidation- this occurs when oxygen, considered as an active gas, combines
with another substance like minerals in rocks, yielding compounds
called oxides. Iron, aluminum, copper, and sodium are examples of minerals that
readily react with oxygen which then form mineral oxides

 Carbonation- carbon dioxide may bond with other substances in a process

known as carbonation. Rainwater is naturally acidic because CO 2 gas from the
atmosphere chemically reacts with it and produces carbonic acid, a weak acid,
that reacts slowly with carbonate minerals in rocks

Erosion involves the movement of the weathered rock from their site of weathering

by the agents of erosion such as wind, moving water, ice, and
gravity. Weathering does not always occur before erosion. Erosion always follows
after the weathering.
Transported by the Water

 Rainwater - most important force or agent of erosion

 Gravity - is the driving force and it gives water the energy to erode and carry
away rock materials

 Water - can carry almost any size of rocks

 Rock materials - loosened by heavy rains and strong winds

Transported by the Wind

 Wind - continuously blows away loose particles of rocks and soil from place to
place. This is common in dry areas such as deserts
 Wind transport can result in stunning landscapes as sand is blown away and
creates sand dunes

 The wind can create sandstorms that contain dust particles and deposit them in
wide areas

Mass Movement
Mass wasting (mass movement or slope movement) is defined as a bulk movement
of soil, sand, and rock debris down slopes in response to the force of gravity or the
rapid gradual sinking of the Earth's ground surface in a vertical direction. Mass
wasting is a type of erosion that is capable of making big changes to a mountain.
Sinking mass movement that occurs in a relatively rapid fashion is known
as subsidence; and a gradual movement is called settlement. Subsidence involves
the roof collapse or breakdown of a subsurface cavity forming a cave. There is also
subsidence in the form of sinkholes caused by underground drainage.

Magma

Magma is a mixture of molten rock, minerals, and gases. This mixture is usually
made up of a hot liquid base called the melt, minerals crystallized by the melt, solid
rocks incorporated into the melt from the surrounding confines, and dissolved gases.
Magma originates in the lower part of the Earth's crust and in the upper portion of the
mantle known as the asthenosphere. Magma only forms in special places where
pre-existing solid rocks undergo melting.

Melting due to a decrease in pressure (decompression melting): The decrease in

pressure affecting a hot mantle rock at a constant temperature permits melting
forming magma. Melting as a result of the addition of volatile (flux melting): When
volatile mix with hot, dry rock, the volatile decreases the rock’s melting point and they
help break the chemical bonds in the rock to allow melting. Melting resulting from heat
transfer from rising magma, a rising magma from the mantle brings the heat with it that
can melt the surrounding rocks at the shallower depths.

Gases in Magma

 As magma rises at the surface of the Earth, the pressure is decreased and the

gas forms a separate vapor phase. When magma emerges on the surface of the
Earth, it is called lava. 

 Lava spilling over or erupting from craters is usually bubbly, a sign

that gases are escaping. The escape of gases immensely lowers the
temperature, decreases the volume, and changes the composition of lava as
compared to magma. Gas gives magma its explosive character. When gases
cannot escape readily, the eruption is more explosive.
Viscosity of Magma

 Viscosity is the resistance to flow (an antonym for fluidity). Viscosity depends

primarily on the composition and temperature of the magma.

 Magma with higher silica content has a higher viscosity. Viscosity increases

with increasing silica concentration in the magma.

 Magma with lower temperature has a higher viscosity than those with higher

temperature. Viscosity decreases with the increasing temperature of the
magma.
  Viscosity is a significant property in determining the eruptive behavior of
magmas.

Magma Escape Routes

 Magma leaves the confines of the asthenosphere and crust in two major ways:
an intrusion or extrusion
 Magma can intrude into low-density area of another geologic form such as
sedimentary rock
 Plutonism is a process whereby a pluton which is an intrusion of magma rises
from beneath the surface
 Magma can extrude onto the earth’s surface as lava. Some magma is expelled in
volcanic vents
 Magma can also extrude onto the Earth's atmosphere as part of a violent
volcanic eruption. This magma when it solidifies in the air forms volcanic rock
called "tephra"
 In the atmosphere, tephra is more often referred to as volcanic ash.
This tephra as it falls to earth forms a pyroclastic rock and that
includes pumice

Magma Chamber

 Magma develops within the upper mantle and crust where the temperature and
pressure conditions favor the molten state. Magma collects in an area
called magma chamber. Most magma chambers are beneath the surface of
the Earth.
 If a magma chamber encounters an enormous amount of pressure, however, it
may break the rocks around it. The cracks are called fissures or vents. Many
volcanoes are located over magma chambers.
 As a magma chamber experiences greater pressure, often due to more
magma seeping into the chamber, the volcano erupts.
 There are extremely strong volcanic eruptions, causing the volume of
magma to shrink so much that the entire magma chamber collapses and
forms a caldera.
Different Ways to Generate Magma

Decompression Melting - involves the upward movement of the Earth's mostly solid

mantle. It often occurs at divergent boundaries, where tectonic plates move away from
each other. It can also occur at mantle plumes, columns of hot rocks that rise from the
Earth's high-pressure core at a lower pressure crust.
Transfer of Heat - magma can also be created when hot, liquid rock intrudes into
Earth's crust. As the liquid rock solidifies, it loses this heat and transfers it to the
surrounding crust. Transfer of heat by this mechanism often happens at convergent
boundaries, where tectonic plates collide with each other. 
Flux Melting - occurs when water or carbon dioxide is added to rocks. If the addition of
water or carbon dioxide takes place deep in the Earth where the temperature is already
high, the lowering of the melting temperature could cause the rock to partially melt and
generate magma.

Types of Magma

Rock Deformation

Stress is defined as the force that could create deformation on rocks in their shape and/
volume.
There are different kinds of stress that rocks experience.
1. Lithostatic Stress- rocks beneath the Earth's surface experiences equal pressure
exerted on it from all directions because of the weight of the overlying rock.
2. Differential Stress- rock may experience additional unequal stress due to tectonic
forces.
There are 3 Basic Kinds:

 Tensional Stress- when rock is stretched apart or pulled apart

 Compressional Stress- when rock is pressed, squeezed, or pushed

together

 Shear Stress- results in slippage and translation

A strain is a change in size, shape, or volume of a material rock.
How are rocks deformed?
Elastic Deformation- it changes its shape by a very small amount in response to
stress. This deformation is not permanent and reversible.
Brittle Deformation or Fracture- an irreversible strain wherein the rock breaks
Joints
fractures in rocks that show little or no movement at all. The orientation of the joints
can be described as strike and dip. Joints provide pathways for water and thus promote
the chemical weathering of rocks. If new minerals are precipitated from water flowing in
the joints, it forms a vein
Faults
extremely long and deep break or large crack in a rock
Types of Faults
Dip- slip fault (a normal fault) - occurs when brittle rocks are stretched- tectonic
tensional forces are involved and the movement of blocks of rocks is a mainly vertical
direction
Strike-slip fault- occurs when brittle rocks are sheared and the movement of blocks of
rock is chiefly in the horizontal direction

Ductile deformation- is when differential stress applied is stronger than its yield
strength. This is an irreversible strain which means that the rock cannot go back to its
original condition; instead, it is changed into a new shape
Continental Drift refers to the movement of the Earth’s continental relative to each
other, appearing to “drift” across the bed. The Earth’s crust or lithosphere is divided into
large, rigid pieces called plates. Geologic time is the chronology of the Earth’s
formation, changes, development, and existence.

 The thought that continents might have drifted was first speculated
by Abramham Ortelius in 1596. The concept was fully developed by Alfred
Wegener (1880- 1930), a German meteorologist. He said that continents were
once joined together in one large landmass called “supercontinent” also
known as Pangaea (meaning ‘all land), which was formed by a series of
continental collisions that began in the late Paleozoic and continued until the
early part of the Mesozoic. In the configuration, Pangaea is believed to have
been a C-shaped landmass that spread across the equator.

 Pangaea broke apart beginning in the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic of the
Mesozoic era. The part that lies in the Northern hemisphere is Laurasia. It
includes most of present-day North America, Greenland, Europe, and
Asia. Gondwana (originally Gondwanaland) lies in the southern
hemisphere. It includes most of present-day South America, Africa, India,
Australia, and Antarctica. Laurasia and Gondwanaland were separated by an
ocean called Tethys, which is an east-west trending ocean that no longer exists
today.

 Like many revolutionary theories, Wegener’s hypothesis was rejected for a lack
of convincing support mechanisms that will make the scientific community
believe in the new idea.

Wegener’s Evidence

1. Topographic- Wegener noticed that the continents seemed to fit together, not

the continuously changing shoreline but the edge of their continental shelves.
2. Fossils Correlations - Fossils are traces and remain of organisms that lived in
prehistoric times. Wegener knew that fossils of plants and animals such as the
Mesosaurus. A freshwater reptile which is like a small crocodile found around
only in South America and Africa during the Permian period could be found
around the shores of different continents.
3. Rocks Formation - A rock sample from different places provides additional
evidence. The ship Glomar Challenger (1968), a large research ship with a
drilling rig attached, took a series of rock samples. They examined the fossils
embedded in the samples and conducted a comparative study regarding the age
and type of rocks they have obtained. Rocks and fossils in the continents located
in the southern hemisphere exhibit identical patterns knowns as “Gondwana
sequence”. These rocks were of the same type and same age.
4. Paleoclimatic Evidence - Wegener also considered as evidence that glacial till
deposits in the northern and southern latitudes. Wegener traced and glaciers
back to where they have come from. He said that these scratches show that
 places with mild climates today once had climates cold enough for glaciers to
form. The argument is that the Earth’s climate has not changed, instead, the
positions of the continents have changed.

How the Movement of Plates Leads to the Formation of Folds and Faults

The theory of moving crustal plates is called plates tectonics. This movement of plates
is brought about by the interaction of great forces that have resulted in the formation of
various surface features of the Earth.
Although solid the Earth’s crust may be pushed, pulled, or squeezed out of shape by
great forces acting on it over long periods of time.

1. Folding - When a part of the crust is pushed from the opposite direction,
compressional forces act on it. Push forces at opposite ends of a plate deform
it. The crust crumples or wrinkled resulting in the thickening or folding. As the
crust is crumpled, the rock strata become titled producing upward and
downward bends.

2. Faulting - When the rock masses of the crust are pulled apart, the crust is
acted upon by tensional force-producing cracks or breaks on the crust. Pull
forces at opposite ends of a plate deform it resulting in sinking, thinning, and
faulting. The tensional force may go beyond the elastic limits of the crust that it
yields to the stress by breaking.

Seafloor Spreading
In the 1960’s Harry Hess, an American geophysicist theorized that the seafloor is a
hundred million years younger than the continents. He suggested that not only
were the continents moving but the seafloor was also moving. This idea revolutionized
the geologic thought in the latter part of the 20th century.
Hess’s explanation of seafloor spreading was mantle convection. It has been
understood that the earth’s mantle exhibits a solid-like behavior known as “plasticity”.
As more magma rises, the present seafloor is pushed aside. At plate boundaries, the
cold and denser rock sinks and melts, becoming magma once again. This shows that
there is a “recycling process” taking place. Seismic studies confirmed that oceanic
crust is indeed sinking into the trenches. This mantle convection is the driving force for
the motion of the seafloor and the continents.
Paleomagnetism is proof that supports seafloor spreading. It tells us how far from the
poles rocks were when they formed by looking at the angle of their magnetic field.
If the seafloor did not move apart, no molten rock would rise to the surface, and polarity
reversals would not be recorded. The presence of ‘magnetic records’ parallel to the
oceanic ridges, made up the strongest evidence that supports seafloor spreading.
Topographic Features Associated with the Ocean Basin

 Sonar is an instrument that accurately determines the time between the emission
of a strong acoustic pulse and the detection of its echo. Using the principle of
sound reflection, scientists can determine the depth of the ocean.

 Mid-oceanic ridge is normally found rising above the ocean floor at the center of
the ocean basins. Some volcanic islands are part of the mid-ocean ridge system
like Iceland.

 An abyssal plain is another raised featured found within ocean basins. It is

defined as a small elevated landform that rises from the great depths of the
ocean. The word “abyss” which means very deep would help you remember the
term abyssal hill. An abyssal hill has sharply defined edges but is relatively small,
generally not higher than 500 feet and a few miles wide.

 Ocean trenches are long narrow, steep-side depressions found on the ocean

floor that contain the greatest depths in the ocean (11,000 m in Western Pacific).
How do Rocks Keep Record of Geologic Events
Sedimentary rocks are formed particle by particle and layer by layer. The layers are
piled on the top of the other. Rock layers are called strata and stratigraphy is
the science of rock strata or layers. Layering occurs in sedimentary rocks are they
accumulate through time, so rock layers hold the key in learning about the environment
of long ago—in unlocking the successive events of the Earth’s historical past.
Stratigraphic Laws are basic principles that all geologists use in deciphering the age
and characteristics of rock layers. These laws were developed in the 17th in
19th centuries based upon the work of Steno, James Hutton, and William Smith.
These are four (4) fundamental principles of stratigraphy that form the foundation
of our comprehension of the history of the Earth.

1. The Principle of Original Horizontality: Most sediments when

deposited, form a horizontal or nearly horizontal layer. This means that if there
are non-horizontal layers they could have been titled or folded from their original
horizontal position by events such as episodes of mountain building.
2. The Principle of Lateral Continuity: Rocks layers, as originally laid
down, are bounded by the edge of the basin of deposition. Layers of
sedimentary rocks extend sideways in the same order.
3. The Principle of Superposition: As undisturbed layers accumulate
through time; older layers are buried beneath younger layers. The principle also
states that rock fragments must be older than the rocks containing the
fragments.
4. The Principle of Faunal Succession: William Smith, an English engineer
in the late 1700s. William Smith noticed a succession of rock layers;
furthermore, he saw that the same vertical changes in fossils that are
 embedded in rocks occurred in different places. He recognized that fossils
groups were succeeded by other fossil groups through time.

What are the Methods Used in Determining the Age of Stratified Books

Relative dating is used to arrange geological events and the rocks they leave behind in
a sequence. It is based on the Principle of Superposition which enables scientists to
arrange geological events in order. Rocks succession are sequences of rocks that are
established by the order in which they are deposited.
Faunal dating refers to the use of animal bone to determine the age of sedimentary
layers and the materials embedded within those layers. Scientists can determine an
approximate age for a layer by examining which species or genera of animals are
buried in it.
Absolute dating is the term used to describe any dating technique that tells how old a
rock specimen is in the year. Rocks whose ages have been determined by absolute
dating can be incorporated into a succession of strata determined by relative dating.
 Radiometric dating. A number of radioactive isotopes are used for this purpose and
depending on the rate of decay, are used for dating different geological periods.
Isotopes that decay slowly are useful for longer periods of time but are less accurate in
absolute years.
Some of the most commonly used radiometric datings include:

 Radiocarbon dating. Carbon-14 dating has been successful in determining the

age of fossils.
 Uranium dating uses a very important isotope which is U-238. It is used in dating
very old rocks, especially rocks that do not contain fossils.

Geologic time is the chronology of the Earth’s formation, changes, development,

and existence.
The geological time is scale is a system of chronological measurement that relates
stratigraphy to time. It is used by geologists and paleontologists to describe the timing
and relationships between events that have occurred throughout Earth’s history.  
The history of Earth is broken into a hierarchical set of divisions for describing geologic
time. The geology of the deep time of Earth’s past has been organized into various units
according to the event which took place in each period.
EONS: a very large division of geologic time equal to a billion years, or a very long
period of time.
ERA: is the smaller time interval that divides an EON.
PERIOD: Eras are subdivided into periods.
EPOCH: Finer subdivisions of time are possible and the periods are frequently
subdivided into epochs.