2 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

2.1 Definitions and Relations

The definitions in the text below refer mainly to ICRU Report 85: Fundamentals Quan-
tities and Units for Radiation (ICRU, 2011).

2.1.1 Radiometric Quantities

Radiation can be divided into two main types:

Ionizing radiation, which can ionize matter and produce ions. This is possible if
the particle energy is higher than the ionization potential. As the ionization potential
varies with atomic number, the threshold value for a radiation being ionizing will vary.
However, this is often a minor problem in the determination of the absorbed dose as
this cut-off energy is typically small. In radiobiological applications a threshold value
of 10 eV is often used.
Non-ionizing radiation, which doesn’t have sufficient energy to ionize and can
only give rise to excitations of the atoms and molecules. These energy transfers are
small and will normally have a small biological effect. This type of radiation is not
included in this text.

Ionizing radiation can further be divided into two classes:

Charged particles as electrons and positrons (light charged particles) as well as
protons, α-particles, and other heavy ions (heavy charged particles). Previously this
type of radiation was called “directly ionizing” radiation as the particle deposits its
energy directly to emission of orbital electrons through Coulomb collisions.
Uncharged particles as photons and neutrons. This type of radiation was previ-
ously called “indirectly ionizing” radiation as it deposits the energy by first emitting
charged particles which then ionize.
The use of the concepts of “directly” and “indirectly ionizing radiation” should
be abandoned as they are not formally correct.

Fluence

Fluence Φ is defined as
dN
Φ=Unit : m−2 (2.1.1)
da
where dN is the number of particles incident on a sphere of cross-sectional area da.
The distribution, Φ E , is defined as
dΦ
ΦE = (2.1.2)
dE

© 2015 Bo Nilsson
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License.
 Definitions and Relations | 29

where dΦ is the fluence of particles of energy between E and E+ dE.

Energy fluence Ψ is defined as

dR
Ψ= Unit : J m−2 (2.1.3)
da
where dR is the radiant energy incident on a sphere of cross-sectional area da.
The distribution, Ψ E , is defined as
dΨ
ΨE = (2.1.4)
dE
where dΨ is the energy fluence of particles of energy between E and E+ dE.
The relationship between the two distributions is given by

Ψ E = EΦ E (2.1.5)

The corresponding time dependent quantities are called fluence rate and energy
fluence rate and are defined as
dΦ
Φ̇ = Unit : m−2 s−1 (2.1.6)
dt
and
dΨ
Ψ̇ = Unit : W m−2 (2.1.7)
dt
The particle radiance, Φ̇ Ω is defined as

dΦ̇
Φ̇ Ω = Unit : m−2 s−1 sr−1 (2.1.8)
dΩ
where dΦ̇ is the fluence rate of particles propagating within a solid angle dΩ around
a specified direction.
The energy radiance, Ψ̇ Ω is defined as

dΨ̇
Ψ̇ Ω = Unit : W m−2 sr−1 (2.1.9)
dΩ
where dΨ̇ is the energy fluence rate of particles propagating within a solid angle dΩ
around a specified direction.
The solid angle is defined as dΩ=sinθdθdϕ and illustrated in Fig. 2.1

2.1.2 Definition of Interaction Coefficients

Cross section
The cross section of a target entity, σ, for a particular interaction produced by incident
30 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Figure 2.1: Illustration of the solid angle. Adapted after Attix (1986).

charged or uncharged particles is defined as the quotient of N by Φ, where N is mean

number of such interactions per target for a particle fluence Φ. Note that the cross
section is an area and with larger area the probability to hit a target is larger and the
cross section is also larger. This area is not equal to the “geometrical area” of the target
(atom, nucleus etc), but varies with incident particle and energy for the same target.

N
σ= Unit : m2 (2.1.10)
Φ
An important differential cross section is the differential cross section per solid angle
dσ/ dΩ, i.e. the probability per solid angle that an incident particle is scattered into a
solid angle dΩ. The total cross section σ is then obtained by
Z
dσ
σ= dΩ (2.1.11)
dΩ

This differential cross section per solid angle shall be separated from the differential
cross section per angle, dσ/ dΘ. The relation between dσ/ dΩ and dσ/ dΘ is given by

dσ dσ
= 2πsinΘ. (2.1.12)
dΘ dΩ
This cross section goes to zero when Θ goes to zero as sin0=0.

Mass attenuation coefficient

The mass attenuation coefficient, µ/ρ is the quotient of dN/N by ρ dl, where dN/N
is the fraction of uncharged particles that interacts when passing a distance dl in a
 Definitions and Relations | 31

material with density ρ.

µ 1 dN
= Unit : m2 kg−1 (2.1.13)
ρ ρ dl N

The advantage of using µ/ρ is that it is independent of the density, ρ, of the material.
It is the coefficient that is tabulated in most tables. When calculating the attenuation
in a material then the thickness should be expressed in kg m−2 . It is also possible to
use the thickness of a material expressed in m, in which case the linear attenuation
coefficient, µ, is used. The reciprocal of µ is called the mean free path or sometimes
the relaxation length.
The mass attenuation coefficient is obtained by adding the cross sections of the
different interaction types.
µ NA X
= σJ (2.1.14)
ρ M
J

where σ J is the component cross section relating to interaction type J, N A is Avogadro’s

number and M is the molar mass.
The types of interaction for photons normally included in tabulated values of µ/ρ
are photoelectric effect, coherent scattering, incoherent scattering, and pair produc-
tion in the electron and the nuclear field. For some reasons the nuclear cross sections
are normally not included, even if they can contribute to some per cent of the total
cross section for some energies.
µ/ρ may thus be expressed as
µ τ σcoh σincoh κn κe
= + + + + (2.1.15)
ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ

where τ/ρ is the mass cross section for photoelectric effect, σcoh /ρ for the coherent
(Rayleigh) scattering, σincoh /ρ for the incoherent scattering (Compton scattering), κn /ρ
for pair production in the nuclear field, and κe /ρ is the mass cross section in the elec-
tron field.
The mass attenuation coefficient of a compound is obtained by treating the com-
pound as consisting of independent atoms, neglecting any molecular binding ener-
gies. Thus        
µ µ µ µ
= w1 + w2 + .. + w j (2.1.16)
ρ comp ρ 1 ρ 2 ρ j
where w is the mass fraction of each atomic material in the compound. This relation
is sometimes called the Bragg relation. This is a good approximation except for very
low photon energies.

Mass energy transfer coefficient

The mass energy transfer coefficient, µtr /ρ, is the quotient of the mean energy that is
transferred to kinetic energy of charged particles by interaction of incident uncharged
32 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

particles and the incident radiant energy, when passing a distance dl in a material
with density ρ.
µtr 1 dRtr
= Unit : m2 kg−1 (2.1.17)
ρ ρ dl R

The mass energy transfer coefficient is related to the mass attenuation coefficient by
µtr µ
= f (2.1.18)
ρ ρ

where P
fσ
f = PJ J (2.1.19)
σJ

where f J is the average fraction of the incident particle energy that is transferred to
kinetic energy of charged particles in an interaction of type J.
The different contributions from the separate interaction types are with some ap-
proximations given by the relations below.
Photoelectric effect. The electrons emitted in the photoelectric effect are the pho-
toelectrons and the Auger electrons including the Coster-Cronig electrons. The energy
not obtained as kinetic energy of the electrons is obtained as energy of fluorescence x
rays. It is more practical to calculate the emitted photon energy and deduct it from the
primary photon energy. The mass energy transfer coefficient τtr /ρ for the photoelectric
effect can be written as
 
p ω hν (1 − pK )pL ωL hνL
τtr /ρ = (τ/ρ) 1 − K K K − −... (2.1.20)
hν hν

where pK and pL are the probability that the photoelectric effect will occur in the K
and the L-shell respectively. ωK and ωL are the fluorescence yields. hνK and hνL are
the mean energies of the x rays from the K- and L-shell respectively.
Incoherent scattering. To calculate the mean energy of the electrons emitted in in-
coherent scattering, it is possible in the first approximation to use the Klein-Nishina
relation to obtain the electron energy distribution. This mean energy is independent
of the atomic number and data for this and the corresponding cross-sections are tab-
ulated in Table 2.1.
Pair production. In pair production the electron and positron will obtain the pho-
ton energy, apart from the energy needed to produce the electron-positron pair, 2me c2 .
Thus
T− + T+ = hν − 2me c2 (2.1.21)

and
hν − 2me c2
κtr /ρ = (κ/ρ) (2.1.22)
hν

Mass energy absorption coefficient

 Definitions and Relations | 33

The mass energy absorption coefficient is the product of the mass energy transfer co-
efficient µtr /ρ and (1-g)

µen /ρ = µtr /ρ(1 − g) Unit : m2 kg−1 (2.1.23)

where g is the fraction of energy liberated by charged particles which is lost in radia-
tive processes as bremsstrahlung and annihilation in flight. µen /ρ is an important
coefficient when calculating the absorbed dose as it gives the energy absorbed in
collisions of charged particles with electrons, and thus to ionization in the medium.
For low photon energies and low atomic numbers the numerical difference between
µen /ρ and µtr /ρ is small as the contribution to bremsstrahlung is small. With in-
creasing energy and atomic number the difference between µtr /ρ and µen /ρ increases.

Stopping power
The stopping power, S/ρ, is the quotient of dE by ρdl, where dE is the energy lost by a
charged particle when passing a distance dl in a material with density ρ.

S 1 dE
= Unit : J m2 kg−1 (2.1.24)
ρ ρ dl

S/ρ is in tables often expressed in MeV m2 kg−1 as the particle energies often are given
in MeV.
The mass stopping power can be divided into a sum of independent components.

           
S 1 dE dE dE S S S
= + + = + + (2.1.25)
ρ ρ dl el
dl rad
dl nuc
ρ el ρ rad ρ nuc

where
(S/ρ)el is the mass collision (electronic) stopping power due to collisions with elec-
trons. This is the quantity to be used in absorbed dose calculations.
(S/ρ)rad is the mass radiative stopping power due to bremsstrahlung emitted in the
electric field of atomic nuclei or atomic electrons. In medical radiation physics (S/ρ)rad
is of interest only for electrons and positrons as the probability for bremsstrahlung is
inversely proportional to the particle mass in square, and thus can be neglected for
protons and heavier charged particles in the energy ranges used in radiotherapy.
(S/ρ)nuc is the mass nuclear stopping power due to elastic Coulomb collisions in
which recoil energy is imparted to atoms. This part is often small and neglected, in
particular for electrons.

Critical energy
The critical energy is the energy when (S/ρ)el equals (S/ρ)rad . For lower energies
(S/ρ)el dominates and for higher energies (S/ρ)rad . The critical energy varies with
atomic number and is around 10 MeV for lead and 100 MeV for water. An empirical
34 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Table 2.1: Klein-Nishina cross-sections expressed in 10−21 m2 /electron and mean energies for the
¯ and electrons (T̄). σ is the total cross-section and σs = σ(hν/hν)
scattered photons (hν) ¯ and σa =
σ(T̄/hν).

Energy/MeV eσ e σs e σa ¯
hν/MeV T̄/MeV
0.010 6.405 6.285 0.120 0.0098 0.00019
0.015 6.290 6.116 0.174 0.0146 0.00041
0.020 6.180 5.957 0.223 0.0193 0.00072
0.030 5.976 5.664 0.311 0.0284 0.00156
0.040 5.788 5.401 0.387 0.0373 0.00268
0.050 5.615 5.162 0.453 0.0460 0.00404
0.060 5.456 4.946 0.511 0.0544 0.00562
0.080 5.173 4.567 0.606 0.0706 0.00937
0.10 4.928 4.248 0.680 0.0862 0.0138
0.15 4.436 3.631 0.805 0.123 0.0273
0.20 4.065 3.186 0.879 0.157 0.0433
0.30 3.535 2.582 0.953 0.219 0.0809
0.40 3.167 2.186 0.981 0.276 0.124
0.50 2.892 1.904 0.987 0.329 0.171
0.60 2.675 1.692 0.983 0.379 0.221
0.80 2.395 1.389 0.960 0.473 0.327
1.00 2.112 1.183 0.929 0.560 0.440
1.50 1.716 0.867 0.849 0.758 0.742
2.00 1.464 0.687 0.777 0.938 1.062
3.00 1.151 0.586 0.665 1.268 1.732
4.00 0.960 0.377 0.583 1.572 2.428
5.00 0.829 0.308 0.520 1.860 3.140
6.00 0.732 0.261 0.472 2.136 3.863
8.00 0.599 0.199 0.400 2.662 5.338
10.0 0.510 0.161 0.349 3.164 6.836
15.0 0.377 0.109 0.268 4.349 10.65
20.0 0.303 0.083 0.220 5.469 14.53
30.0 0.220 0.056 0.164 7.586 22.41
40.0 0.175 0.042 0.133 9.598 30.40
50.0 0.146 0.034 0.112 11.54 38.46
60.0 0.125 0.028 0.097 13.43 46.57
80.0 0.099 0.021 0.078 17.08 69.92
100.0 0.082 0.017 0.065 20.62 79.38

value for the critical energy is

800
Tcrit = MeV (2.1.26)
Z + 1.2
where Z is the atomic number.

Linear energy transfer

The linear energy transfer or the restricted stopping power, L ∆ , is the quotient of dE ∆
 Definitions and Relations | 35

by dl, where dE ∆ is the energy lost by a charged particle due to electronic collisions
traversing a distance dl, minus the sum of the kinetic energies of all electrons released
with kinetic energies in excess of ∆.

dE ∆
L∆ = Unit : J m−1 (2.1.27)
dl
L ∆ is sometimes expressed in keV/µm. The ∆-value is often expressed in eV. Then L100
should be understood to be the linear energy transfer for an energy cutoff of 100 eV.
L ∆ is also sometimes written as S ∆ . L ∆ (S ∆ ) is an important quantity both in dosimetry
and in radiobiology.

Mass scattering power

The mass scattering power is defined as the increase in mean square angle of scat-
tering ( dθ̄2 ) per unit mass thickness (ρ dl) in analogy with the mass stopping power.

T 1 dθ̄2
= Unit : radian2 m2 kg−1 (2.1.28)
ρ ρ dl
When a beam of electrons is impinging on a medium, the mean square scattering angle
at small depths may be given by the relation

T
θ̄2 (x) = θ¯2 (0) + ρx. (2.1.29)
ρ

2.1.3 Interaction Processes

The information in this section is mainly focussed on the energies obtained by the
secondary particles in the interaction processes, as these are of interest in dosimetry.
For more information on interaction processes consult the relevant textbooks, e.g.
Podgorsak (Podgorsak, 2010).

Photoelectric effect
In a photoelectric process the photon is totally absorbed by the atom and the energy
is transferred to an atomic electron, often a K-electron, which is then is emitted
(released from its orbit). The probability for a photoelectric effect approximately
varies with energy and atomic number according to the relationship

Z4
τ/ρ ∝ (2.1.30)
(hν)3
Close to the energy of the electron binding energies, there is a large discontinuous
jump in the cross section value, because if the photon energy is just below e.g. the
binding energy of the K-shell, then no K-electrons can be expelled, but with an energy
just above the binding energy it is possible. Tables of photon cross sections always
36 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

have two lines corresponding to the binding energy. One gives the value of the cross
section just below the binding energy and the other gives the value of the cross section
just above the binding energy.
The energy of the photoelectron is given by the relation

TK,L,M,.. = hν − BK,L,M,.. (2.1.31)

where BK,L,M,.. is the binding energy of the K, L, M,... electrons respectively. The
electron vacancy produced in a photoelectric effect is followed by the emission of
fluorescence x rays or Auger and Coster-Cronig electrons when an electron from an
outer shell fills the vacancy. For further information see Chap. 1: Radiation sources
and Radioactive decay.

Incoherent scattering
In incoherent scattering, the photon is scattered by an electron. The photon energy is
divided between the scattered photon and the emitted electron. When the electron is
assumed to be free and at rest the process is often called Compton scattering.
The cross section for Compton scattering per electron is independent of the atomic
number, as the electron is supposed to be free, and thus the mass cross section is pro-
portional to the number of electrons per mass unit. This quantity is rather constant
with atomic number, except for hydrogen, and thus σ/ρ varies slowly with atomic
number. Taking the binding energy of the electron into consideration, the cross sec-
tion for low photon energies and high atomic number is however considerably de-
creased.
In the calculations of incoherent scattering in this compilation, the electron is
assumed to be free and at rest and thus it fulfills the requirements for the Compton
and the Klein-Nishina relations.
The Klein-Nishina relation gives the probability that a photon is scattered into a
solid angle dΩ around the angle Θ. See Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Incoherent scattering of a photon.

 Definitions and Relations | 37

The Klein-Nishina differential cross section is given by

de σ KN (θ) r2e α2 (1 − cos θ)2

  2
1 2 m /electron
= × 1 + cos θ +
dΩ 2 [1 + α(1 − cos θ)]2 1 + α(1 − cos θ) steradian
(2.1.32)
α is the incident photon energy expressed in the rest mass energy of an electron.

hν
α= (2.1.33)
me c2
re is the “classical electron radius” which may be written as

1 e2
re = = 2.818· 10−15 m (2.1.34)
4πϵ o me c2
The energy of the scattered photon is given by

hν
hνs = hν
(2.1.35)
1+ me c2
(1 − cos θ)

The energy of the emitted electron is given by

Te = hν − hνs (2.1.36)

The minimum energy of the scattered photon is obtained when it is scattered in 180◦ .
The energy is then given by
hν
hνs,min = (2.1.37)
1 + 2α
When the primary photon energy tends to ∞ the minimum energy tends to me c2 /2, or
0.256 MeV.
Correspondingly the electron energy is at its maximum when the electron is emit-
ted in the forward direction. This energy is given by
2α
Te,max = hν (2.1.38)
1 + 2α
Note that the scattered photon has a minimum non-zero energy and thus the emit-
ted electron has a maximum energy different from the primary photon energy. At high
photon energies the minimum photon energy is close to 0.25 MeV and thus the maxi-
mum electron energy is close to hν − 0.25 MeV.
In absorbed dose calculations the mean energy of the Compton electron is
often of interest. The relative mean energy varies with the incident photon energy
and for low photon energies most of it is transferred to the photon and the relative
electron energy is low. With increasing photon energy the relative amount of energy
transferred to the electron increases and is close to complete transfer at very high
photon energies. See Table 2.1
38 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Pair production
For high photon energies the photon can interact through pair production, either in
the field of a nucleus or in the field of an electron. The photon is totally absorbed and
its energy is used to produce an electron-positron pair.
The cross section for pair production increases after the threshold value, first
nearly logarithmically with energy, but reaches a saturation value for very high pho-
ton energies. The cross section for pair production in the nuclear field is always larger
than the cross section in the electron field and as such the ratio is close to the atomic
number in the first approximation.
The energy threshold for pair production in a nuclear field is 2me c2 =1.022 MeV.
The energy threshold for pair production in an electron field (sometimes called triplet
production) is 4me c2 =2.044 MeV. For energies larger than the threshold energy, the
excess energy is divided between the electron-positron pair. As the positron is an
anti-particle it will recombine with an electron and two annihilation photons will
be produced. If the positron has no kinetic energy left when it is annihilated, then
the energy of each annihilation photon is 0.511 MeV each, and they are emitted
in opposite directions. This is the most common situation, but there is a small
probability that the positron is annihilated when having kinetic energy. This is called
“annihilation in flight” in which case the annihilation photons will have a higher
energy and not move in opposite directions.

Transmission of photons
When a narrow mono-energetic photon beam with a fluence Φ o and energy hν passes
through a material with the mass attenuation coefficient µ/ρ m2 kg−1 and thickness
ρx m2 kg−1 , the fluence Φ ρx after transmission is given by

Φ ρx = Φ o e−(µ/ρ)(ρx) (2.1.39)

This relation holds for narrow beams that are well collimated both before and after
the absorbing material and thus only transmitted primary photons are included. In
most situations there are also contributions of secondary photons, mainly incoherent
scattered photons, but also annihilation photons and fluorescence x rays. If the coher-
ent scattered photons, with the same energy as the primary ones, shall be considered
as secondary or not, can depend on the geometry. The contributions from secondary
photons are often included by multiplying the transmitted fluence with a buildup fac-
tor, B, which is the ratio of the total transmitted fluence to the primary fluence.

Φ ρx = BΦ o e−(µ/ρ)(ρx) (2.1.40)

The buildup factor will not be treated in this chapter but in Chap. 6 Radiation
protection and health physics.

Absorption of electrons
 Definitions and Relations | 39

As electrons interact more or less continuously and lose energy, the transmission of
electrons can not be treated as for photons where there is a low probability for inter-
action and a photon can pass through thick materials without interacting. However,
there are some relations that can be useful in radiation protection situations where
the accuracy is not that important. β-particles are emitted isotropically and with a
continuous energy distribution. This has shown to result in a transmission more or
less exponential and thus the transmission can be written as

Φ ρx = Φ o e−(β/ρ)(ρx) (2.1.41)

where β/ρ is the mass absorption coefficient for β-particles. The value of β/ρ varies
with energy and atomic number of the absorber. The values have been obtained ex-
perimentally. One expression for low atomic numbers is
3.5Z
β/ρ = m2 kg−1 (2.1.42)
AT β1.14

For high atomic numbers instead the following expression is often used

0.77Z 0.31 2 −1
β/ρ = m kg (2.1.43)
T β1.14

T β is the maximum β-particle energy in MeV, Z is the atomic number and A is the
atomic mass. These expressions are empirical and approximate and should only be
used in the first part of the absorption curve.

Figure 2.3: Passage of charged particles through a material. The concepts Range and Path length
are indicated.

Range. Range for a charged particle may be described in different ways. One way
is to follow the path of the particle and calculate the total path length. Another way is
40 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

to calculate the thickness of a material thick enough to totally stop the charged parti-
cles, see Fig. 2.3, which is often of more interest. For heavy charged particles which are
losing their energy more or less continuously in many small steps and are not signif-
icantly scattered, the values for the different range descriptions are very close. How-
ever, for electrons, with a large scattering probability and a possibility to loose a lot of
energy in one collision there may be a large difference depending on which definition
is used. Also in a beam of electrons the ranges will be varying extensively between the
electrons and normally one has to calculate a mean value. It is thus important to in-
clude which range definition is used when a range value is presented. The value often
tabulated is rcsda , the continuous slowing down approximation. This is defined as
ZT o
dT
rcsda = (2.1.44)
Stot (T)
0

This is thus based on the assumption that the electrons are losing energy continuously
and gives a path length.
Empirical expressions for particle ranges are often used in radiation protection.
Two of these expressions are given below:
(1.265−0.095 ln T β )
R1 = 4.12T β kg m−2 (2.1.45)

R2 = 5.30T β − 1.06 kg m−2 (2.1.46)

where T β is the maximal β-energy (MeV).

These relations are mainly obtained for aluminum, but may be used for other low
atomic number materials. The expressions show that the ranges in g cm−2 are approx-
imately equal to half of the electron energy in MeV. In water the range in cm is just
half of the electron energy. A 10 MeV electron beam has thus approximately a range of
5 cm in water, a 20 MeV beam 10 cm, and so on.
Electron energy. The electrons lose energy when passing through a medium and
there will be an energy distribution that broadens with depth. This distribution is not
totally symmetrical and this implies that the mean energy and the most probable en-
ergy differ. In dosimetry the mean energy is often of most interest.
The mean energy of the electrons at a depth x may be approximated by the relation

dT0
T̄(x) = T¯0 − ρx (2.1.47)
ρdl
where T̄(x) is the mean kinetic energy at depth x, T¯0 is the mean kinetic energy at
dT0
surface and
ρdl is the mass stopping power at surface.
This approximation assumes that the stopping power does not change with depth
and thus energy, which is not correct. Brahme (Brahme, 1975) has proposed an approx-
imation (Eq. (2.1.48)) for variation of the mean energy with depth, which holds well for
 Exercises in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 41

the first half of the electron range.

dT 1 − e−ρxϵrad,0
T̄(x) = T¯0 − (2.1.48)
ρdl ϵrad,0

where
1 dTrad,0
ϵrad,0 = (2.1.49)
T̄0 ρdl
An approximation for the mean energy proposed by Harder (Harder, 1965) assumes a
linear decrease of the mean energy with depth. The mean energy is expressed as

T̄(x) = T¯0 (1 − x/rp ) (2.1.50)

where rp is the electron range.

However, this expression holds better for the most probable energy and should
not be used when accurate calculations are necessary. In dosimetry today most data
of electron energies and thus stopping power values are based on Monte Carlo calcu-
lations and these data should be used if possible.

2.2 Exercises in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation

2.2.1 Charged Particles

Exercise 2.1. What is the maximal δ-particle energy that can be obtained for a proton,
an electron and positron respectively, if their kinetic energy is 10 MeV?

Exercise 2.2. Electrons with a mean energy of 20 MeV impinge perpendicularly

on a water phantom. Estimate the mean energy at the depth of 3.0 cm and 8.0 cm,
using different approximations?

Exercise 2.3. Electrons with an energy of 2.3 MeV impinge perpendicularly on a

disk of a) PMMA b) lead. Calculate the mean square scattering angle at the thick-
nesses 2.0 resp. 5.0 kg m−2 . Discuss any approximations you have made.

Exercise 2.4. When treating patients with electrons, the electron beam is ob-
tained from an electron accelerator. This electron beam is narrow when it leaves the
accelerator, with a diameter of some millimeters. However, for a stationary beam, the
beam profile at the patient should be large and uniform. This is obtained by placing
scattering foils in the beam, which scatter out the electrons and thus broaden it.
At the same time as the electrons are scattered, they will lose energy and produce
bremsstrahlung. These are unwanted effects.
An electron beam has an energy of 10 MeV. Which material should be chosen as
a scattering foil to obtain as small energy loss and production of bremsstrahlung as
Table 2.2: Klein-Nishina differential cross-section for the number of photons scattered per unit solid angle in direction θ, d(e σ)/dΩ, in 10−26 cm2 /steradian
per electron.

Energy θ
MeV 1◦ 5◦ 10◦ 20◦ 30◦ 40◦ 50◦ 60◦ 70◦ 80◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦
0.01 7.940 7.910 7.817 7.459 6.912 6.243 5.534 4.868 4.324 3.962 3.821 4.687 6.472 7.360
0.02 7.940 7.909 7.814 7.448 6.891 6.209 5.488 4.812 4.260 3.890 3.738 4.539 6.218 7.051
0.03 7.940 7.907 7.807 7.424 6.741 6.132 5.385 4.687 4.117 3.729 3.554 4.216 5.679 6.399
0.04 7.940 7.906 7.803 7.407 6.805 6.077 5.313 4.602 4.020 3.622 3.434 4.014 5.346 6.000
0.05 7.940 7.905 7.798 7.389 6.770 6.024 5.243 4.519 3.928 3.522 3.323 3.831 5.049 5.643
0.06 7.940 7.904 7.794 7.372 6.736 5.971 5.175 4.440 3.841 3.427 3.219 3.664 4.781 5.324
0.08 7.940 7.902 7.784 7.338 6.668 5.868 5.043 4.288 3.677 3.253 3.031 3.371 4.319 4.777
0.10 7.939 7.899 7.775 7.304 6.600 5.768 4.918 4.147 3.527 3.097 2.866 3.124 3.936 4.328
0.20 7.939 7.887 7.729 7.138 6.283 5.313 4.371 3.560 2.937 2.515 2.277 2.313 2.730 2.928
0.30 7.939 7.876 7.684 6.979 5.992 4.922 3.933 3.124 2.530 2.140 1.919 1.866 2.100 2.213
0.40 7.938 7.864 7.639 6.825 5.724 4.581 3.575 2.789 2.235 1.880 1.679 1.583 1.716 1.783
0.50 7.938 7.852 7.595 6.679 5.481 4.293 3.301 2.569 2.081 1.785 1.626 1.562 1.661 1.708
0.60 7.937 7.841 7.551 6.537 5.251 4.022 3-029 2.313 1.837 1.542 1.373 1.236 1.269 1.292
0.80 7.936 7.818 7.464 6.269 4.847 3.584 2.636 1.991 1.580 1.328 1.180 1.026 1.014 1.017
42 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

1.00 7.935 7.795 7.380 6.021 4.497 3.233 2.339 1.759 1.397 1.176 1.042 0.882 0.847 0.842
2.00 7.931 7.681 6.980 5.011 3.299 2.190 1.538 1.156 0.923 0.775 0.677 0.527 0.471 0.456
3.00 7.926 7.571 6.617 4.278 2.608 1.679 1.173 0.882 0.703 0.586 0.506 0.378 0.328 0.314
4.00 7.921 7.463 6.287 3.728 2.163 1.373 0.957 0.718 0.570 0.472 0.405 0.295 0.251 0.239
5.00 7.916 7.358 5.986 3.301 1.854 1.167 0.812 0.607 0.480 0.396 0.337 0.242 0.204 0.193
6.00 7.912 7.256 5.710 2.962 1.626 1.018 0.706 0.527 0.415 0.341 0.289 0.205 0.172 0.162
8.00 7.902 7.058 5.223 2.460 1.312 0.815 0.563 0.417 0.327 0.267 0.225 0.157 0.130 0.123
10.0 7.893 6.870 4.808 2.107 1.104 0.682 0.468 0.346 0.269 0.219 0.184 0.128 0.105 0.099
20.0 7.846 6.051 3.422 1.245 0.627 0.379 0.256 0.186 0.144 0.116 0.097 0.066 0.053 0.050
30.0 7.800 5.394 2.652 0.894 0.441 0.263 0.176 0.128 0.098 0.079 0.065 0.044 0.036 0.034
40.0 7.754 4.858 2.167 0.701 0.341 0.202 0.134 0.097 0.074 0.060 0.049 0.033 0.027 0.025
50.0 7.709 4.414 1.836 0.578 0.278 0.164 0.109 0.078 0.060 0.048 0.040 0.027 0.022 0.020
60.0 7.665 4.041 1.595 0.492 0.235 0.138 0.091 0.066 0.050 0.040 0.033 0.022 0.018 0.017
80.0 7.577 3.454 1.268 0.379 0.179 0.104 0.069 0.050 0.038 0.030 0.025 0.017 0.014 0.013
100.0 7.490 3.014 1.055 0.309 0.145 0.084 0.056 0.040 0.030 0.024 0.020 0.013 0.011 0.010
 Exercises in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 43

possible, for a certain mean scattering angle? Motivate your statement considering
the variation with atomic number of the different interaction processes.

Exercise 2.5. When treating patients with photons, the photons are often produced
by electrons from an electron accelerator hitting a target, whereby bremsstrahlung is
obtained.
A beam of 20 MeV electrons hits targets of aluminum or tungsten (same thickness
corresponding to the electron range). The photon energy fluence was measured at the
central axis at a distance of 100 cm from the target, and a higher energy fluence was
obtained when using aluminum, even if the radiation yield is higher for tungsten.
How can this be explained?

Exercise 2.6. A narrow beam of 1000 MeV protons, impinges on a PMMA-cone

at its peak along the cone axis. Calculate the opening angle of the cone if the emitted
Cerenkov radiation, after reflection, towards the wall of the cone passes through the
bottom of the cone and parallel with its axis.

Exercise 2.7. A spherical ionization chamber with a radius of 0.30 m has a 32 P-

source positioned at its center. What air pressure is needed to completely absorb the
β-particles in the air volume at a temperature of 293 K? Estimate also the ionization
current if the activity of the source is 40.0 kBq. W̄air =33.97 eV. W̄air is the mean energy
needed to produce an ion pair in air.

Exercise 2.8. An arm with a total thickness of 12 cm is irradiated with 150 MeV
protons. The bone thickness is 4.0 cm and the total soft muscle tissue thickness is
8.0 (4.0 + 4.0) cm (see Fig. 2.4). Is the proton energy enough for the proton to pass
through the arm, and if so, what is the energy of the protons after passing through
the arm? ρbone =1.8·103 kg m−3 , ρsoft tissue =1.0·103 kg m−3 .

Figure 2.4: Simulation of the arm in exercise 2.8.

44 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

2.2.2 Photons

Exercise 2.9. There are three “absorption” coefficients defined for photons, the
mass attenuation coefficient (µ/ρ), the mass energy transfer coefficient (µtr /ρ),
and the mass energy absorption coefficient (µen /ρ). The ratios (µ/ρ)/(µtr /ρ) and
(µen /ρ)/(µtr /ρ) for lead are plotted in Fig. 2.5. Explain the variation of the ratios with
energy.

Figure 2.5: Variation with photon energy of the ratios mass attenuation coefficient and mass energy
absorption coefficient to mass energy transfer coefficient in lead.

Exercise 2.10. In order to obtain information of the treated volume in radio-

therapy with high energy photons, the use of produced positrons that may be
measured with a positron camera, has been proposed. It is possible to measure
positrons emitted only during the irradiation and positrons emitted also even after
the treatment is finished. From which type of photon interaction processes are
these positrons obtained? Which are the minimum photon energies for these two dif-
ferent processes? Discuss the energy distribution of the positrons in the two processes.

Exercise 2.11. Different materials were irradiated with diagnostic x rays with a
maximal energy of 140 keV (mean energy 55 keV). The secondary photons were
measured at an angle of 90◦ to the primary beam, both with and without an absorber
made of PMMA, with a thickness of 10 mm, between the scattering material and the
detector. Fig. 2.6 shows the ratio between the fluence without and with the PMMA
 Exercises in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 45

absorber as a function of the atomic number of the irradiated material. Discuss the
ratio with knowledge of the interaction processes in the irradiated material.

Figure 2.6: Ratio of fluence of secondary photons, without and with an absorber of PMMA, as a
function different atomic numbers of scattering material.

Exercise 2.12. Lead is a good photon absorber. Sometimes the fluorescence x

rays produced in connection with the photoelectric effect may be a problem. To
reduce this effect the lead absorber is surrounded with iron to absorb the x rays. What
thickness of iron is needed (in mm) to reduce the fluorescence x-ray fluence a factor
of 10.0? Only the K x rays need to be considered. Assume a narrow beam geometry.

Exercise 2.13. In diagnostic radiological investigations it is important to de-

crease the number of photons scattered in the patient that can reach the detector.
These scattered photons will deteriorate the quality of the image as they have another
direction than the primary photons. To reduce this component a grid is often placed
in front of the detector. This grid is supposed to absorb the scattered photons having
another direction than the primary ones. The grid (see Fig. 2.7) can be made of
parallel slits of lead with a supporting material, with a high transmission for x rays
in between. In the figure the material is aluminum. Assume you have a grid with
dimensions as in the figure. Calculate the ratio between the transmission of primary
and scattered photons for the situation where the scattered photons have the highest
probability for transmission, i.e. when the attenuation in the lead slits is a small as
46 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

possible. The energy is supposed to be 50 keV for the primary photons and 40 keV for
the scattered photons.

Figure 2.7: Illustration of passage of photons through a grid for diagnostic x-rays.

Exercise 2.14. Determine the smallest photon energy where the photon can in-
teract through incoherent scattering, and an equal large energy transfer to the
scattered photon and the emitted electron is possible. In which angles are then the
electron and scattered photon emitted?

Exercise 2.15. An experiment was performed as shown in Fig. 2.8. 100 keV pho-
tons hit a small rod of aluminum. A NaI-scintillator is positioned at different angles
in relation to the impinging photon beam. In front of the NaI-scintillator a thin filter
of lead is positioned that reduces the photon fluence. When the angle increases from
zero, the counting rate decreases. At a certain angle there is, however, a large increase
in the counting rate. Then the counting rate again decreases with increasing angle.
Calculate the angle where this increase occurs. Calculate also the thickness of the
lead-filter if the the photon fluence was increased with a factor of 10.

Exercise 2.16. Calculate the energy of a Compton scattered photon with the pri-
mary energy 1.17 MeV if it is scattered in the angle π/2 radians a) in one scattering b)
in two equal scatterings c) in three equal scatterings d) in an infinite number of equal
small scatterings.

Exercise 2.17. A narrow collimated beam of 2.04 MeV photons passes through a
very thin layer of lead. The secondary electrons that are emitted in the angle 20◦ are
 Exercises in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 47

Figure 2.8: Illustration of irradiation geometry in exercise 2.21.

observed. Which is the energy in this angle for the

a) photoelectrons?
b) Compton electrons?
c) pair production electrons?

Exercise 2.18. Calculate the mass energy transfer coefficient for 2.0 MeV pho-
tons in lead with knowledge of the cross sections for the different interaction
processes.

Exercise 2.19. To flatten a photon beam from an accelerator, a beam flattening

filter is placed in the beam. This filter is however a source for secondary particles.
Estimate the fluence from secondary photons 10 cm from the central axis (B) as
compared to the fluence from primary photons at the central axis (A). See Fig. 2.9. In
this calculation the filter may be assumed to have a uniform thickness of 7.0 mm Pb
and a diameter of 50 mm. The accelerator produces photons with a mean energy of
2.0 MeV. When calculating the number of photon interactions one can assume that
all secondary photons are produced along the central axis.

Exercise 2.20. In radiotherapy, lead blocks are often placed in the beam to limit the
absorbed dose to critical organs that not should be irradiated. These blocks are often
placed on a thin disk placed in the beam. The photons will then produce electrons
and positrons (leptons) through interactions in the disk. These leptons may reach the
patient. The contamination of these leptons should be as low as possible. Compare
the lepton contamination directly behind disks of PMMA and lead, both with the
thickness 15 kgm−2 . The parallel photon fluence at the surface of the disk is 1.0·1015
48 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Figure 2.9: Sketch of a treatment head with a beam flattening filter to be used in the calculations.

m−2 . The electrons are supposed to be absorbed exponentially in the disk and the
absorption coefficient, β, is obtained from the equations below. Tmax is the maximal
energy of the leptons in MeV. The radiation source is a linear accelerator with the
acceleration energy 21 MeV. The photon energy distribution may be approximated
with a mean energy of 7 MeV.

3.5Z
βPMMA = 1.14
m2 kg−1
ATmax

0.77Z 0.31 2 −1
βPb = 1.14
m kg
Tmax

Exercise 2.21. A small sphere of lead is irradiated with 100 keV photons. The
secondary photon fluence rate at a distance of 200 mm is determined. A sphere of
graphite with the same mass is placed at the same place as the lead sphere and
irradiated with the same primary photon fluence. At what angle is the same energy
of the secondary photons obtained as with the lead sphere? Calculate the ratio of
the fluence rate of the secondary photons at a distance of 200 mm in this angle,
with the graphite sphere and with the lead sphere. Neglect the self-absorption in the
spheres that may be regarded as point sources. In the lead case only K x rays may be
 Exercises in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 49

included in the calculations and in the graphite case only Compton scattered pho-
tons. The energy of the K x rays may be approximated with the energy of the KαII x rays.

Exercise 2.22. The fluence of the bremsstrahlung from a target irradiated by

high energy electrons has an angular distribution that can be expressed as

Φ(0)
Φ(Θ) = 1.4 (2.2.1)
1 + (TΘ)
1.731.4

where T is the electron energy in MeV and Θ is the angle in radians.

Figure 2.10: A beam flattening filter with two different atomic numbers to flatten both the fluence
and the energy.

The aim is to have a flattened uniform beam at the phantom surface. The field
size at the phantom surface is 40x40 cm2 . Distance target - phantom = 100 cm. The
beam flattening filter has a constant thickness, but is made of lead at the center and
aluminum at the edges. See Fig. 2.10. Calculate the ratio between the thicknesses
of lead and aluminum to have a flattened beam at a distance of 10 cm from the
central axis. The mean energy of the photons is 7 MeV at the axis and 6 MeV at
the field edge and a linear variation of the energy with the distance from the cen-
tral axis may be assumed. The electrons from the accelerator have an energy of 21 MeV.

Exercise 2.23. A narrow beam of 50 MeV photons with a radius 3.0 mm is impinging
on a disk of lead with a thickness of 10 mm. The fluence rate is 3.0·1010 m2 s−1 . Behind
the disk, at a distance of 50 mm and an angle of 45◦ , a thin lead foil (thickness:
0.10 mm, area 10.0 mm2 ) is situated. At an angle of 45◦ to this foil, a detector is placed
at a distance of 50 mm (See Fig. 2.11). The detector area is 500 mm2 . Calculate how
many photons in the energy intervals 80±10 keV and 400±50 keV that will hit the
detector per hour. Simplify the calculations by neglecting the attenuation of the
photons in the disks.

Exercise 2.24. To measure x-ray spectra directly is often difficult as the count
rate is very high and pile-up effects in the detectors are obtained. Instead it is possible
to measure the radiation scattered in 90◦ . Using the Compton equation it is then
possible to recalculate the measured energies to the energies before scattering. It
50 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Figure 2.11: Irradiation geometry in exercise 2.23.

is however important that the photons are just scattered once, which is why a very
thin scattering material is used. In this experiment a very narrow cylinder made
of a material with a low atomic number, to decrease the contribution from the
photoelectric effect, is used. The number of scattered photons is then very small
and it important to shield the detector from direct radiation from the radiation
source according to Fig. 2.12. The scattering cylinder has a diameter of 1.0 mm and
is made of aluminum. The length of the irradiated cylinder is 12 mm. Neglect the
self-absorption in the cylinder. Calculate the thickness of the lead shield needed, in
order to have a fluence rate of the transmitted photons that is less than 2.0% of the
scattered photons, using narrow beam approximation. Only the contribution from
incoherently scattered photons has to be included in the calculations. Assume that
the isotropic radiation source emits monoenergetic photons with an energy of 80 keV.

Figure 2.12: Illustration of the irradiation geometry in exercise 2.24.

 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 51

Exercise 2.25. One way to measure the content of lead in a human being is to
measure the fluorescence radiation that is obtained when the body is irradiated
with photons with an energy higher than the binding energy of the K-electrons.
Lead is mainly attached to the bone tissue. To investigate the efficiency of such an
investigation the following experiment is performed. An arm is simulated with a tube
filled with water. The tube diameter is 100 mm. At the center of the tube a cylinder
of aluminum, with a diameter of 30 mm, simulating the bone tissue, is placed. At the
center of this cylinder there is a hole with the diameter 1.0 mm. See Fig. 2.13.
In this hole a cylinder of lead is positioned. The tube is irradiated with 100 keV
photons and the photon fluence at the center of the cylinder without any attenuation is
4.5·1012 m−2 . The diameter of the radiation beam is 30 mm at the center of the cylinder.
Calculate the photon fluence in the energy interval 80-90 keV at a point 500 mm from
the cylinder center, at an angle of 120◦ to the direction of the primary photons. The
secondary photons may be assumed to come from the center of the lead cylinder.

Figure 2.13: Simulation of the arm in exercise 2.25.

2.3 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation

2.3.1 Charged Particles

Solution exercise 2.1.

a) The maximal energy transfer is obtained when the incoming particle hits the elec-
tron straight on, i.e. the electron is emitted in the forward direction (see Fig 2.14).
52 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Figure 2.14: Collision of a proton with an electron in a straight on collision.

The relation for the kinetic energy gives

Mv21 Mv22 me v23

= + (2.3.1)
2 2 2
The momentum relation gives

Mv1 = Mv2 + me v3 (2.3.2)

Reorganizing and dividing the equations gives

M(v21 − v22 ) me v23

= (2.3.3)
M(v1 − v2 ) me v3
and
v1 + v2 = v3 (2.3.4)

If M >> me , the energy transfer is small and v1 ≈ v2 , giving v3 ≈ 2v1

This results in that the maximal energy transfer is

me v23 4me v21

∆Emax = ≈ = 2me v21 (2.3.5)
2 2
Inserting v21 =2T/M, where T is the kinetic energy of the incoming particle gives

2me 2T 4me
∆Emax = = T (2.3.6)
M M
With the incoming particle being a proton, the kinetic energy 10 MeV and the particle
mass 1836me , this results in
4·1
∆Emax = · 10 · 103 = 21.8 keV
1836
b) When the incoming particle is an electron the total kinetic energy may be trans-
ferred to another free electron at rest. However, as after the collision there will then
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 53

be two electrons sharing the energy, and as in most cases, it does not matter which
electron is which, it is common to regard the electron with the highest energy after
the collision to be the primary one. Thus the maximal energy transfer is half of the
incoming energy; in this case 5.0 MeV.

c) If the incoming particle is a positron, it is possible to separate the particles

and the total energy transfer is 10 MeV.

Answer: The maximal energy transfer is a) 21.8 keV (proton), b) 5 MeV (elec-
tron) and c) 10 MeV (positron).

Solution exercise 2.2.

The mean energy of the electrons at a depth x may be approximated by the relation
1 dT0
T̄(x) = T¯0 − ρx (2.3.7)
ρ dl
where T̄(x) is the mean kinetic energy at depth x, T¯0 is the mean kinetic energy at
1 dT0
surface and
ρ dl is the mass stopping power at surface.

Data:
1 dT0 2 −1
ρ dl (20 MeV)=0.2455 MeV m kg
a) ρx=30 kg m−2 , b) ρx=80 kg m−2 .

Assume that the density of water is 1.0·103 kg m−3 .

Data inserted gives

T̄(3 cm)=20-0.2455·30=12.6 MeV

T̄(8 cm)=20-0.2455·80=0.36 MeV

This approximation assumes that the stopping power does not change with
depth and thus energy, which is not correct. Brahme (Brahme, 1975) has proposed an
approximation (Eq. (2.3.8)) for variation of the mean energy with depth, which holds
well for the first half of the electron range.
dT 1 − e−ρxϵrad,0
T̄(x) = T¯0 − (2.3.8)
ρ dl ϵrad,0
where
1 dTrad,0
ϵrad,0 = (2.3.9)
T̄0 ρ dl

ϵrad,0 (20MeV)=0.04086/20=2.043·10−3 m2 kg−1

54 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Data inserted gives

−3
0.2455(1 − e−30·2.043·10 )
T̄(3) = 20 − = 12.86 MeV
2.043 · 10−3
and −3
0.2455(1 − e−80·2.043·10 )
T̄(8) = 20 − = 1.88 MeV
2.043 · 10−3

An approximation for the mean energy proposed by Harder (Harder, 1965) assumes a
linear decrease of the mean energy with depth. The mean energy is expressed as

T̄(x) = T¯0 (1 − x/r0 ) (2.3.10)

where r0 is the electron range.

IAEA TRS 381 (IAEA, 1997) presents Monte Carlo calculated ranges and calcula-
tions for 20 MeV electrons give a range of 9.96 cm. This inserted in Eq. (2.3.10) gives

T̄(3.0)=14 MeV and T̄(8.0)=4.0 MeV.

This relation normally overestimates the mean energy at small depths and un-
derestimates the energy at depths close to the range.
To obtain a correct result of the mean energy Monte Carlo calculations should be
performed. IAEA TRS 381 gives data for the variation of mean energy with depth. The
mean energy is 12.6 MeV at a depth of 3.0 cm, and 2.94 MeV at a depth of 8.0 cm. This
can then be considered to be close to the correct mean energy.
This indicates that for small depths the first approximation above is quite
accurate, but for larger depths the approximation proposed by Brahme is closer to
the correct value.

Answer: The mean energy at a thickness of 3.0 cm is 12.6-14 MeV and at a thick-
ness of 8.0 cm 0.4-4 MeV depending on the approximation.

Solution exercise 2.3.

In the first approximation the mean square scattering angle is given by the relation

T
θ̄2 (x) = θ¯2 (0) + ρx (2.3.11)
ρ

where θ̄2 (0) is the mean square scattering angle of the incoming beam and T/ρ the
mass scattering power.
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 55

Data:
θ̄2 (0)=0 (parallel perpendicularly incoming beam)
T 2 2 −
ρ =0.0770 radian m kg 1 (2.3 MeV, PMMA)
T 2 2 −
ρ =0.664 radian m kg 1 (2.3 MeV, Pb)
ρx=2.0 kg m or 5.0 kg m−2
−2

Data inserted gives

PMMA: p
θ̄2 (2)=0.0770·2.0=0.154 rad2 . This corresponds to pθ̄2 =22.5◦
θ̄2 (5)=0.0770·5.0=0.385 rad2 . This corresponds to θ̄2 =35.6◦

Pb p
θ̄2 (2)=0.664·2.0=1.328 rad2 . This corresponds top θ̄2 =66◦
θ̄2 (5)=0.664·5.0=3.32 rad2 . This corresponds to θ̄2 =104◦

This approximation gives unrealistic results at large depths as the mean square
scattering angle increases linearly with depth and reaches values giving angular
distributions with mean angles larger than 90◦ . With increasing depth the mean
square scattering angle first increases nearly linearly, but after some depth there will
be a diffusion equilibrium, where the inscatter and outscatter compensate. The value
of equilibrium is estimated to be obtained for θ̄2 between 0.6 and 0.65 rad2 , if only
the electrons in the forward direction are included. The approximation above also
neglects the change in the electron energy with depth. This will increase the mass
scattering power with depth and the angular equilibrium will be reached even faster.

Answer: PMMA: θ̄2 (2.0)=0.154 rad2 . θ̄2 (5.0)=0.385 rad2 . Pb:θ̄2 (2.0)=1.328 rad2 .
θ̄2 (5.0)=3.32 rad2 .

Solution exercise 2.4.

Both the mass scattering power and the mass radiative power vary with the atomic
number with Z2 . As the mean square scattering angle is proportional to the mass
scattering power this means to obtain a certain angular distribution the thickness
of the scattering foil is proportional to Z2 . Thus with increasing atomic number
there is a decreasing thickness of the scattering foil for a given scattering angle.
With a high atomic number there is also a higher mass radiative power increasing
also with Z2 . This means that the scattering and radiative power compensate each
other and the production of bremsstrahlung for a certain angle is independent of the
atomic number. Thus the only factor that affects the energy loss is the mass collision
stopping power. As the mass collision stopping power decreases with increasing
atomic number, a high atomic number of the scattering foil will give the lowest energy
loss.
56 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Answer: A high atomic number material is suitable, e.g. gold.

Solution exercise 2.5.

When the electrons hit the target the electrons interact mainly through three pro-
cesses:
a) Collisions with atomic electrons (giving lower energy with depth)
b) Inelastic collisions with the atomic nucleus (giving bremsstrahlung)
c) Elastic collisions with the atomic nucleus (elastic scattering)

Figure 2.15: Components of the angular distribution of Bremsstrahlung photons.

The angular distribution of the bremsstrahlung beam is dependent on both the

angular distribution of the electron beam and the angular distribution of the
bremsstrahlung photons. The angular distribution of the bremsstrahlung photons
can be described by the equation.

θ̄2 = θ̄2 (1) + θ̄2 (2) (2.3.12)

where (see Fig. 2.15) θ̄2 is the total mean square scattering angle of the bremsstrahlung
beam. θ̄2 (1) is the mean square scattering angle of electrons at depth z and θ̄2 (2) is
the mean square scattering angle of the bremsstrahlung photons around an electron.

The mass radiative power is increasing with Z2 , and thus tungsten will produce
more bremsstrahlung photons. However, in a low atomic number material like
aluminum, the elastic scattering is low and thus θ¯2 (1) is also small. This means
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 57

that the electron beam is not scattered to a great extent and the bremsstrahlung
angular distribution will be narrow. When measuring at the central axis, thus there
will be a higher fluence for aluminum than for tungsten, even if the total emitted
radiation is larger for tungsten. For a full range target the attenuation of the produced
bremsstrahlung in the target itself will also be higher in a tungsten target than in an
aluminum target.

Solution exercise 2.6.

Figure 2.16: Production and transport of Cerenkov radiation in a PMMA-cone.

Cerenkov radiation is emitted at an angle θ according to the relation

1
cos θ = (2.3.13)
βn

where β is v/c (particle velocity relative the velocity of light in vacuum) and n is the
index of refraction.

The particle velocity is obtained by the relation

T(T + 2Mc2 )
β2 = (2.3.14)
(T + Mc2 )2
where T is the kinetic energy of the particle and M is the particle rest mass.
58 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Data:
n=1.5 (PMMA)
T=1000 MeV
M c2 =938.3 MeV (proton)

Data inserted gives

1000(1000 + 2 · 938.3)
β2 = = 0.766
(1000 + 938.3)2
This gives β=0.875.

and
1
cos θ = = 0.762
0.875 · 1.5
θ=40.4◦

The reflection angle (r) is equal to the impinging angle (i). This results (see
Fig. 2.16) in θ = 2α. Thus α=20.2◦ .

Answer: The opening angle is 20◦ .

Solution exercise 2.7.

The range should be equal to the radius, r, of the ionization chamber expressed in
kg m−2 , i.e. ρr. The density of the air is given by
pT0
ρ = ρ0
p0 T
where p0 , p is the pressure at NTP and the pressure at measurement respectively, T0 , T
is the temperature at NTP and the temperature at measurement respectively and ρ0 is
the density of air at NTP.
The range of β-particles is given by different empirical relations. Two relations
often used are
(1.265−0.095 ln T β )
R1 = 4.12T β kg m−2 (2.3.15)

R2 = 5.30T β − 1.06 kg m−2 (2.3.16)

where T β is the maximal β-energy (MeV).
These relations are mainly derived for aluminum, but may be used for other low
atomic materials.

Data:
T β =1.710 MeV (32 P)
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 59

p0 =101.3 kPa
T0 =273.1 K, T=293 K
ρ0 =1.293 kg m−3
r=0.30 m

Data inserted in the relations for the β-particle range gives

R1 = 4.12 · 1.71(1.265−0.095 ln 1.71) = 7.90 kg m−2

R2 = 5.30 · 1.71 − 1.06 = 8.00 kg m−2

The pressure in the chamber is obtained by setting the range of the β-particles
(7.90 kg/m2 ) equal to the radius of the chamber.
p · 273.1
7.44 = 0.30 · 1.293
101.33 · 293

This gives p=2.21·103 kPa. With a range of 8.00 kg m−2 , p=2.24·103 kPa.
The ionization current is given by the equation

Af T̄ β
I= (2.3.17)
W̄air /e
where
A=40·103 Bq (source activity)
f =1.0 (number of β-particles per decay)
T̄ β =0.695·1.602 · 10−13 J (mean energy of the β-particles)
W̄air =33.97 eV (mean energy per produced ion pair in air)

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.17) gives

40 · 103 · 1 · 0.695 · 1.602 · 10−13

I= = 1.31 · 10−10 A
33.97

Answer: The pressure is 2.21 or 2.24 MPa, depending on the range equation. The
ionization current is 0.13 nA.

Solution exercise 2.8.

As the energy distribution of the protons is narrow and the scattering power is
small, it is possible to assume that the protons travel straightforward and are nearly
mono-energetic. Then it is possible to use the knowledge of residual ranges to
calculate the energy at a certain depth.
60 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Figure 2.17: Simulation of the arm in exercise 2.8.

The range of 150 MeV protons in soft tissue (Muscle, striated ICRU) is 159.1 kg m−2 .
The residual range in soft tissue after passing through the first part of the arm is 159.1-
40=119.1 kg m−2 . This corresponds to an energy of 128 MeV, which is the energy of the
protons when entering the bone.
The range of 128 MeV protons in bone (bone, compact, ICRU) is 128.6 kg m−2 .
The residual range after passing the bone is 128.6-0.04·1.8·103 kg/m3 =56.9 kg m−2 .
This corresponds to an energy of 80.7 MeV.
The range of 80.7 MeV protons in soft tissue is 53.2 kg m−2 . The thickness of the
last soft tissue part of arm is 40 kg m−2 . Thus the protons can pass the arm.
The residual range of the protons after passing through the arm is 53.2-
40=13.2 kg m−2 . This corresponds to an energy of 37.2 MeV.

Answer: The protons have an energy of 37 MeV after passing through the bone.

2.3.2 Photons

Solution exercise 2.9.

The ratio (µen /ρ) to (µtr /ρ) decreases slowly with energy. The relation between
(µen /ρ) and (µtr /ρ) is defined as (ICRU, 2011)

µen /ρ = µtr /ρ(1 − g)

where g is the part of the kinetic energy of the charged particles that is lost in
radiative processes. In this example the charged particles are electrons and positrons
and the main way the particles lose the energy in the form of photons is through
bremsstrahlung and to a smaller part when the positrons are annihilated in flight.
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 61

With increasing energy the probability for bremsstrahlung increases as well as pair
production, giving rise to more annihilation photons. This explains why the ratio
decreases from a value close to unity at low energies to less than 0.5 at 100 MeV. The
radiation yield at 100 MeV in Pb is around 0.76.

µtr /ρ is defined as (ICRU, 2011)

µtr µ
= f
ρ ρ
where P
fσ
f = PJ J
σJ
and f J is the average fraction of the incident particle energy that is transferred to ki-
netic energy of charged particles in an interaction type J.

Figure 2.18: Variation with photon energy of the ratios mass attenuation coefficient and mass en-
ergy absorption coefficient to mass energy transfer coefficient in lead.

The ratio (µ/ρ)/(µtr /ρ) has a more complex variation with energy, depending on
which interaction process that dominates. At very low energies below around 100 keV
the photoelectric effect dominates and below the binding energies of the L-electrons,
around 15 keV, there will mainly be interactions with the M-electrons and in princi-
ple all energy will be transferred to the photoelectrons or the Auger electrons. The
fine structure of the L-shells is not included in the figure. Above the L-shell binding
energies, L-electrons are emitted and some of the excitation energy will be obtained
62 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

as fluorescence L-x rays, resulting in a ratio slightly larger than unity. At 88 keV, the
binding energy of the K-electron, there is suddenly a sharp increase in the ratio. For
photons with an energy just above the binding energy, nearly no energy is left for the
kinetic energy of the photoelectron and the fluorescence yield is high. This will result
in a high ratio. With increasing photon energy, the photoelectrons will get more and
more energy and the ratio decreases.
With higher photon energies also the probability of photoelectric effect will de-
crease and the incoherent scatter will be more and more important. Between 500 and
600 keV the incoherent scattering begins to dominate over the photoelectric effect and
at 1.5 MeV the cross section is around ten times the cross section for photoelectric ef-
fect. At these energies the incoherent scattered electrons get slightly less than half of
the photon energy resulting in a σ/σtr slightly less than two. Thus when the photoelec-
tric effect loses influence the ratio µ/µtr increases. However, with further increasing
energy the fraction of energy going to the electron in incoherent scattering is increas-
ing and thus the ratio decreases for photon energies over around 1.5 MeV.
For energies above 45 MeV, pair production begins to dominate over incoherent
scattering. Most of the photon energy is transferred to the electron-positron pair
and this fraction is increasing with increasing photon energy. At 100 MeV around 99
percent of the photon energy is transferred to the electron-positron pair and the ratio
is close to unity.

Solution exercise 2.10.

The positrons produced only during the irradiation are obtained through the pair
production process, which is possible for photons with an energy over 1.022 MeV
(pair production in the nuclear field) or 2.044 MeV (pair production in the electron
field). The energy of these positrons is obtained by the relation

T+ + T− = hν − 2me c2 (2.3.18)

where T+ , T− are the kinetic energies of the positron and the electron(s), hν is the en-
ergy of the photon and me c2 is the rest energy of an electron.
The positron and the electron(s) share the energy with all possibilities between
zero and hν − 2me c2 . The energy distribution is rather uniform with the nearly same
probability for all possible energies. The positrons get slightly higher energies, in par-
ticular at low photon energies, where the interactions are close to the nucleus, as the
positive charge of the nucleus repels the positive charged positron and attracts the
negative charged electron.
The positrons can also be obtained through (γ ,n) reactions where a photon expels
a neutron from the nucleus. In some situations the new produced isotope may be
radioactive as e. g. in the reactions 12 C(γ ,n)11 C, 14 N(γ ,n)13 N and 16 O(γ ,n)15 O, which
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 63

are around in tissue. The produced radioactive nuclei emit positrons. The half lives
are 20.34 min for 11 C, 9.96 min for 13 N and, 12 s for 15 O respectively. The energy of the
photons needed for a (γ ,n) reaction depends on the nuclei and is 18.7 MeV for 12 C,
10.55 MeV for 14 N, and 15.6 MeV for 16 O. The energies of the positrons are independent
of the energy of the incoming photon and depends on the nuclear energy in the
disintegration. The energy is divided between the positron and the neutrino, and
there is an energy distribution of the positrons with maximum energies of 0.96 MeV
for 11 C, 1.20 MeV for 13 N, and 1.73 MeV for 15 O respectively.

Solution exercise 2.11.

The main interaction process at low atomic numbers for diagnostic x-ray energies is
incoherent scattering. At these energies the scattered photons have nearly the same
energy as the primary ones, as little energy is transferred to the electrons. Thus the
mean energy is close to 55 keV with a low attenuation in PMMA. With increasing
atomic number the probability for photoelectric effect increases and dominates for
atomic numbers over around 20 at the energies in the example. The photoelectric
effect results in emission of characteristic x rays. For elements like iron and copper,
the energies of the characteristic x rays are low, a few keV, and the photons are
to a high degree absorbed in the PMMA absorber. With increasing atomic number
the energy of the characteristic x rays increases and thus the transmission as well.
However with very high atomic numbers, the energy of the binding energy of the
K-shell electrons increases, and less photons from the 140 kV x-ray spectrum are able
to emit photoelectrons from the K-shell. Instead the photoelectric effect in the L-shell
increases, resulting in emission of L-x rays, with a lower energy and the transmission
through the PMMA absorber decreases.

Solution 2.12.
The attenuation in the filter of iron is given by

Φ(x) = Φ(0)e−µx (2.3.19)

Solve the equation for x

ln(Φ(x)/Φ(0))
x=− (2.3.20)
µ
where Φ(x) is the fluence after a filter thickness of x, Φ(0) is the fluence before the
filter, and µ is the linear attenuation coefficient.
There are characteristic x rays with different energies and frequencies. Below are
two different approximations compared.
a) Calculation for the most common energy, Kα1 (74.97 keV)

Data:
64 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

(µ/ρ)Fe =0.06921 m2 kg−1 (mass attenuation coefficient in Fe (74.97 keV))

ρFe =7.87·103 kg m−3 (density of Fe)
Φ(x)/Φ(0)=0.1

Data inserted in equation (2.3.20) gives

ln(0.1)
x=− = 0.0042 m
0.06921 · 7.87 · 103

b) Calculation for a weighted mean energy, K̄(76.60 keV).

Data:
(µ/ρ)Fe = 0.0658 m2 kg−1 (mass attenuation coefficient in Fe (76.60 keV))

ln(0.1)
x=− = 0.0044 m
0.0658 · 7.87 · 103

Answer: Thickness of iron is 4.2 mm or 4.4 mm depending on approximation.

Solution exercise 2.13.

The smallest attenuation for the secondary photons is obtained when the photons
are as oblique as possible without passing more than one absorbing disk (Datched
arrow in Fig. 2.19).

Figure 2.19: Illustration of passage of photons through a grid for diagnostic x rays.
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 65

The transmission of the primary radiation is given by

Φp = Φ0 e−µpAl d (2.3.21)

The transmission of the secondary radiation is given by

Φs = Φ0 e−µsAl 2w/ cos θ e−µsPb l/ cos θ (2.3.22)

where
d=1.7 mm (thickness of the grid).
w=0.20 mm (width of the Al-strip).
l=0.05 mm (width of the Pb-strip).
Φ0 =impinging photon fluence
µpAl =0.03688 ·2.7 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Al for primary radiation
(50 keV))
µsAl =0.05676 ·2.7·103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Al for secondary radiation
(40 keV))
µsPb =1.431·11.34·103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Pb for secondary radiation
(40 keV))
θ=the angle between the photon and the grid. θ is obtained through the relation
d
tan θ = (2.3.23)
2w + l

Data inserted gives tan θ=1.7/0.45=3.78 and θ=75.17◦ .

The ratio of the primary and second photon fluence is then given by
3
Φp Φ0 e−0.03688·2.7·10 ·0.0017
= 3 ·2·0.00020/ cos 75.17 −1.431·11.34·103 ·0.00005/ cos 75.17 = 25.3
Φs Φ0 e −0.05676·2.70·10 e

Answer: The ratio between primary and secondary photon fluence is 25.

Solution exercise 2.14.

The energy of the scattered photon is given by the relation

hν
hνs = hν
(2.3.24)
1+ me c2
(1 − cos θ)

The energy of the secondary photon shall be half of the primary photon.

Thus
hν hν
hνs = = hν
(2.3.25)
2 1+ (1 − cos θ)
me c2
66 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Figure 2.20: Incoherent scattering of a photon.

hν
2=1+ (1 − cos θ) (2.3.26)
me c2

me c2
hν = (2.3.27)
1 − cos θ
hνmin is obtained when cosθ=-1 and θ = 180◦

hν=0.511/2=0.256 MeV and θ=180◦ .

Answer: The electron will go in the forward direction and the photon is scat-
tered 180◦ . The smallest energy for which this is possible is 0.256 MeV.

Solution exercise 2.15.

When the scattering angle is increased, the scattered photon energy is decreasing
from the primary photon energy of 100 keV. With decreasing energy the mass attenu-
ation coefficient, µ/ρ is first increased and the transmission is decreased. At 88 keV,
µ/ρ suddenly drops as there is no possibility to expel K-electrons. The angle for which
the scattered energy is 88 keV is given by the relation

hν
hνs = hν
(2.3.28)
1+ me c2
(1 − cos θ)

where
hν=100 keV (primary photon energy)
hνs =88.0 keV (scattered photon energy)
me c2 =511 keV (electron rest mass energy).

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.28) gives

100
88 = 100
1+ − cos θ)
511 (1
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 67

Solving for θ gives cos θ=0.3032 and θ=72.35◦ .

The thickness of lead to obtain an increase in fluence of a factor 10 is obtained

through the relation
Φ e−(µ88− )x
f = 0 −(µ )x (2.3.29)
Φ0 88+
where
f =10 (ratio of fluences)
Φ0 = photon fluence before Pb-filter
µ88− =0.1912·11.34 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Pb for an energy just
below 88 keV)
µ88+ =0.7682·11.34 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Pb for an energy just
above 88 keV)
x= Pb filter thickness (m).

Data inserted in Eq (2.3.29) gives

3
Φ0 e−0.1912·11.34·10 x
10 = 3x
Φ−0.7682·11.34·10
0

x=0.35 mm.

Answer: The increase in counting rate is obtained at 72◦ . The thickness of the
Pb-filter is 0.35 mm.

Solution exercise 2.16.

The relation between the Compton scattered photon and the primary photon is given
by

hν
hνs = hν
(2.3.30)
1+ me c2
(1 − cos θ)
where hν is the primary photon energy, hνs is the scattered photon energy and me c2
is the electron rest mass energy (0.511 MeV).

Equation (2.3.30) can be rearranged by inverting, to give

1 1 1
= + (1 − cos θ) (2.3.31)
hνs hν me c2
The last factor is independent of the photon energy. This implies that in general the
scattered photon energy after n equal scatterings in the angle θ/n will be given by the
relation
1 1 n
= + (1 − cos(θ/n)) (2.3.32)
hνn hν me c2
68 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

In the example the total scattering angle θ is π radians obtained in 1, 2, 3 or infinite

number of equal scatterings for a primary photon energy of 1.17 MeV. Data inserted
gives
n=1

1 1 1
= + (1 − cos(π))
hν1 1.17 0.511
1 1 1
= + (1 + 1)
hν1 1.17 0.511
hν1 =0.210 MeV

n=2

1 1 2
= + (1 − cos(π/2))
hν2 1.17 0.511
1 1 2
= + (1 − 0)
hν2 1.17 0.511
hν2 =0.210 MeV

Note that the photon energy after 1 or 2 scatterings here is exactly the same.

n=3

1 1 3
= + (1 − cos(π/3))
hν3 1.17 0.511
1 1 3
= + (1 − 0.5)
hν3 1.17 0.511
hν3 =0.264 MeV

When n becomes large, π/n will become small and cos(π/n) may be written as
a series

π2 π4
cos(π/n) = 1 − 2
+ 4 − .... (2.3.33)
n 2! n 4!
This gives
1 1 n π2 π4
= + (1 − 1 + − + ...) (2.3.34)
hνn hν me c2 n2 2! n4 4!
When n→ ∞ then the last factor in the equation goes to zero and 1/hνn = 1/hν.

Thus
1 1
lim = (2.3.35)
n→∞ hνn hν
hν∞ =1.17 MeV
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 69

Answer: The energy of the scattered photon after being scattered in 180◦ is a)
0.21 MeV(n=1), b) 0.21 MeV(n=2), c) 0.26 Mev (n=3) and d) 1.17 MeV (n = ∞).

Solution exercise 2.17.

a) The kinetic energies of the photoelectrons are given by

T 0 = hν − BK,L,M (2.3.36)

where BK,L,M are the the binding energies of the K, L and M electrons respectively. This
energy is independent of the emission angle. As example BK =0.088 MeV. This gives

TK =2.04-0.088=1.95 MeV

b) The relation between the angle of the scattered photon, θ, and the angle,ϕ, of the
emitted Compton electron is e.g. given in Physics Handbook (Nordling and Osterman,
2006)
2
cos θ = 1 − (2.3.37)
(1 + hν/me c2 )2 tan2 ϕ + 1
where
hν=2.04 MeV (photon energy)
me c2 =0.511 MeV (electron rest mass)
ϕ=20◦ (emission angle of the Compton electron)

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.37) gives

2
cos θ = 1 −
(1 + 2.04/0.511)2 tan2 20 + 1
cos θ=0.536

The energy of the compton electron is given by

hν(hν/me c2 )(1 − cos θ)

T0 = (2.3.38)
1 + (hν/me c2 )(1 − cos θ)
Data inserted Eq. (2.3.38) gives
2.04 · 2.04/0.511(1 − 0.535)
T0 = = 1.33 MeV
1 + 2.04/0.511(1 − 0.535)
c) In pair production the photon energy is shared between the electron and the
positron in all configurations. However, an energy corresponding to 2me c2 is used to
produce the electron-positron pair and is not available as kinetic energy. Thus the ki-
netic energy to be shared between the electron and the positron is

T 0 = hν − 2me c2 = 2.04 − 2 · 0.511 = 1.02 MeV (2.3.39)

70 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

This holds if the influence of the charge of the nucleus is neglected. In general the
energy distribution between the electron and the positron has a nearly uniform
shape with the same probabilities for the two particles. However, in particular at
low energies, the positive charge will have an attractive force on the electron and a
repulsive force on the positron. All possible energies, between zero and 1.02 MeV can
be obtained in all emission angles. In the emission angle of 20◦ there is a slight larger
probability for the higher energies.

Answer: The electron energies are a) 1.91 MeV and higher depending on the in-
teractive electron shell, b) 1.33 MeV, c) 0-1.02 MeV.

Solution exercise 2.18.

µtr /ρ is defined as (ICRU, 2011)
µtr µ
= f
ρ ρ
where P
fσ
f = PJ J
σJ
and f J is the average fraction of the incident particle energy that is transferred to ki-
netic energy of charged particles in an interaction type J.
For photons this can be written as

µtr /ρ = (µ/ρ)(T̄/hν) (2.3.40)

where T̄ is the mean energy of the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons. To
calculate the mean energy of the emitted electrons it is necessary to make separate
calculations for all different interaction probabilities; photoelectric effect, incoherent
scattering and, pair production in the nuclear and the electron field.

a) Photoelectric effect.

The electrons emitted in the photoelectric effect are photoelectrons and Auger
electrons including Coster-Cronig electrons. The energy not obtained as kinetic en-
ergy of the electrons is obtained as energy of fluorescence x rays. It is more practical
to calculate the photon energy emitted and deduct it from the primary photon energy,
to get the electron energy. Then the mass energy transfer coefficient τtr /ρ for the
photoelectric effect can be written as
 
p ω hν (1 − pK )pL ωL hνL
τtr /ρ = (τ/ρ) 1 − K K K − −... (2.3.41)
hν hν

where
τ/ρ = 0.503 · 10−3 m2 kg−1 (mass cross section for photoelectric effect (2.0 Mev))
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 71

pK =0.79 (probability for a photoelectric effect in the K-shell)

pL =0.75 (probability for a photoelectric effect in the LI -shell, for the photons not
interacting in the K-shell. There are three L-subshells, but in these calculations
only the LI -shell is included. As the contribution from the L-shells is small, this
approximation will not affect the numerical value significantly)
ωK =0.96 (fluorescence yield for K-shell)
ωL =0.32 (fluorescence yield for the LI -shell)
hνK =75 keV (mean energy of the K-x rays)
hνL =12 keV (mean energy of the L-x rays)
hν=2.0 Mev (primary photon energy)

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.41) gives

 
0.79 · 0.96 · 0.075 (1 − 0.79)0.75 · 0.32 · 0.012
τtr /ρ = (τ/ρ) 1 − − −...
2.0 2.0
τtr /ρ = 0.503 · 10−3 · 0.969 = 0.487 · 10−3 m2 kg−1

b) Incoherent scattering

To calculate the mean energy of the electrons emitted in incoherent scattering,

it is possible in the first approximation, to use the Klein-Nishina relation to obtain
the electron energy distribution. This mean energy is then independent of the atomic
number. The value is taken from Table 2.1.

The mean electron energy obtained for 2 MeV photons is T̄incoh =1.062 MeV

(σ/ρ) = 0.348 · 10−2 m2 kg−1 (Klein-Nishina cross section (2 MeV))

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.40) for incoherent scattering gives

σtr /ρ = 0.348 · 10−2 (1.062/2.0) = 0.185 · 10−2 m2 kg−1

c) Pair production

In pair production the electron and positron will obtain the photon energy, ex-
cept the energy needed to produce the positron and the electron, 2me c2 . Thus

T̄pair = hν − 2me c2 (2.3.42)

(κ/ρ) = 0.545 · 10−3 m2 kg−1 (mass cross section for pair production (2 MeV))
72 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.40) for pair production gives

κtr /ρ = 0.545 · 10−3 2.0−1.022

2.0 = 0.267 · 10−3 m2 kg−1

The total mass energy transfer coefficient is now obtained by adding all sepa-
rate contributions
µtr /ρ = τtr /ρ + σtr /ρ + κtr /ρ (2.3.43)

Thus

µtr /ρ = 0.487 · 10−3 + 1.85 · 10−3 + 0.267 · 10−3 = 2.60 · 10−3 m2 kg−1

Corresponding data in Higgins et al (Higgins et al, 1991) are

µtr /ρ = 0.49 · 10−3 + 1.81 · 10−3 + 0.27 · 10−3 = 2.57 · 10−3 m2 kg−1 .

There is a good agreement between the data in these calculations and the more
extensive ones in the table by Higgins in spite of the approximations. The main
difference is for incoherent scattering probably due to the assumption that the
electron is free and at rest in our calculation, while the table by Higgins includes the
correction for electron binding energies.

Answer: The mass energy transfer coefficient for 2.0 Mev photons in Pb is
2.57 · 10−3 m2 kg−1 .

Solution exercise 2.19.

Primary photon fluence at (A)

Assume that the photon fluence just above the beam flattening filter is Φ0 . At-
tenuation and the inverse square law will give that the primary photon fluence at (A)
is
Φ l2 e−µp d
Φp = 0 1 (2.3.44)
(l1 + l2 )2
where l1 is the distance from radiation source to filter, l2 is the distance from filter
to phantom surface, µp is the linear attenuation coefficient in Pb and d is the filter
thickness.

Secondary photon fluence at (B)

Assume that all secondary photons are produced at the central axis. This is a
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 73

Figure 2.21: Illustration of the treatment head used in the calculations in exercise 2.19.

very good approximation considering the geometry. All coherent scattered photons
are considered as primary photons as they have the same energy as the primary
photons and are emitted at rather small angles. There are thus three possible interac-
tion processes, photoelectric effect, incoherent scattering and pair production. The
contribution from photoelectric effect is neglected as the attenuation of the produced
fluorescence x rays is high.

a) Incoherent scattering

The fluence of scattered photons at (B) is obtained by integrating over the total
thickness, taking into consideration the attenuation of both the primary and the
secondary radiation.
Rd eσ
Φ0 ( ddΩ )θ s1 ρPb Ne e−µp x e−µs1 (d−x)/ cos θ dx
Φs,incoh = 0 (2.3.45)
(l2 / cos θ)2
Solving the integral gives
eσ
Φ0 ( ddΩ )θ s1 Ne e−µs1 (d/ cos θ) (1 − e−d(µp −µs1 / cos θ) )
Φs,incoh = (2.3.46)
(l2 / cos θ)2 ((µp /ρ) − (µs1 /ρ)/ cos θ)

b) Pair production
74 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

The fluence of annihilation photons at (B), assuming that all produced positrons are
annihilated in the filter, is obtained in a corresponding way.
Rd
Φ0 2(κ/ρ)ρPb s1 e−µp x e−µs2 (d−x)/ cos Θ dx
Φs,pair = 0 (2.3.47)
4π(l2 / cos θ)2
Solving the integral gives
Φ0 2(κ/ρ)s1 e−µs2 d/ cos Θ (1 − e−d(µp −µs2 / cos Θ) )
Φs,pair = (2.3.48)
4π(l2 / cos θ)2 ((µp /ρ) − (µs2 /ρ)/ cos Θ)

Data:
l1 =0.200 m (distance from radiation source to filter)
l2 =0.800 m (distance from filter to phantom surface)
d=0.007 m (filter thickness)
de σ −31
dΩ =74.0·10 m2 /steradian per electron (Klein-Nishina cross section for scattering
in angle θ (2.0 Mev))
θ=7◦ (angle at which the photons are emitted to reach point (B))
s1 =0.0252 · π m2 (area of the beam flattening filter)
Ne =2.384·1026 (number of electrons per kg in Pb)
hνs1 =1.94 MeV (incoherent scattered photons)
hνs2 =0.511 MeV (annihilation photons)
µp /ρ=4.60·10−3 m2 kg−1 (mass attenuation coefficient for the primary photons
(2.0 Mev) in Pb)
µs1 /ρ=4.65·10−3 m2 kg−1 (mass attenuation coefficient for the scattered photons
(1.94 MeV) from the incoherent scattering in Pb)
µs2 /ρ=1.572·10−2 m2 kg−1 (mass attenuation coefficient for the annihilation photons
(0.511 MeV) from the pair production in Pb)
κ/ρ=5.45·10−4 m2 kg−1 (mass cross section for pair production in Pb (2 MeV))
ρPb =11.34·103 kg m−3 (density of Pb)

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.44), (2.3.46) and (2.3.48) gives

a) Primary photon fluence

−3
·0.007·11.34·103
Φ0 · 0.2002 e−4.60·10
Φp = = 2.776 · 10−2 Φ0 m−2
1.02

b) Incoherent scattering

−3 3
Φ0 · 0.0252 · π · 74.0 · 10−31 · 2.384 · 1026 · e−4.65·10 ·11.34·10 (0.007/ cos 7)
Φs,incoh =
(0.8/ cos 7)2 (4.60 · 10−3 − 4.65 · 10−3 / cos 7)
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 75

3
(4.60·10−3 −4.65·10−3 / cos 7)
× (1 − e−0.007·11.34·10 )

Φs,incoh =2.928·10−4 Φ0 m−2

c) Pair production

−2 3
Φ0 2 · 5.45 · 10−4 · 0.0252 · π · e−1.572·10 ·11.34·10 (0.007/ cos 7)
Φs,pair =
4π(0.8/ cos 7)2 (4.60 · 10−3 − 1.572 · 10−2 / cos 7)
3
(4.60·10−3 −1.572·10−2 / cos 7)
× (1 − e−0.007·11.34·10 )

Φs,pair =9.56·10−6 Φ0 m−2

Φs =Φs,incoh +Φs,pair =2.928·10−4 +9.56·10−6 =3.023·10−4 Φ0 m−2

The ratio between the secondary and primary photon fluence is thus

Φs 3.023 · 10−4 Φ0
= = 1.09 · 10−2
Φp 2.776 · 10−2 Φ0

Answer: The ratio of the secondary and the primary photon fluence is 0.011.

Solution exercise 2.20.

The electron fluence just behind the disk from a thin slice dx is given by

Figure 2.22: Sketch of the PMMA sheet in exercise 2.20 where the electrons are produced.

dΦe = Φ(σ/ρ)e−(µ/ρ)ρx e−(β1 /ρ)ρ(d−x) ρ dx + Φ2(κ/ρ)e−(µ/ρ)ρx e−(β2 /ρ)ρ(d−x) ρ dx (2.3.49)

76 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

The first factor describes the contribution from incoherent scatter (one electron)
and the second factor the contribution from pair production (one electron and one
positron. The third electron in the pair production in the electron field is neglected as
it often gets a very low energy and thus will be absorbed in the disk. The contribution
from photoelectric effect can be neglected for this high photon energy.
The total electron fluence is obtained by integrating over the whole disk. Integra-
tion over the thickness d gives

e−(µ/ρ)ρd − e−(β1 /ρ)ρd e−(µ/ρ)ρd − e−(β2 /ρ)ρd

Φe = Φ(σ/ρ) + Φ2(κ/ρ) (2.3.50)
β1 /ρ − µ/ρ β2 /ρ − µ/ρ

where Φ is the photon fluence just above the disk, σ/ρ is the mass incoherent scat-
tering cross section, κ/ρ is the mass pair production cross section, µ/ρ is the mass
attenuation coefficient, β1 /ρ is the mass absorption coefficient for the electrons from
the incoherent scatter, and β2 /ρ is the mass absorption coefficient for the electrons
from the pair production.

The same absorption coefficient for electrons and positrons is assumed

a) Disk of PMMA

Data:
(σ/ρ)PMMA =2.144·10−3 m2 kg−1 (mass scattering cross section for 7 MeV)
(κ/ρ)PMMA =3.22·10−4 m2 kg−1 (mass pair production cross section for 7 MeV)
(µ/ρ)PMMA =2.47·10−3 m2 kg−1 (mass attenuation coefficient for 7 MeV)
ρd=15 kg m−2 (thickness of PMMA)
Φ = 1.0 · 1015 m−2 (photon fluence at disk)

The mass absorption coefficient for the electrons is obtained from the relation
3.5Z
βPMMA /ρ = m2 kg−1
AE1.14

PMMA has the chemical composition (C5 H8 O2 ). This gives Z/A=54/100=0.54.

For incoherent scatter the maximum electron energy, that shall be used in the
equation is obtained, when the scattered photon has its lowest energy, i.e. when the
electron is emitted in the forward direction and the photon is scattered in 180◦ . The
electron energy is thus with hν=7.0 Mev
7.0
T = 7.0 − 7.0
1+ 0.511 (1− cos 180)

This gives
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 77

T=6.75 MeV

and
3.5 · 0.54
βPMMA,1 /ρ = = 0.214 m2 kg−1
6.751.14

For pair production the electron energy is obtained by assuming that the total
available energy is given to either the electron or the positron. The available energy
is equal to the photon energy reduced with 2me c2 , 1.022 MeV. Thus

T=7.0-1.022=5.98 MeV

3.5 · 0.54
βPMMA,2 /ρ = = 0.246 m2 kg−1 (2.3.51)
5.981.14
Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.50) gives
−3
e−2.47·10 ·15 − e−0.214·15
Φe = 1.0 · 1015 · 2.144 · 10−3
0.214 − 2.47 · 10−3
−2.47·10−3 ·15
15 −4 e − e−0.246·15 −2
+ 1.0 · 10 · 2 · 3.22 · 10 m
0.246 − 2.47 · 10−3
The electron fluence with a PMMA disk is Φe =1.184·1013 m−2 .

b) Disk of lead

Data:
(σ/ρ)Pb =1.57·10−3 m2 kg−1 (mass scattering cross section for 7 MeV)
(κ/ρ)Pb =2.87·10−3 m2 kg−1 (mass pair production cross section for 7 MeV)
(µ/ρ)Pb =4.53·10−3 m2 kg−1 (mass attenuation coefficient for 7 MeV)

The mass absorption coefficient for the electrons is obtained from the equation
0.77Z 0.31
βPb /ρ =
E1.14
Here Z=82 and the same electron energies as for the calculations for PMMA may be
used.

Incoherent electrons:
0.77 · 820.31
βPb,1 /ρ = = 0.342 m2 kg−1
6.751.14

Pair production electrons:

0.77 · 820.31
βPb,2 /ρ = = 0.393 m2 kg−1
5.981.14
78 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

These data inserted in the Eq. (2.3.50) gives

−4.53·10−3 ·15
15 −3 e − e−0.342·15
Φe = 1.0 · 10 · 1.57 · 10
0.342 − 4.53 · 10−3
−3
e−4.53·10 ·15 − e−0.393·15 −2
+ 1.0 · 1015 · 2 · 2.87 · 10−3 m
0.393 − 4.53 · 10−3

The electron fluence with a lead disk is Φe =1.81·1013 m−2 .

Answer: The electron fluence is for a PMMA disk 1.18·1013 m−2 and for a lead
disk 1.81·1013 m−2 .

Solution exercise 2.21.

a) Sphere of lead The dominating interaction process for a photon with an energy

Figure 2.23: Irradiation geometry in exercise 2.21.

of 100 keV in lead is the photoelectric effect. The fluence rate of secondary K-x rays,
neglecting self-absorption in the sphere, is given by the relation

Φ̇0 m(τK /ρ)ωK

Φ̇s,Pb = (2.3.52)
4πl2

where Φ̇s,Pb is the fluence rate of secondary K x rays at the measuring point, Φ̇0 is
the fluence rate of primary photons at the center of the sphere, m is the mass of the
sphere, τK /ρ is the mass cross section for photoelectric effect in the K-shell, ωK is the
fluorescence yield of K-x rays and l is the distance from sphere to measuring point.

b) Sphere of carbon
Only incoherent scattered photons are included in the calculations. The fluence rate
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 79

of these photons at angle θ, neglecting self-absorption in the sphere is given by the

relation
eσ
Φ̇◦ mNe ( ddΩ )θ
Φ̇s,Cs = 2
(2.3.53)
l

where Ne is NA Z/ma (number of electrons per mass unit) and (de σ/dΩ)θ is the Klein-
Nishina cross section per electron. The ratio between the fluence with a carbon sphere
and a lead sphere is then

Φ̇s,Cs Φ̇ o mNe ( ddΩ

eσ
)θ 4πl2
= (2.3.54)
Φ̇s,Pb Φ̇ o m(τK /ρ)ωK l2

After simplification
eσ
Φ̇s,Cs Ne ( ddΩ )θ 4π
= (2.3.55)
Φ̇s,Pb (τK /ρ)ωK
The angle θ should be chosen in order to have the same energy of the incoherent scat-
tered photons and the KαII x rays.
The energy of the scattered photons is obtained from the Compton equation.
hν
hνs = hν
(2.3.56)
1+ me c2
(1 − cos θ)

The energy of KαII x rays for lead is 74.97 keV. This is inserted in Eq. (2.3.56)
100
74.97 = 100
(2.3.57)
1+ − cos θ)
511 (1

This gives
cos θ=-0.706 and θ=135◦

Data:
(de σ/dΩ)135 =35.3·10−31 m2 /steradian (Klein-Nishina cross section for 100 keV)
ωK =0.97 (fluorescence yield in Pb for 100 keV)
τK /ρ = (τK /τ)(τ/ρ)=0.788·0.524 m2 kg−1 (mass photoelectric cross section in C for
100 keV)
Ne =6.022·1026 · 6/12 (number of electrons per kg in C)

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.55) gives

Φ̇s,C 6.022 · 1026 · 6 · 35.3 · 10−31 4π

=
Φ̇s,Pb 12 · 0.788 · 0.524 · 0.97

Φ̇s,C / Φ̇s,Pb =3.33·10−2

80 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Answer: The ratio between the fluence rates with a sphere of carbon and a
sphere of lead is 0.033.

Solution exercise 2.22.

The total filter thickness is obtained from the equations below

Figure 2.24: Irradiation geometry with the beam flattening filter in exercise 2.22.

At central axis:
Φc = Φ(0)e−dµPb,7 (2.3.58)

At field edge:
Φe = Φ(θ)e−dµAl,6 / cos θ (2.3.59)

Φc = Φe (for full flattening)

Thus
Φ(0)e−dµPb,7 = Φ(θ)e−dµAl,6 / cos θ (2.3.60)

and
ln(Φ(θ)/Φ(0))
d= (2.3.61)
µAl,6 / cos θ − µPb,7

where Φ(0) is the fluence at central axis before the filter, Φ(θ) is the fluence at field
edge before the filter, d is the filter thickness and θ is the emission angle at field edge.
µPb,7 =0.00453·11.34 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Pb for 7 Mev)
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 81

µAl,6 =0.00266·2.70 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Al for 6 Mev)

The fluence at the edge of the field is given by the equation

Φ(0)
Φ(θ) = (Tθ)1.4
(2.3.62)
1 + 1.731.4

T = 21 MeV (electron energy in MeV)

The angle θ is obtained from tan θ = 20/100 and θ=0.197 rad=11.29◦

Thus
Φ(0)
Φ(θ) = (21·0.197)1.4
= 0.228Φ(0) (2.3.63)
1+ 1.731.4

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.61) gives

Figure 2.25: Transmission through the beam flattening filter.

ln 0.228
d= = 33.56 mm (2.3.64)
0.00266 · 2.70 · 103 / cos 11.29 − 0.00453 · 11.34 · 103
d=33.56 mm

To obtain the same fluence at a distance of 10 cm from the central axis the fol-
lowing relation must hold (assuming that the photon energy decreases linearly with
distance from the central axis).

Φ(α)e−tµAl,6.5 / cos α e−(d−t)µPb,6.5 / cos α = Φ(0)e−µPb,7 d (2.3.65)

82 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Solving t gives
ln(Φ(α)/Φ(0))e d(µPb,6.5 / cosα −µPb,7 )
t= (2.3.66)
(µAl,6.5 − µPb,6.5 / cos α)

where Φ(α) is the fluence half way to the edge of the field before the filter, α is the
opening angle at 10 cm from the central axis and t is the thickness of Al-layer half
way to the edge of the field.

The angle α is obtained from tan α = 10/100 and α=0.10 rad=5.73◦

The fluence, Φ(α), at the 10 cm from the central axis is then given by the equa-
tion
Φ(0)
Φ(α) = 1.4 (2.3.67)
1 + (21·0.10)
1.731.4
Φ(0.10)=0.4326Φ(0)

µPb,6.5 =0.00446·11.34 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation in Pb for 6.5 Mev)

µAl,6.5 =0.00259·2.70 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation in Al for 6.5 Mev)

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.66) gives

3
ln(0.4326)e0.03356·11.34·10 (0.00446/ cos 0.10−0.00453)
t= = 0.0188 m (2.3.68)
(0.00259 · 2.70 · 103 − 0.00446 · 11.34 · 103 / cos 5.73)
This implies that the thickness of Pb= 33.5-18.8=14.7 mm.

The ratio of the thicknesses of Pb and Al: 14.7/19.5=0.75

Answer: The ratio between the lead and aluminum thicknesses is 0.75 .

Solution exercise 2.23.

The energies after the second disk shall be 80±10 keV or 400±50 keV. Which type of
interactions in the disks will result in these energies?

a) Incoherent scattering in the first disk and the second disk.

The energy of the scattered photons is given by the Compton equation.

hν
hνs = hν
(2.3.69)
1+ me c2
(1 − cos θ)
With hν=50 MeV and θ=45◦ the energy of the scattered photons is
50
hνs1 = 50
= 1.686 MeV
1+ 0.511 (1 − cos 45)
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 83

Figure 2.26: Irradiation geometry in exercise 2.23

Assume that these photons are scattered once more in 45◦ in the second disk. The
energy will then become

1.686
hνs2 = 1.686
= 0.86 MeV
1+ 0.511 (1
− cos 45)

This is not an energy within the given ranges and will not be considered.

b) Pair production in the first disk and incoherent scattering in the second disk.

The energy of the secondary photons from the first disk is 0.511 MeV (annihi-
lation photons). Incoherent scattering of these photons in the second disk will
give
0.511
hνs3 = 0.511
1 + 0.511 (1 − cos 45)
hνs3 =0.395 MeV (within the range)

c) Photoelectric effect in the second disk.

The energy of the fluorescence x rays is around 80 keV and within the given
range.

Calculation of the fluence rate.

84 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Contribution of photons in the 400±50 keV range is thus obtained from a pair
production in the first disk and incoherent scattering in the second disk.
The fluence rate of annihilation photons at the second disk is given by (assuming
all positrons are annihilated)

2κ/ρ
Φ̇sp = Φ̇0 ρd1 S1 (2.3.70)
4πl21

where Φ̇0 is the impinging fluence rate at the first disk, d1 is the thickness of the first
disk, S1 is the beam area, l1 is the distance from the first disk to the second disk, κ/ρ
is the mass cross section for pair production and ρ is the density of lead.

The fluence rate of scattered photons in the energy range 400 ± 50 keV at the
detector is then given by

de σ 1 2κ/ρ de σ 1
Φ̇s = Φ̇sp N0 d2 S2 = Φ̇0 ρd1 S1 N0 d2 S2 (2.3.71)
dΩ l22 4πl21 dΩ l22

where Φ̇sp is the impinging fluence rate of annihilation photons at the second disk,
N0 is the number of electrons/volume unit in the disk, d2 is the thickness of the
second disk, de σ/ dΩ is the Klein-Nishina cross section, l2 is the distance from the
second disk to the detector and S2 is the disk area.

Data:
Φ̇0 =3.0·1010 m−2 s−1
d1 =10 mm
S1 = π·32 mm2
l1 =50 mm
κ/ρ=0.770 ·10−2 m2 kg−1 (50 MeV)
N0 =6.022·1026 · 11.34 · 103 · 82/208 (number of electrons per m3 )
d2 =0.10 mm
de σ/ dΩ=39·10−31 m2 /steradian and electron (hν=0.511 MeV)
l2 =50 mm
S2 =10.0 mm2

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.71) gives

3.0 · 1010 · 11.34 · 103 · 0.010 · 0.0032 · π · 2 · 0.770 · 10−2

Φ̇s =
4π · 0.052
6.022 · 10 · 11.34 · 10 · 82 · 1.0 · 10−4 · 10 · 10−6 · 39 · 10−31
26 3
×
208 · 0.052

Φ̇s =198 m−2 s−1

 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 85

c) Photoelectric effect in the second disk.

Contribution of photons in the 80±10 keV range is obtained from a pair produc-
tion or an incoherent scattering in the first disk followed by a photoelectric effect in
the second disk. This will give K-x rays within the energy range 80±10 keV.

A) Pair production in the first disk and photoelectric effect in the second disk.

The fluence rate of fluorescence K-x rays is given by

Φ̇sp S2 (τK1 /ρ)ρd2 ωK Φ̇◦ ρd1 S1 2(κ/ρ) S2 (τK1 /ρ)ρd2 ωK
Φ̇spair,K = = (2.3.72)
4πl22 4πl21 4πl22

B) Incoherent scattering in the first disk and photoelectric effect in the second disk.

The fluence rate of fluorescence K-x rays is given by

de σ
Φ̇ sincoh S2 (τK2 /ρ)ρd2 ωK Φ̇0 N0 S1 d o dΩ S2 (τK2 /ρ)ρd2 ωK
Φ̇sincoh,K = 2
= 2
(2.3.73)
4πl2 l1 4πl22
where τK /ρ=τ/ρ · (τK /τ) is the mass cross section for photoelectric effect in the K-shell
and ωK is the fluorescence yield for K-x rays.

Data:
τK1 /ρ=0.798·10−2 · 0.788 m2 kg−1 (hν=0.511 MeV)
τK2 /ρ=0.706·10−2 · 0.788 m2 kg−1 (hν=1.69 MeV)
ωK =0.967
de σ/dΩ=1.3·10−31 m2 /steradian and electron (hν=50 MeV)

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.72) gives for A)

3.0 · 1010 · 11.34 · 103 · 0.010 · 0.0032 · π · 2 · 0.770 · 10−2
Φ̇spair,K =
4 · π · 0.052
0.798 · 10 · 11.34 · 103 · 10 · 10−6 · 1.0 · 10−4 · 0.967 · 0.788
−2
×
4 · π · 0.052
Check of units:

kg · m · m2 · m2 m2 · m2 · kg · m 1
= 2
m2 · s · m3 · kg · m2 kg · m3 m2 m ·s

Φ̇spair,K = 1.035 · 102 m−2 s−1

Data inserted Eq. (2.3.73) gives for B)

3.0 · 1010 · 11.34 · 103 · π · 0.0032 · 1.0 · 10−2 · 1.3 · 10−31 · 6.022 · 1026 · 82
Φ̇sincoh,K =
0.052 · 208
86 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

0.706 · 10−2 · 11.34 · 103 · 10 · 10−6 · 1.0 · 10−4 · 0.967 · 0.788

×
4 · π · 0.052
Check of units:

electron · m · m2 · m2 m2 · m2 · kg · m 1
= 2
m2 · s · m3 · electron · m2 kg · m3 m2 m ·s
Φ̇ sincohK =2.3 m−2 s−1

Total fluence rate for K-x rays is thus

Φ̇ s = 1.035 · 102 + 2.3 = 1.06 · 102 m−2 s−1

During a time t the detector is hit by

N=Φ̇tS3 (number of photons)

Data:
t=3600 s (irradiation time)
S3 =500 mm2 (detector area)

Data inserted gives the number of photons in the energy range 400±50 keV

N400 = 198 · 3600 · 500 · 10−6 =356

Number of photons in the energy range 80±10 keV

N80 = 1.06 · 103 · 3600 · 500 · 10−6 =1.91·102

Answer: Number of photons in the energy range 400±50 keV is 3.6·102 and the
number of photons in the energy range 80±10 keV is 1.9·102

Solution exercise 2.24.

The fluence rate of the scattered photons at the detector is given by
eσ
mNe ddΩ
Φ̇s = Φ̇0 2
(2.3.74)
l2

where Φ̇s is the fluence rate of scattered photons at detector, Φ̇0 is the fluence rate of
primary photons at aluminum cylinder, ddΩ eσ
is the Klein-Nishina cross section, Ne is
the number of electrons per mass unit, m is the mass of the aluminum cylinder and
l2 is the the distance between the aluminum cylinder and the detector.
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 87

Figure 2.27: Irradiation geometry in exercise 2.24.

Fluence of transmitted photons through the lead shield is given by

Φ̇0 l21 −µPb d

Φ̇t = e (2.3.75)
l23

where Φ̇t is the fluence rate of transmitted photons at detector, l1 is the distance
between the x-ray source and the aluminum scatterer, µPb is the linear attenuation
coefficient in lead, d is the thickness of lead shield and l3 is the distance between the
x-ray source and the detector.

Data:
de σ −31 2
dΩ =30·10 m /steradian per electron (hν=80 keV)
Ne =6.022·1026 ·13/27 (number of electrons per kg
m=(0.5·10−3 )2 · π · 12 · 10−3 · 2.7 · 103 kg
l1 =500 mm=0.50 m
l2 =200 mm=0.20 m
µPb = 0.2417 · 11.34 · 103 m−1 (hν=80 keV)
√ √
l3 = 0.502 + 0.202 = 0.29 m

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.74) gives

(0.50 · 10−3 )2 · π · 12 · 10−3 · 2.7 · 103 · 6.022 · 1026 · 13 · 30 · 10−31

Φ̇s = Φ̇0
27 · 0.202
−7
= 5.534 · 10 Φ̇0

Check of units:

kg · electron · m2 1
=
m2 · s · kg · electron · m2 m2 · s
Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.75) gives for the transmitted photons
3
Φ̇0 · 0.502 e−0.2417·11.34·10 ·d
Φ̇t = √
( 0.29)2
88 | Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

According to information

Φ̇t = 0.02 · Φ̇s

Thus
3
Φ̇0 · 0.502 · e−0.2417·11.34·10 ·d
√ = 0.02 · 5.534 · 10−7 Φ̇0
( 0.29)2
Solving the equation gives

d=6.6 mm

Answer: The thickness of the lead shield needs to be 6.6 mm.

Solution exercise 2.25.

Figure 2.28: Simulation of the arm in exercise 2.25.

The possible interaction processes in the simulated arm are photoelectric effect or
incoherent scattering.
The energy of incoherent scattered photons, with a primary energy of 100 keV is
at a scattering angle of 120◦
100
hνs = 100
= 77 keV (2.3.76)
1+ 511 (1
− cos 120)

This energy is not in the expected energy interval 80-90 keV.

Thus photons with an energy within the energy interval are Kβ fluorescence x rays
from the K-shell produced in Pb with the energy 85.5 keV (mean energy).
 Solutions in Interaction of Ionizing Radiation | 89

The photon fluence at the measuring point is given by

Φ0 (τK /ρ)ωKβ mPb −µp,w d1 −µp,Al d2 −µp,Pb d3 −µs,water d1 −µs,Al d2 −µs,Pb d3
Φs = e e e e e e (2.3.77)
4πl2
where
Φ0 = 4.5 · 1012 m−2 (primary photon fluence at scatterer)
mPb = 0.03 · π · 0.00052 · 11.34 · 103 kg (mass of lead)
τK /ρ = (τK /τ)(τ/ρ) = 0.788 · 0.524 m2 kg−1 (cross-section for photoelectric effect in
the K-shell (100 keV))
ωKβ =0.21 (fluorescence yield for Kβ -x rays in Pb)
l=0.50 m (distance between center of scatterer and measuring point)
d1 =5.0 − 1.5=3.5 cm=0.035 m (thickness of water)
d2 =1.5 − 0.05=1.45 cm=0.0145 m (thickness of aluminum)
d3 =0.0005 m (thickness of lead)
µp,water = 0.01711 · 1.0 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in water for the
primary photons (100 keV))
µp,Al = 0.01706 · 2.7 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Al for the primary
photons (100 keV))
µp,Pb = 0.5552 · 11.34 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Pb for the primary
photons (100 keV))
µs,water = 0.01796 · 1.0 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in water for the
secondary photons (85.5 keV))
µs,Al = 0.0191 · 2.7 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Al for the secondary
photons (85.5 keV))
µs,Pb = 0.2051 · 11.34 · 103 m−1 (linear attenuation coefficient in Pb for the secondary
photons (85.5 keV))
ρwater = 1.0 · 103 kg/m3 , ρAl = 2.7 · 103 kg/m3 , ρPb = 11.34 · 103 kg/m3

Data inserted in Eq. (2.3.77) gives

4.5 · 1012 · 0.788 · 0.524 · 0.21 · 0.03 · π · 0.00052 · 11.34 · 103
Φs =
4 · π · 0.502
3
·0.035 −0.01706·2.7·103 ·0.0145 −0.5552·11.34·103 ·0.0005
× e−.01711·1.0·10 e e
−0.01796·1.0·103 ·0.035 −0.0191·2.7·103 ·0.0145 −0.2051·11.34·103 ·0.0005
×e e e
4 −2
Φs =3.169·10 m

Answer: The photon fluence in the energy range 80-90 keV is 3.2·104 m−2 .

Bibliography

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