UNIT VI Solid state Devices

Solid state Devices or Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the
electronic properties of semiconductor materials, like silicon, germanium, and gallium
arsenide, as well as organic semiconductors and others. Basic circuit elements as resistor,
capacitor and inductors with other device like diodes, transistors, UJTs, FET-MOSFET,
thyristors, LEDs, SCR, TRIAC etc. are the solid state devices commonly used in electronics
and electrical circuits. Now, ICs used to performs the same function as a larger circuit made
from discrete components.

Therefore, some descriptions are now given bellow for basic circuit elements used in any
electrical/electronic circuit.

Resistors: A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical
current in an electronic circuit. Also, a resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical
component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits,
resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active
elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can
dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in
power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances
that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can
be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Electronic symbols and notation

Two typical schematic diagram symbols are as

follows:

(a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor),

and (c) potentiometer axial-lead resistors
Type Passive

IEC resistor symbol Working principle Electric

resistance
The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the
relationship specified by Ohm's law: Electronic symbol

V= I.R

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a Two common schematic symbols
resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the
constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is
attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes
flows through that resistor.
At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is
calculated as: P= I2.R=V.I=V2/R where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and I
(amps) is the current flowing through it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be
derived. This power is converted into heat which must be dissipated by the resistor's package
before its temperature rises excessively. Resistors are rated according to their maximum
power dissipation. Discrete resistors in solid-state electronic systems are typically rated as
1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. They usually absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and
require little attention to their power rating. Depending upon the use; resistors may have
different kinds. And as per requirement these resistors can be used in circuit either parallel
type or series type.

Series and parallel resistors

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual resistance
values.

Req= R1+R2+…….+Rn

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistors.

1/Req= 1/R1+1/R2+…….+1/Rn

Resistor characteristics are quantified and reported using various national standards. Therefore several
codes and standards are provided by the different manufacturer.

Resistor Marking and Electronic Color Code:

Most axial resistors uses a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance, which also indicate
tolerance, and may also be extended to show temperature coefficient and reliability class.
Cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green, though other colors are occasionally found such
as dark red or dark gray. The power rating is not usually marked and is deduced from the
size.
The color bands of the carbon resistors can be three, four, five or, six bands. The first two
bands represent first two digits to measure their value in ohms. The third band of a three- or
four-banded resistor represents multiplier; a fourth band denotes tolerance (which if absent,
denotes ±20%). For five and six color-banded resistors, the third band is a third digit, fourth
band multiplier and fifth is tolerance. The sixth band represents temperature co-efficient in a
six-banded resistor.
• band A is the first significant figure of
component value (left side)
• band B is the second significant figure (some
precision resistors have a third significant figure,
and thus five bands).
• band C is the decimal multiplier
• band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in
percent (no band means 20%)
The standard color code as per IEC 60062:2016 is as follows:

Temperature
Ring color Significant Tolerance
Multiplier coefficient
figures
Name Code RAL Percent Letter ppm/K Letter
None – – – – ±20% M –
Pink PK 3015 – ×10−3 ×0.001 – –
Silver SR – – ×10−2 ×0.01 ±10% K –
Gold GD – – ×10−1 ×0.1 ±5% J –
Black BK 9005 0 ×100 ×1 – 250 U
Brown BN 8003 1 ×101 ×10 ±1% F 100 S
Red RD 3000 2 ×102 ×100 ±2% G 50 R
Orange OG 2003 3 ×103 ×1000 – 15 P
Yellow YE 1021 4 ×104 ×10000 (±5%) – 25 Q
Green GN 6018 5 ×105 ×100000 ±0.5% D 20 Z
Blue BU 5015 6 ×106 ×1000000 ±0.25% C 10 Z
Violet VT 4005 7 ×107 ×10000000 ±0.1% B 5 M
±0.05%
Gray GY 7000 8 ×108 ×100000000 A 1 K
(±10%)
White WH 1013 9 ×109 ×1000000000 – –

As per circuit requirement, requisite value of resistor can be used.

Resistor composition

Resistors can be constructed out of a variety of materials. Most common, modern resistors are
made out of either a carbon, metal, or metal-oxide film. In these resistors, a thin film of
conductive (though still resistive) material is wrapped in a helix around and covered by an
insulating material. Most of the standard, no-frills, through-hole resistors will come in a
carbon-film or metal-film composition.
Peek inside the guts of a few carbon-film resistors. Resistance values from top to bottom: 27Ω, 330Ω
and a 3.3MΩ. Inside the resistor, a carbon film is wrapped around an insulator. More wraps means a
higher resistance.

Other through-hole resistors might be wire wound or made of super-thin metallic foil. These
resistors are usually more expensive, higher-end components specifically chosen for their
unique characteristics like a higher power-rating, or maximum temperature range.

Surface-mount resistors are usually either thick or thin-film variety. Thick-film is usually
cheaper but less precise than thin. In both resistor types, a small film of resistive metal alloy
is sandwiched between a ceramic base and glass/epoxy coating, and then connected to the
terminating conductive edges.

Capacitor:

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in an

electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While capacitance exists
between any two electrical conductors of a circuit in sufficiently close proximity, a capacitor
is specifically designed to provide and enhance this effect for a variety of practical
applications by consideration of size, shape, and positioning of closely spaced conductors,
and the intervening dielectric material. A capacitor was therefore historically first known as
an electric condenser.

The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many capacitor
types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in
the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be
a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The non-conducting dielectric acts
to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include
glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts
of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor
does not dissipate energy.
When two conductors experience a
potential difference, for example, when
a capacitor is attached across a battery,
an electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing a net positive charge
to collect on one plate and net negative
charge to collect on the other plate. No
current actually flows through the
dielectric, instead, the effect is a
displacement of charges through the Type Passive
source circuit. If the condition is
maintained sufficiently long, this Invented Ewald Georg von Kleist
displacement current through the
battery ceases. However, if a time- Electronic symbol
varying voltage is applied across the
leads of the capacitor, the source
experiences an ongoing current due to
the charging and discharging cycles of
the capacitor.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of
the electric charge on each conductor
to the potential difference between
them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of Units (SI) is the farad (F),
defined as one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Capacitance values of typical capacitors for use in
general electronics range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).
The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the surface area of the plates (conductors)
and inversely related to the gap between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current. It has an electric field strength limit, known as the
breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and
resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage
in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in early digital computers.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-

conductive region can either be a vacuum or an electrical insulator material known as a
dielectric. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, and even a semiconductor
depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-
contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric
field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the
dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one
coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
An ideal capacitor is sufficiently characterized by a constant
capacitance C, defined as the ratio of a positive or negative
charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them.

C = Q/V

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the

opposite charges on the conductors attract one another due to
their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge
for a given voltage than when the conductors are separated,
yielding a larger capacitance.

Fig. Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange)
reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

Inductors
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
stores electrical energy in a magnetic field when electric current is flowing through it. An
inductor typically consists of an electric conductor, such as a wire, that is wound into a coil.

When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor, described by Faraday's law of induction. According to
Lenz's law, the direction of induced electromotive force (e.m.f.) opposes the change in current
that created it. As a result, inductors oppose any changes in current through them.

An inductor is characterized by its inductance, which is the ratio of the voltage to the rate of
change of current. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of inductance is the
henry (H). Inductors have values that typically range from 1 µH (10−6H) to 1 H. Many
inductors have a magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to
increase the magnetic field and thus the inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors,
inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit elements that make up electronic circuits.
Inductors are widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in
radio equipment. They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed
for this purpose are called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals
of different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to
tune radio and TV receivers.
An electric current flowing through a conductor generates a magnetic field surrounding it.
Any changes of current and therefore in the magnetic flux through the cross-section of the
inductor creates an opposing electromotive force in the conductor. The inductance (L)
characterizes this behavior of an inductor and is defined in terms of that opposing
electromotive force or its generated magnetic flux () and the corresponding electric current
(i):

The inductance of a circuit depends on the geometry of the current path as well as the
magnetic permeability of nearby materials. An inductor is a component consisting of a wire
or other conductor shaped to increase the magnetic flux through the circuit, usually in the
shape of a coil or helix. Winding the wire into a coil increases the number of times the
magnetic flux lines link the circuit, increasing the field and thus the inductance. The more
turns, the higher the inductance. The inductance also depends on the shape of the coil,
separation of the turns, and many other factors. By adding a "magnetic core" made of a
ferromagnetic material like iron inside the coil, the magnetizing field from the coil will
induce magnetization in the material, increasing the magnetic flux. The high permeability of
a ferromagnetic core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor of several thousand over
what it would be without it.

Constitutive equation
Any change in the current through an inductor creates a changing flux, inducing a voltage
across the inductor. By Faraday's law of induction, the voltage induced by any change in
magnetic flux through the circuit is

(1)
From (1) above

(2)

So inductance is also a measure of the amount of electromotive force (voltage) generated for
a given rate of change of current. For example, an inductor with an inductance of 1 henry
produces an EMF of 1 volt when the current through the inductor changes at the rate of 1
ampere per second. This is usually taken to be the constitutive relation (defining equation) of
the inductor.

The dual of the inductor is the capacitor, which stores energy in an electric field rather than a
magnetic field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in
the inductor equations and replacing L with the capacitance C.

Lenz's law

The polarity (direction) of the induced voltage is given by Lenz's law, which states that it will
be such as to oppose the change in current. For example, if the current through an inductor is
increasing, the induced voltage will be positive at the terminal through which the current
enters and negative at the terminal through which it leaves, tending to oppose the additional
current. The energy from the external circuit necessary to overcome this potential "hill" is
being stored in the magnetic field of the inductor; the inductor is said to be "charging" or
"energizing". If the current is decreasing, the induced voltage will be negative at the terminal
through which the current enters and positive at the terminal through which it leaves, tending
to maintain the current. Energy from the magnetic field is being returned to the circuit; the
inductor is said to be "discharging".

Ideal and real inductors

In circuit theory, inductors are idealized as obeying the mathematical relation (2) above
precisely. An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance, and does not
dissipate or radiate energy. However real inductors have side effects which cause their
behavior to depart from this simple model. They have resistance (due to the resistance of the
wire and energy losses in core material), and parasitic capacitance (due to the electric field
between the turns of wire which are at slightly different potentials). At high frequencies the
capacitance begins to affect the inductor's behavior; at some frequency, real inductors behave
as resonant circuits, becoming self-resonant. Above the resonant frequency the capacitive
reactance becomes the dominant part of the impedance. At higher frequencies, resistive losses
in the windings increase due to skin effect and proximity effect.

Inductors with ferromagnetic cores have additional energy losses due to hysteresis and eddy
currents in the core, which increase with frequency. At high currents, iron core inductors also
show gradual departure from ideal behavior due to nonlinearity caused by magnetic
saturation of the core. An inductor may radiate electromagnetic energy into surrounding
space and circuits, and may absorb electromagnetic emissions from other circuits, causing
electromagnetic interference (EMI). For real-world inductor applications, these parasitic
parameters may be as important as the inductance.

Diodes and Rectifiers

A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far
greater ease than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is the
semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are
symbolized in schematic diagrams such as Figure below. The term “diode” is customarily
reserved for small signal devices, I ≤ 1 A. The term rectifier is used for power devices, I > 1
A.
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent current
through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure below)

Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current flow
is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode,
the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is “backward” and the
diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as like
a switch: “closed” when forward-biased and “open” when reverse-biased.
Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol’s “arrowhead” points against the direction
of electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by engineers, who
predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics, showing current as a flow
of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negative (-). This convention
holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing “arrowheads:” the arrow points in the
permitted direction of conventional flow, and against the permitted direction of electron flow.
Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check valve. A
check valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as in Figure below.

Hydraulic check valve analogy: (a) Electron current flow permitted. (b) Current flow
prohibited.
Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they open and allow flow if the
pressure across them is of the correct “polarity” to open the gate (in the analogy shown,
greater fluid pressure on the right than on the left). If the pressure is of the opposite
“polarity,” the pressure difference across the check valve will close and hold the gate so that
no flow occurs.
Like check valves, diodes are essentially “pressure-” operated (voltage-operated) devices.
The essential difference between forward-bias and reverse-bias is the polarity of the voltage
dropped across the diode. Let’s take a closer look at the simple battery-diode-lamp circuit
shown earlier, this time investigating voltage drops across the various components in Figure
below.
Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) Forward biased. (b) Reverse biased.
A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it, leaving most of
the battery voltage dropped across the lamp. If the battery’s polarity is reversed, the diode
becomes reverse-biased, and drops all of the battery’s voltage leaving none for the lamp. If
we consider the diode to be a self-actuating switch (closed in the forward-bias mode and open
in the reverse-bias mode), this behavior makes sense. The most substantial difference is that
the diode drops a lot more voltage when conducting than the average mechanical switch (0.7
volts versus tens of millivolts).
This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the depletion
region formed by the P-N junction under the influence of an applied voltage. If no voltage
applied is across a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion region exists around the region of
the P-N junction, preventing current flow. (Figure below (a)) The depletion region is almost
devoid of available charge carriers, and acts as an insulator:

Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part.

The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure above (b) such that the anode (pointing
end) corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-pointing end, at
(b) corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the cathode stripe on the physical
part (c) corresponds to the cathode on the symbol.
If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region expands,
further resisting any current through it. (Figure below)
Depletion region expands with reverse bias.

Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the depletion
region collapses becoming thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to current through it. In
order for a sustained current to go through the diode; though, the depletion region must be
fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This takes a certain minimum voltage to accomplish,
called the forward voltage as illustrated in Figure below.

Inceasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region thickness.
For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium diodes,
the forward voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N junction
comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, which is why silicon
and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages. Forward voltage drop remains
approximately constant for a wide range of diode currents, meaning that diode voltage drop is
not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed) switch. For most simplified circuit
analysis, the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered constant at the
nominal figure and not related to the amount of current.

Actually, forward voltage drop is more complex. An equation describes the exact current
through a diode, given the voltage dropped across the junction, the temperature of the
junction, and several physical constants. It is commonly known as the diode equation:
The term kT/q describes the voltage produced within the P-N junction due to the action of
temperature, and is called the thermal voltage, or Vt of the junction. At room temperature,
this is about 26 millivolts. Knowing this, and assuming a “nonideality” coefficient of 1, we
may simplify the diode equation and re-write it as such:

You need not be familiar with the “diode equation” to analyze simple diode circuits. Just
understand that the voltage dropped across a current-conducting diode does change with the
amount of current going through it, but that this change is fairly small over a wide range of
currents. This is why many textbooks simply say the voltage drop across a conducting,
semiconductor diode remains constant at 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium.
However, some circuits intentionally make use of the P-N junction’s inherent exponential
current/voltage relationship and thus can only be understood in the context of this equation.
Also, since temperature is a factor in the diode equation, a forward-biased P-N junction may
also be used as a temperature-sensing device, and thus can only be understood if one has a
conceptual grasp on this mathematical relationship.
A reverse-biased diode prevents current from going through it, due to the expanded depletion
region. In actuality, a very small amount of current can and does go through a reverse-biased
diode, called the leakage current, but it can be ignored for most purposes. The ability of a
diode to withstand reverse-bias voltages is limited, as it is for any insulator. If the applied
reverse-bias voltage becomes too great, the diode will experience a condition known as
breakdown (Figure below), which is usually destructive. A diode’s maximum reverse-bias
voltage rating is known as the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV, and may be obtained from the
manufacturer. Like forward voltage, the PIV rating of a diode varies with temperature, except
that PIV increases with increased temperature and decreases as the diode becomes cooler—
exactly opposite that of forward voltage.

Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward bias for Si, and reverse breakdown.

Typically, the PIV rating of a generic “rectifier” diode is at least 50 volts at room
temperature. Diodes with PIV ratings in the many thousands of volts are available for modest
prices.

• REVIEW:
• A diode is an electrical component acting as a one-way valve for current.
• When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode allows current, the
diode is said to be forward-biased.
• When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode prohibits current,
the diode is said to be reverse-biased.
• The voltage dropped across a conducting, forward-biased diode is called the forward
voltage. Forward voltage for a diode varies only slightly for changes in forward current
and temperature, and is fixed by the chemical composition of the P-N junction.
• Silicon diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.7 volts.
• Germanium diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.3 volts.
• The maximum reverse-bias voltage that a diode can withstand without “breaking down”
is called the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV rating.

Meter Check of a Diode

Being able to determine the polarity (cathode versus anode) and basic functionality of a diode
is a very important skill for the electronics hobbyist or technician to have. Since we know
that a diode is essentially nothing more than a one-way valve for electricity, it makes sense
we should be able to verify its one-way nature using a DC (battery-powered) ohmmeter as in
Figure below. Connected one way across the diode, the meter should show a very low
resistance at (a). Connected the other way across the diode, it should show a very high
resistance at (b) (“OL” on some digital meter models).

Determination of diode polarity: (a) Low resistance indicates forward bias, black lead is
cathode and red lead anode (for most meters) (b) Reversing leads shows high resistance
indicating reverse bias.

Of course, to determine which end of the diode is the cathode and which is the anode, you
must know with certainty which test lead of the meter is positive (+) and which is negative (-)
when set to the “resistance” or “Ω” function. With most digital multimeters I’ve seen, the red
lead becomes positive and the black lead negative when set to measure resistance, in
accordance with standard electronics color-code convention. However, this is not guaranteed
for all meters. Many analog multimeters, for example, actually make their black leads
positive (+) and their red leads negative (-) when switched to the “resistance” function,
because it is easier to manufacture it that way!

One problem with using an ohmmeter to check a diode is that the readings obtained only have
qualitative value, not quantitative. In other words, an ohmmeter only tells you which way the
diode conducts; the low-value resistance indication obtained while conducting is useless. If
an ohmmeter shows a value of “1.73 ohms” while forward-biasing a diode, that figure of 1.73
Ω doesn’t represent any real-world quantity useful to us as technicians or circuit designers. It
neither represents the forward voltage drop nor any “bulk” resistance in the semiconductor
material of the diode itself, but rather is a figure dependent upon both quantities and will vary
substantially with the particular ohmmeter used to take the reading.

For this reason, some digital multimeter manufacturers equip their meters with a special
“diode check” function which displays the actual forward voltage drop of the diode in volts,
rather than a “resistance” figure in ohms. These meters work by forcing a small current
through the diode and measuring the voltage dropped between the two test leads. (Figure
below)

Meter with a “Diode check” function displays the forward voltage drop of 0.548 volts instead
of a low resistance.

The forward voltage reading obtained with such a meter will typically be less than the
“normal” drop of 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, because the current
provided by the meter is of trivial proportions. If a multimeter with diode-check function isn’t
available, or you would like to measure a diode’s forward voltage drop at some non-trivial
current, the circuit of Figure below may be constructed using a battery, resistor, and
voltmeter

Measuring forward voltage of a diode without“diode check” meter function: (a) Schematic
diagram. (b) Pictorial diagram.
Connecting the diode backwards to this testing circuit will simply result in the voltmeter
indicating the full voltage of the battery.

If this circuit were designed to provide a constant or nearly constant current through the diode
despite changes in forward voltage drop, it could be used as the basis of a temperature-
measurement instrument, the voltage measured across the diode being inversely proportional
to diode junction temperature. Of course, diode current should be kept to a minimum to avoid
self-heating (the diode dissipating substantial amounts of heat energy), which would interfere
with temperature measurement.

Beware that some digital multimeters equipped with a “diode check” function may output a
very low test voltage (less than 0.3 volts) when set to the regular “resistance” (Ω) function:
too low to fully collapse the depletion region of a PN junction. The philosophy here is that
the “diode check” function is to be used for testing semiconductor devices, and the
“resistance” function for anything else. By using a very low test voltage to measure
resistance, it is easier for a technician to measure the resistance of non-semiconductor
components connected to semiconductor components, since the semiconductor component
junctions will not become forward-biased with such low voltages.

Consider the example of a resistor and diode connected in parallel, soldered in place on a
printed circuit board (PCB). Normally, one would have to unsolder the resistor from the
circuit (disconnect it from all other components) before measuring its resistance, otherwise
any parallel-connected components would affect the reading obtained. When using a
multimeter which outputs a very low test voltage to the probes in the “resistance” function
mode, the diode’s PN junction will not have enough voltage impressed across it to become
forward-biased, and will only pass negligible current. Consequently, the meter “sees” the
diode as an open (no continuity), and only registers the resistor’s resistance. (Figure below)

Ohmmeter equipped with a low test voltage (<0.7 V) does not see diodes allowing it to
measure parallel resistors.
Passive Components in AC Circuits

Electrical and electronic circuits consist of connecting together many different components to
form a complete and closed circuit.

The three main passive components used in any circuit are the: Resistor, the Capacitor and
the Inductor. All three of these passive components have one thing in common; they limit the
flow of electrical current through a circuit but in very different ways.

Electrical current can flow through a circuit in either of two ways. If it flows in one steady
direction only it is classed as direct current, (DC). If the electrical current alternates in both
directions back and forth it is classed as alternating current, (AC). Although they present an
impedance within a circuit, passive components in AC circuits behave very differently to
those in DC circuits.

Passive components consume electrical energy and therefore cannot increase or amplify the
power of any electrical signals applied to them, simply because they are passive and as such
will always have a gain of less than one. Passive components used in electrical and electronic
circuits can be connected in an infinite number of ways as shown below, with the operation
of these circuits depending on the interaction between their different electrical properties.

Passive Components in AC Circuits

Where: R is resistance, C is capacitance and L is inductance.

Resistors whether used in DC or AC circuits will always have the same value of resistance no
matter what the supply frequency. This is because resistors are classed to be pure having
parasitic properties such as infinite capacitance C = ∞ and zero inductance L = 0. Also for a
resistive circuit the voltage and current are always in-phase so the power consumed at any
instant can be found by multiplying the voltage by the current at that instant.

Capacitors and inductors on the other hand, have a different type of AC resistance known as
reactance, ( XL , XC ). Reactance also impedes the flow of current, but the amount of
reactance is not a fixed quantity for one inductor or capacitor in the same way that a resistor
has a fixed value of resistance. The reactance value of an inductor or a capacitor depends
upon the frequency of the supply current as well as on the DC value of the component itself.

The following is a list of passive components commonly used in AC circuits along with their
corresponding equations which can be used to find their value or circuit current. Note that a
theoretically perfect (pure) capacitor or inductor does not have any resistance. However in the
real world they will always have some resistive value no matter how small.

Purely Resistive Circuit

Resistor – Resistors regulate, impede or set the flow of current through a particular path or
impose a voltage reduction in an electrical circuit as a result of this current flow. Resistors
have a form of impedance which is simply termed resistance, ( R ) with the resistive value of
a resistor being measured in Ohms, Ω. Resistors can be of either a fixed value or a variable
value (potentiometers).

Purely Capacitive Circuit

Capacitor – The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy
in the form of an electrical charge like a small battery. The capacitance value of a capacitor is
measured in Farads, F. At DC a capacitor has infinite (open-circuit) impedance, ( XC ) while
at very high frequencies a capacitor has zero impedance (short-circuit).
Purely Inductive Circuit

Inductor – An inductor is a coil of wire that induces a magnetic field within itself or within a
central core as a direct result of current passing through the coil. The inductance value of an
inductor is measured in Henries, H. At DC an inductor has zero impedance (short-circuit),
while at high frequencies an inductor has infinite (open-circuit) impedance, ( XL ).

Series AC Circuits
Passive components in AC circuits can be connected together in series combinations to form
RC, RL and LC circuits as shown.

Series RC Circuit
Series RL Circuit

Series LC Circuit

Parallel AC Circuits
Passive components in AC circuits can also be connected together in parallel combinations to
form RC, RL and LC circuits as shown.
Parallel RC Circuit

Parallel RL Circuit

Parallel LC Circuit
Passive RLC Circuits
All three passive components in AC circuits can also be connected together in both series
RLC and parallel RLC combinations as shown below.

Series RLC Circuit

Parallel RLC Circuit

We have seen above that passive components in AC circuits behave very differently than
when connected in a DC circuit due to the influence of frequency, ( ƒ ). In a purely resistive
circuit, the current is in-phase with the voltage. In a purely capacitive circuit the current in the
capacitor leads the voltage by 90o and in a purely inductive circuit the current lags the voltage
by 90o.

The opposition to current flow through a passive component in an AC circuit is called:

resistance, R for a resistor, capacitive reactance, XC for a capacitor and inductive
reactance, XL for an inductor. The combination of resistance and reactance is called
Impedance.
In a series circuit, the phasor sum of the voltages across the circuits components is equal to
the supply voltage, VS. In a parallel circuit, the phasor sum of the currents flowing in each
branch and therefore through each of the circuits components is equal to the supply current,
IS.

For both parallel and series connected RLC circuits, when the supply current is “in-phase”
with the supply voltage the circuit resonance occurs as XL = XC. A Series Resonance Circuit
is known as an Acceptor Circuit. A Parallel Resonance Circuit is known as a Rejecter Circuit.

Home / AC Circuits / Parallel Resonance Circuit

Parallel Resonance Circuit

In many ways a parallel resonance circuit is exactly the same as the series resonance circuit
we looked at in the previous tutorial.

Both are 3-element networks that contain two reactive components making them a second-
order circuit, both are influenced by variations in the supply frequency and both have a
frequency point where their two reactive components cancel each other out influencing the
characteristics of the circuit. Both circuits have a resonant frequency point.

The difference this time however, is that a parallel resonance circuit is influenced by the
currents flowing through each parallel branch within the parallel LC tank circuit. A tank
circuit is a parallel combination of L and C that is used in filter networks to either select or
reject AC frequencies. Consider the parallel RLC circuit below.
Parallel RLC Circuit

Let us define what we already know about parallel RLC circuits.

A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an inductance, L and a capacitance, C will

produce a parallel resonance (also called anti-resonance) circuit when the resultant current
through the parallel combination is in phase with the supply voltage. At resonance there will
be a large circulating current between the inductor and the capacitor due to the energy of the
oscillations, then parallel circuits produce current resonance.

A parallel resonant circuit stores the circuit energy in the magnetic field of the inductor and
the electric field of the capacitor. This energy is constantly being transferred back and forth
between the inductor and the capacitor which results in zero current and energy being drawn
from the supply. This is because the corresponding instantaneous values of IL and IC will
always be equal and opposite and therefore the current drawn from the supply is the vector
addition of these two currents and the current flowing in IR.

In the solution of AC parallel resonance circuits we know that the supply voltage is common
for all branches, so this can be taken as our reference vector. Each parallel branch must be
treated separately as with series circuits so that the total supply current taken by the parallel
circuit is the vector addition of the individual branch currents.

Then there are two methods available to us in the analysis of parallel resonance circuits. We
can calculate the current in each branch and then add together or calculate the admittance of
each branch to find the total current.

We know from the previous series resonance tutorial that resonance takes place when VL = -
VC and this situation occurs when the two reactances are equal, XL = XC. The admittance of a
parallel circuit is given as:

Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary parts of Y become zero. Then:
Notice that at resonance the parallel circuit produces the same equation as for the series
resonance circuit. Therefore, it makes no difference if the inductor or capacitor are connected
in parallel or series. Also at resonance the parallel LC tank circuit acts like an open circuit
with the circuit current being determined by the resistor, R only. So the total impedance of a
parallel resonance circuit at resonance becomes just the value of the resistance in the circuit
and Z = R as shown.

At resonance, the impedance of the parallel circuit is at its maximum value and equal to the
resistance of the circuit. Also at resonance, as the impedance of the circuit is now that of
resistance only, the total circuit current, I will be “in-phase” with the supply voltage, VS.

We can change the circuit’s frequency response by changing the value of this resistance.
Changing the value of R affects the amount of current that flows through the circuit at
resonance, if both L and C remain constant. Then the impedance of the circuit at resonance
Z = RMAX is called the “dynamic impedance” of the circuit.
Impedance in a Parallel Resonance Circuit

Note that if the parallel circuits impedance is at its maximum at resonance then consequently,
the circuits admittance must be at its minimum and one of the characteristics of a parallel
resonance circuit is that admittance is very low limiting the circuits current. Unlike the series
resonance circuit, the resistor in a parallel resonance circuit has a damping effect on the
circuits bandwidth making the circuit less selective.

Also, since the circuit current is constant for any value of impedance, Z, the voltage across a
parallel resonance circuit will have the same shape as the total impedance and for a parallel
circuit the voltage waveform is generally taken from across the capacitor.

We now know that at the resonant frequency, ƒr the admittance of the circuit is at its
minimum and is equal to the conductance, G given by 1/R because in a parallel resonance
circuit the imaginary part of admittance, i.e. the susceptance, B is zero because BL = BC as
shown.
Susceptance at Resonance

From above, the inductive susceptance, BL is inversely proportional to the frequency as

represented by the hyperbolic curve. The capacitive susceptance, BC is directly proportional
to the frequency and is therefore represented by a straight line. The final curve shows the plot
of total susceptance of the parallel resonance circuit versus the frequency and is the
difference between the two susceptance’s.

Then we can see that at the resonant frequency point were it crosses the horizontal axis the
total circuit susceptance is zero. Below the resonant frequency point, the inductive
susceptance dominates the circuit producing a “lagging” power factor, whereas above the
resonant frequency point the capacitive susceptance dominates producing a “leading” power
factor.

So at the resonant frequency, ƒr the current drawn from the supply must be “in-phase” with
the applied voltage as effectively there is only the resistance present in the parallel circuit, so
the power factor becomes one or unity, ( θ = 0o ).

Also as the impedance of a parallel circuit changes with frequency, this makes the circuit
impedance “dynamic” with the current at resonance being in-phase with the voltage since the
impedance of the circuit acts as a resistance. Then we have seen that the impedance of a
parallel circuit at resonance is equivalent to the value of the resistance and this value must,
therefore represent the maximum dynamic impedance (Zd) of the circuit as shown.

Current in a Parallel Resonance Circuit

As the total susceptance is zero at the resonant frequency, the admittance is at its minimum
and is equal to the conductance, G. Therefore at resonance the current flowing through the
circuit must also be at its minimum as the inductive and capacitive branch currents are equal
( IL = IC ) and are 180o out of phase.

We remember that the total current flowing in a parallel RLC circuit is equal to the vector
sum of the individual branch currents and for a given frequency is calculated as:

At resonance, currents IL and IL are equal and cancelling giving a net reactive current equal to
zero. Then at resonance the above equation becomes.

Since the current flowing through a parallel resonance circuit is the product of voltage
divided by impedance, at resonance the impedance, Z is at its maximum value, ( =R ).
Therefore, the circuit current at this frequency will be at its minimum value of V/R and the
graph of current against frequency for a parallel resonance circuit is given as.
Parallel Circuit Current at Resonance

The frequency response curve of a parallel resonance circuit shows that the magnitude of the
current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the response
starts at its maximum value, reaches its minimum value at the resonance frequency when
IMIN = IR and then increases again to maximum as ƒ becomes infinite.

The result of this is that the magnitude of the current flowing through the inductor, L and the
capacitor, C tank circuit can become many times larger than the supply current, even at
resonance but as they are equal and at opposition ( 180o out-of-phase ) they effectively cancel
each other out.

As a parallel resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of circuit is
also known as an Rejecter Circuit because at resonance, the impedance of the circuit is at its
maximum thereby suppressing or rejecting the current whose frequency is equal to its
resonant frequency. The effect of resonance in a parallel circuit is also called “current
resonance”.

The calculations and graphs used above for defining a parallel resonance circuit are similar to
those we used for a series circuit. However, the characteristics and graphs drawn for a
parallel circuit are exactly opposite to that of series circuits with the parallel circuits
maximum and minimum impedance, current and magnification being reversed. Which is why
a parallel resonance circuit is also called an Anti-resonance circuit.

Bandwidth & Selectivity of a Parallel Resonance Circuit

The bandwidth of a parallel resonance circuit is defined in exactly the same way as for the
series resonance circuit. The upper and lower cut-off frequencies given as: ƒupper and ƒlower
respectively denote the half-power frequencies where the power dissipated in the circuit is
half of the full power dissipated at the resonant frequency 0.5( I2 R ) which gives us the same
-3dB points at a current value that is equal to 70.7% of its maximum resonant value, ( 0.707 x
I )2 R

As with the series circuit, if the resonant frequency remains constant, an increase in the
quality factor, Q will cause a decrease in the bandwidth and likewise, a decrease in the
quality factor will cause an increase in the bandwidth as defined by: BW = ƒr /Q or BW =
ƒupper - ƒlower

Also changing the ratio between the inductor, L and the capacitor, C, or the value of the
resistance, R the bandwidth and therefore the frequency response of the circuit will be
changed for a fixed resonant frequency. This technique is used extensively in tuning circuits
for radio and television transmitters and receivers.

The selectivity or Q-factor for a parallel resonance circuit is generally defined as the ratio of
the circulating branch currents to the supply current and is given as:

Note that the Q-factor of a parallel resonance circuit is the inverse of the expression for the
Q-factor of the series circuit. Also in series resonance circuits the Q-factor gives the voltage
magnification of the circuit, whereas in a parallel circuit it gives the current magnification.

Bandwidth of a Parallel Resonance Circuit

Parallel Resonance Example No1
A parallel resonance network consisting of a resistor of 60Ω, a capacitor of 120uF and an
inductor of 200mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which has a constant
output of 100 volts at all frequencies. Calculate, the resonant frequency, the quality factor and
the bandwidth of the circuit, the circuit current at resonance and current magnification.

Resonant Frequency, ƒr

Inductive Reactance at Resonance, XL

Quality factor, Q

Bandwidth, BW

The upper and lower -3dB frequency points, ƒH and ƒL

Circuit Current at Resonance, IT

At resonance the dynamic impedance of the circuit is equal to R

Current Magnification, Imag

Note that the current drawn from the supply at resonance (the resistive current) is only 1.67
amps, while the current flowing around the LC tank circuit is larger at 2.45 amps. We can
check this value by calculating the current flowing through the inductor (or capacitor) at
resonance.

Parallel Resonance Tutorial Summary

We have seen that Parallel Resonance circuits are similar to series resonance circuits.
Resonance occurs in a parallel RLC circuit when the total circuit current is “in-phase” with
the supply voltage as the two reactive components cancel each other out. At resonance the
admittance of the circuit is at its minimum and is equal to the conductance of the circuit. Also
at resonance the current drawn from the supply is also at its minimum and is determined by
the value of the parallel resistance.

The equation used to calculate the resonant frequency point is the same for the previous
series circuit. However, while the use of either pure or impure components in the series RLC
circuit does not affect the calculation of the resonance frequency, but in a parallel RLC circuit
it does.

In this tutorial about parallel resonance, we have assumed that the components are purely
inductive and purely capacitive with negligible resistance. However in reality the coil will
contain some resistance. Then the equation for calculating the parallel resonant frequency of
a circuit is therefore modified to account for the additional resistance.
Resonant Frequency using Impure Components

Parallel RLC Circuit Analysis

The Parallel RLC Circuit is the exact opposite to the series circuit we looked at in the
previous tutorial although some of the previous concepts and equations still apply.

However, the analysis of a parallel RLC circuits can be a little more mathematically difficult
than for series RLC circuits so in this tutorial about parallel RLC circuits only pure
components are assumed in this tutorial to keep things simple.

This time instead of the current being common to the circuit components, the applied voltage
is now common to all so we need to find the individual branch currents through each element.
The total impedance, Z of a parallel RLC circuit is calculated using the current of the circuit
similar to that for a DC parallel circuit, the difference this time is that admittance is used
instead of impedance. Consider the parallel RLC circuit below.

Parallel RLC Circuit

In the above parallel RLC circuit, we can see that the supply voltage, V S is common to all
three components whilst the supply current IS consists of three parts. The current flowing
through the resistor, IR, the current flowing through the inductor, IL and the current through
the capacitor, IC.

But the current flowing through each branch and therefore each component will be different
to each other and to the supply current, IS. The total current drawn from the supply will not be
the mathematical sum of the three individual branch currents but their vector sum.
Like the series RLC circuit, we can solve this circuit using the phasor or vector method but
this time the vector diagram will have the voltage as its reference with the three current
vectors plotted with respect to the voltage. The phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is
produced by combining together the three individual phasors for each component and adding
the currents vectorially.

Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements we can use this as
the reference vector with the three current vectors drawn relative to this at their
corresponding angles. The resulting vector IS is obtained by adding together two of the
vectors, IL and IC and then adding this sum to the remaining vector IR. The resulting angle
obtained between V and IS will be the circuits phase angle as shown below.

Phasor Diagram for a Parallel RLC Circuit

We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the current vectors
produce a rectangular triangle, comprising of hypotenuse IS, horizontal axis IR and vertical
axis IL – IC Hopefully you will notice then, that this forms a Current Triangle and we can
therefore use Pythagoras’s theorem on this current triangle to mathematically obtain the
magnitude of the branch currents along the x-axis and y-axis and then determine the total
current IS of these components as shown.

Current Triangle for a Parallel RLC Circuit

Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements, the current
through each branch can be found using Kirchoff’s Current Law, (KCL). Kirchoff’s current
law or junction law states that “the total current entering a junction or node is exactly equal to
the current leaving that node”, so the currents entering and leaving node “A” above are given
as:

Taking the derivative, dividing through the above equation by C and rearranging gives us the
following Second-order equation for the circuit current. It becomes a second-order equation
because there are two reactive elements in the circuit, the inductor and the capacitor.
The opposition to current flow in this type of AC circuit is made up of three components: XL
XC and R and the combination of these three gives the circuit impedance, Z. We know from
above that the voltage has the same amplitude and phase in all the components of a parallel
RLC circuit. Then the impedance across each component can also be described
mathematically according to the current flowing through, and the voltage across each element
as.

Impedance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

You will notice that the final equation for a parallel RLC circuit produces complex
impedance’s for each parallel branch as each element becomes the reciprocal of impedance, (
1/Z ) with the reciprocal of impedance being called Admittance.

In parallel AC circuits it is more convenient to use admittance, symbol ( Y ) to solve

complex branch impedance’s especially when two or more parallel branch impedance’s are
involved (helps with the math’s). The total admittance of the circuit can simply be found by
the addition of the parallel admittances. Then the total impedance, ZT of the circuit will
therefore be 1/YT Siemens as shown.

Admittance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

The new unit for admittance is the Siemens, abbreviated as S, ( old unit mho’s ℧, ohm’s in
reverse ). Admittances are added together in parallel branches, whereas impedance’s are
added together in series branches. But if we can have a reciprocal of impedance, we can also
have a reciprocal of resistance and reactance as impedance consists of two components, R
and X. Then the reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance and the reciprocal of
reactance is called Susceptance.

Conductance, Admittance and Susceptance

The units used for conductance, admittance and susceptance are all the same namely
Siemens ( S ), which can also be thought of as the reciprocal of Ohms or ohm -1, but the
symbol used for each element is different and in a pure component this is given as:

Admittance ( Y ) :

Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance, Z and is given

the symbol Y. In AC circuits admittance is defined as the
ease at which a circuit composed of resistances and
reactances allows current to flow when a voltage is applied
taking into account the phase difference between the
voltage and the current.

The admittance of a parallel circuit is the ratio of phasor

current to phasor voltage with the angle of the admittance
being the negative to that of impedance.

Conductance ( G ) :
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, R and is given
the symbol G. Conductance is defined as the ease at which
a resistor (or a set of resistors) allows current to flow when
a voltage, either AC or DC is applied.

Susceptance ( B ) :

Susceptance is the reciprocal of of a pure reactance, X and

is given the symbol B. In AC circuits susceptance is
defined as the ease at which a reactance (or a set of
reactances) allows an alternating current to flow when a
voltage of a given frequency is applied.

Susceptance has the opposite sign to reactance so

capacitive susceptance BC is positive, +ve in value and
inductive susceptance BL is negative, -ve in value.

We can therefore define inductive and capacitive susceptance as being:

In AC series circuits the opposition to current flow is impedance, Z which has two
components, resistance R and reactance, X and from these two components we can construct
an impedance triangle. Similarly, in a parallel RLC circuit, admittance, Y also has two
components, conductance, G and susceptance, B. This makes it possible to construct an
admittance triangle that has a horizontal conductance axis, G and a vertical susceptance
axis, jB as shown.

Admittance Triangle for a Parallel RLC Circuit

Now that we have an admittance triangle, we can use Pythagoras to calculate the magnitudes
of all three sides as well as the phase angle as shown.

from Pythagoras,

Then we can define both the admittance of the circuit and the impedance with respect to
admittance as:

Giving us a power factor angle of:

As the admittance, Y of a parallel RLC circuit is a complex quantity, the admittance
corresponding to the general form of impedance Z = R + jX for series circuits will be written
as Y = G - jB for parallel circuits where the real part G is the conductance and the imaginary
part jB is the susceptance. In polar form this will be given as:

Parallel RLC Circuit Example No1

A 1kΩ resistor, a 142mH coil and a 160uF capacitor are all connected in parallel across a
240V, 60Hz supply. Calculate the impedance of the parallel RLC circuit and the current
drawn from the supply.

Impedance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

In an AC circuit, the resistor is unaffected by frequency therefore R = 1kΩ’s

Inductive Reactance, ( XL ):

Capacitive Reactance, ( XC ):

Impedance, ( Z ):
Supply Current, ( Is ):

Parallel RLC Circuit Example No2

A 50Ω resistor, a 20mH coil and a 5uF capacitor are all connected in parallel across a 50V,
100Hz supply. Calculate the total current drawn from the supply, the current for each branch,
the total impedance of the circuit and the phase angle. Also construct the current and
admittance triangles representing the circuit.

Parallel RLC Circuit

1). Inductive Reactance, ( XL ):

2). Capacitive Reactance, ( XC ):

3). Impedance, ( Z ):

4). Current through resistance, R ( IR ):

5). Current through inductor, L ( IL ):

6). Current through capacitor, C ( IC ):

7). Total supply current, ( IS ):

8). Conductance, ( G ):

9). Inductive Susceptance, ( BL ):

10). Capacitive Susceptance, ( BC ):

11). Admittance, ( Y ):

12). Phase Angle, ( φ ) between the resultant current and the supply voltage:

Current and Admittance Triangles

Parallel RLC Circuit Summary

In a parallel RLC circuit containing a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor the circuit current
IS is the phasor sum made up of three components, IR, IL and IC with the supply voltage
common to all three. Since the supply voltage is common to all three components it is used as
the horizontal reference when constructing a current triangle.
Parallel RLC networks can be analysed using vector diagrams just the same as with series
RLC circuits. However, the analysis of parallel RLC circuits is a little more mathematically
difficult than for series RLC circuits when it contains two or more current branches. So an
AC parallel circuit can be easily analysed using the reciprocal of impedance called
Admittance.

Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance given the symbol, Y. Like impedance, it is a

complex quantity consisting of a real part and an imaginary part. The real part is the
reciprocal of resistance and is called Conductance, symbol Y while the imaginary part is the
reciprocal of reactance and is called Susceptance, symbol B and expressed in complex form
as: Y = G + jB with the duality between the two complex impedance’s being defined as:

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Voltage, (V) Current, (I)
Resistance, (R) Conductance, (G)
Reactance, (X) Susceptance, (B)
Impedance, (Z) Admittance, (Y)

As susceptance is the reciprocal of reactance, in an inductive circuit, inductive susceptance,

BL will be negative in value and in a capacitive circuit, capacitive susceptance, BC will be
positive in value. The exact opposite to XL and XC respectively.

We have seen so far that series and parallel RLC circuits contain both capacitive reactance
and inductive reactance within the same circuit. If we vary the frequency across these circuits
there must become a point where the capacitive reactance value equals that of the inductive
reactance and therefore, XC = XL. The frequency point at which this occurs is called
resonance and in the next tutorial we will look at series resonance and how its presence alters
the characteristics of the circuit.

Series Resonance Circuit

Thus far we have analysed the behaviour of a series RLC circuit whose source voltage is a
fixed frequency steady state sinusoidal supply.
We have also seen in our tutorial about series RLC circuits that two or more sinusoidal
signals can be combined using phasors providing that they have the same frequency supply.

But what would happen to the characteristics of the circuit if a supply voltage of fixed
amplitude but of different frequencies was applied to the circuit. Also what would the circuits
“frequency response” behaviour be upon the two reactive components due to this varying
frequency.

In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the inductive reactance of the
inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. In other words,
XL = XC. The point at which this occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr ) of the
circuit, and as we are analysing a series RLC circuit this resonance frequency produces a
Series Resonance.

Series Resonance circuits are one of the most important circuits used electrical and electronic
circuits. They can be found in various forms such as in AC mains filters, noise filters and also
in radio and television tuning circuits producing a very selective tuning circuit for the
receiving of the different frequency channels. Consider the simple series RLC circuit below.

Series RLC Circuit

Firstly, let us define what we already know about series RLC circuits.
From the above equation for inductive reactance, if either the Frequency or the Inductance
is increased the overall inductive reactance value of the inductor would also increase. As the
frequency approaches infinity the inductors reactance would also increase towards infinity
with the circuit element acting like an open circuit.

However, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the inductors reactance would decrease to
zero, causing the opposite effect acting like a short circuit. This means then that inductive
reactance is “Proportional” to frequency and is small at low frequencies and high at higher
frequencies and this demonstrated in the following curve:

Inductive Reactance against Frequency

The graph of inductive reactance against frequency is a straight line linear curve. The
inductive reactance value of an inductor increases linearly as the frequency across it
increases. Therefore, inductive reactance is positive and is directly proportional to frequency
( XL ∝ ƒ )

The same is also true for the capacitive reactance formula above but in reverse. If either the
Frequency or the Capacitance is increased the overall capacitive reactance would decrease.
As the frequency approaches infinity the capacitors reactance would reduce to zero causing
the circuit element to act like a perfect conductor of 0Ω’s.

But as the frequency approaches zero or DC level, the capacitors reactance would rapidly
increase up to infinity causing it to act like a very large resistance acting like an open circuit
condition. This means then that capacitive reactance is “Inversely proportional” to
frequency for any given value of capacitance and this shown below:
Capacitive Reactance against Frequency

The graph of capacitive reactance against frequency is a hyperbolic curve. The Reactance
value of a capacitor has a very high value at low frequencies but quickly decreases as the
frequency across it increases. Therefore, capacitive reactance is negative and is inversely
proportional to frequency ( XC ∝ ƒ -1 )

We can see that the values of these resistances depends upon the frequency of the supply. At
a higher frequency XL is high and at a low frequency XC is high. Then there must be a
frequency point were the value of XL is the same as the value of XC and there is. If we now
place the curve for inductive reactance on top of the curve for capacitive reactance so that
both curves are on the same axes, the point of intersection will give us the series resonance
frequency point, ( ƒr or ωr ) as shown below.

Series Resonance Frequency

where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in Henries and C is in Farads.

Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the two reactances which are opposite and
equal cancel each other out as XL = XC and the point on the graph at which this happens is
were the two reactance curves cross each other. In a series resonant circuit, the resonant
frequency, ƒr point can be calculated as follows.

We can see then that at resonance, the two reactances cancel each other out thereby making a
series LC combination act as a short circuit with the only opposition to current flow in a
series resonance circuit being the resistance, R. In complex form, the resonant frequency is
the frequency at which the total impedance of a series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”,
that is no imaginary impedance’s exist. This is because at resonance they are cancelled out.
So the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the resistance and
therefore: Z = R.

Then at resonance the impedance of the series circuit is at its minimum value and equal only
to the resistance, R of the circuit. The circuit impedance at resonance is called the “dynamic
impedance” of the circuit and depending upon the frequency, XC (typically at high
frequencies) or XL (typically at low frequencies) will dominate either side of resonance as
shown below.
Impedance in a Series Resonance Circuit

Note that when the capacitive reactance dominates the circuit the impedance curve has a
hyperbolic shape to itself, but when the inductive reactance dominates the circuit the curve is
non-symmetrical due to the linear response of XL. You may also note that if the circuits
impedance is at its minimum at resonance then consequently, the circuits admittance must be
at its maximum and one of the characteristics of a series resonance circuit is that admittance
is very high. But this can be a bad thing because a very low value of resistance at resonance
means that the resulting current flowing through the circuit may be dangerously high.

We recall from the previous tutorial about series RLC circuits that the voltage across a series
combination is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC. Then if at resonance the two reactances are
equal and cancelling, the two voltages representing VL and VC must also be opposite and
equal in value thereby cancelling each other out because with pure components the phasor
voltages are drawn at +90o and -90o respectively.

Then in a series resonance circuit as VL = -VC the resulting reactive voltages are zero and all
the supply voltage is dropped across the resistor. Therefore, VR = Vsupply and it is for this
reason that series resonance circuits are known as voltage resonance circuits, (as opposed to
parallel resonance circuits which are current resonance circuits).
Series RLC Circuit at Resonance

Since the current flowing through a series resonance circuit is the product of voltage divided
by impedance, at resonance the impedance, Z is at its minimum value, ( =R ). Therefore, the
circuit current at this frequency will be at its maximum value of V/R as shown below.

Series Circuit Current at Resonance

The frequency response curve of a series resonance circuit shows that the magnitude of the
current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the response
starts at near to zero, reaches maximum value at the resonance frequency when IMAX = IR and
then drops again to nearly zero as ƒ becomes infinite. The result of this is that the magnitudes
of the voltages across the inductor, L and the capacitor, C can become many times larger than
the supply voltage, even at resonance but as they are equal and at opposition they cancel each
other out.
As a series resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of circuit is also
known as an Acceptor Circuit because at resonance, the impedance of the circuit is at its
minimum so easily accepts the current whose frequency is equal to its resonant frequency.

You may also notice that as the maximum current through the circuit at resonance is limited
only by the value of the resistance (a pure and real value), the source voltage and circuit
current must therefore be in phase with each other at this frequency. Then the phase angle
between the voltage and current of a series resonance circuit is also a function of frequency
for a fixed supply voltage and which is zero at the resonant frequency point when:
V, I and VR are all in phase with each other as shown below. Consequently, if the phase angle
is zero then the power factor must therefore be unity.

Phase Angle of a Series Resonance Circuit

Notice also, that the phase angle is positive for frequencies above ƒr and negative for
frequencies below ƒr and this can be proven by,

Bandwidth of a Series Resonance Circuit

If the series RLC circuit is driven by a variable frequency at a constant voltage, then the
magnitude of the current, I is proportional to the impedance, Z, therefore at resonance the
power absorbed by the circuit must be at its maximum value as P = I2Z.

If we now reduce or increase the frequency until the average power absorbed by the resistor
in the series resonance circuit is half that of its maximum value at resonance, we produce two
frequency points called the half-power points which are -3dB down from maximum, taking
0dB as the maximum current reference.

These -3dB points give us a current value that is 70.7% of its maximum resonant value which
is defined as: 0.5( I2 R ) = (0.707 x I)2 R. Then the point corresponding to the lower
frequency at half the power is called the “lower cut-off frequency”, labelled ƒL with the point
corresponding to the upper frequency at half power being called the “upper cut-off
frequency”, labelled ƒH. The distance between these two points, i.e. ( ƒH – ƒL ) is called the
Bandwidth, (BW) and is the range of frequencies over which at least half of the maximum
power and current is provided as shown.

Bandwidth of a Series Resonance Circuit

The frequency response of the circuits current magnitude above, relates to the “sharpness” of
the resonance in a series resonance circuit. The sharpness of the peak is measured
quantitatively and is called the Quality factor, Q of the circuit. The quality factor relates the
maximum or peak energy stored in the circuit (the reactance) to the energy dissipated (the
resistance) during each cycle of oscillation meaning that it is a ratio of resonant frequency to
bandwidth and the higher the circuit Q, the smaller the bandwidth, Q = ƒr /BW.

As the bandwidth is taken between the two -3dB points, the selectivity of the circuit is a
measure of its ability to reject any frequencies either side of these points. A more selective
circuit will have a narrower bandwidth whereas a less selective circuit will have a wider
bandwidth. The selectivity of a series resonance circuit can be controlled by adjusting the
value of the resistance only, keeping all the other components the same, since Q = (XL or
XC)/R.

Bandwidth of a Series RLC Resonance Circuit

Then the relationship between resonance, bandwidth, selectivity and quality factor for a series
resonance circuit being defined as:

1). Resonant Frequency, (ƒr)

2). Current, (I)

3). Lower cut-off frequency, (ƒL)

4). Upper cut-off frequency, (ƒH)

5). Bandwidth, (BW)

6). Quality Factor, (Q)

Series Resonance Example No1

A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of 30Ω, a capacitor of 2uF and an inductor
of 20mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which has a constant output of 9
volts at all frequencies. Calculate, the resonant frequency, the current at resonance, the
voltage across the inductor and capacitor at resonance, the quality factor and the bandwidth
of the circuit. Also sketch the corresponding current waveform for all frequencies.

Resonant Frequency, ƒr

Circuit Current at Resonance, Im

Inductive Reactance at Resonance, XL

Voltages across the inductor and the capacitor, VL, VC

Note: the supply voltage may be only 9 volts, but at resonance, the reactive voltages across
the capacitor, VC and the inductor, V L are 30 volts peak!

Quality factor, Q
Bandwidth, BW

The upper and lower -3dB frequency points, ƒH and ƒL

Current Waveform

Series Resonance Example No2

A series circuit consists of a resistance of 4Ω, an inductance of 500mH and a variable
capacitance connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the capacitance require to give
series resonance and the voltages generated across both the inductor and the capacitor.

Resonant Frequency, ƒr
Voltages across the inductor and the capacitor, VL, VC

Series Resonance Summary

You may have noticed that during the analysis of series resonance circuits in this tutorial, we
looked at bandwidth, upper and lower frequencies, -3dB points and quality or Q-factor. All
these are terms used in designing and building of Bandpass Filters and indeed, resonance is
used in 3-element mains filter design to pass all frequencies within the “passband” range
while rejecting all others.

However, the main aim of this tutorial is to analyse and understand the concept of how Series
Resonance occurs in passive RLC series circuits. Their use in RLC filter networks and
designs is outside the scope of this particular tutorial, and so will not be looked at here, sorry.

• For resonance to occur in any circuit it must have at least one inductor and one capacitor.
• Resonance is the result of oscillations in a circuit as stored energy is passed from the inductor
to the capacitor.
• Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary part of the transfer function is zero.
• At resonance the impedance of the circuit is equal to the resistance value as Z = R.
• At low frequencies the series circuit is capacitive as: XC > XL, this gives the circuit a leading
power factor.
• At high frequencies the series circuit is inductive as: XL > XC, this gives the circuit a lagging
power factor.
• The high value of current at resonance produces very high values of voltage across the
inductor and capacitor.
 • Series resonance circuits are useful for constructing highly frequency selective filters.
However, its high current and very high component voltage values can cause damage to the
circuit.
• The most prominent feature of the frequency response of a resonant circuit is a sharp resonant
peak in its amplitude characteristics.
• Because impedance is minimum and current is maximum, series resonance circuits are also
called Acceptor Circuits.

Series RLC Circuit Analysis

Thus far we have seen that the three basic passive components: resistance (R), inductance
(L), and capacitance (C) have very different phase relationships to each other when connected
to a sinusoidal AC supply.

In a pure ohmic resistor the voltage waveforms are “in-phase” with the current. In a pure
inductance the voltage waveform “leads” the current by 90 o, giving us the expression of: ELI.
In a pure capacitance the voltage waveform “lags” the current by 90 o, giving us the
expression of: ICE.

This Phase Difference, Φ depends upon the reactive value of the components being used and
hopefully by now we know that reactance, ( X ) is zero if the circuit element is resistive,
positive if the circuit element is inductive and negative if it is capacitive thus giving their
resulting impedances as:

Element Impedance
Circuit Element Resistance, (R) Reactance, (X) Impedance, (Z)

Resistor R 0
Inductor 0 ωL

Capacitor 0

Instead of analysing each passive element separately, we can combine all three together into a
series RLC circuit. The analysis of a series RLC circuit is the same as that for the dual series
RL and RC circuits we looked at previously, except this time we need to take into account the
magnitudes of both XL and XC to find the overall circuit reactance. Series RLC circuits are
classed as second-order circuits because they contain two energy storage elements, an
inductance L and a capacitance C. Consider the RLC circuit below.

Series RLC Circuit

The series RLC circuit above has a single loop with the instantaneous current flowing
through the loop being the same for each circuit element. Since the inductive and capacitive
reactance’s XL and XC are a function of the supply frequency, the sinusoidal response of a
series RLC circuit will therefore vary with frequency, ƒ. Then the individual voltage drops
across each circuit element of R, L and C element will be “out-of-phase” with each other as
defined by:

• i(t) = Imax sin(ωt)

• The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is “in-phase” with current
• The instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL “leads” the current by 90o
• The instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, VC “lags” the current by 90o
• Therefore, VL and VC are 180o “out-of-phase” and in opposition to each other.
For the series RLC circuit above, this can be shown as:

The amplitude of the source voltage across all three components in a series RLC circuit is
made up of the three individual component voltages, VR, VL and VC with the current common
to all three components. The vector diagrams will therefore have the current vector as their
reference with the three voltage vectors being plotted with respect to this reference as shown
below.

Individual Voltage Vectors

This means then that we can not simply add together VR, VL and VC to find the supply
voltage, VS across all three components as all three voltage vectors point in different
directions with regards to the current vector. Therefore we will have to find the supply
voltage, VS as the Phasor Sum of the three component voltages combined together
vectorially.

Kirchoff’s voltage law ( KVL ) for both loop and nodal circuits states that around any closed
loop the sum of voltage drops around the loop equals the sum of the EMF’s. Then applying
this law to the these three voltages will give us the amplitude of the source voltage, VS as.

Instantaneous Voltages for a Series RLC Circuit

The phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit is produced by combining together the three
individual phasors above and adding these voltages vectorially. Since the current flowing
through the circuit is common to all three circuit elements we can use this as the reference
vector with the three voltage vectors drawn relative to this at their corresponding angles.

The resulting vector VS is obtained by adding together two of the vectors, VL and VC and then
adding this sum to the remaining vector VR. The resulting angle obtained between VS and i
will be the circuits phase angle as shown below.
Phasor Diagram for a Series RLC Circuit

We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the voltage vectors
produce a rectangular triangle, comprising of hypotenuse VS, horizontal axis VR and vertical
axis VL – VC Hopefully you will notice then, that this forms our old favourite the Voltage
Triangle and we can therefore use Pythagoras’s theorem on this voltage triangle to
mathematically obtain the value of VS as shown.

Voltage Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit

Please note that when using the above equation, the final reactive voltage must always be
positive in value, that is the smallest voltage must always be taken away from the largest
voltage we can not have a negative voltage added to VR so it is correct to have VL –
VC or VC – VL. The smallest value from the largest otherwise the calculation of VS will be
incorrect.

We know from above that the current has the same amplitude and phase in all the
components of a series RLC circuit. Then the voltage across each component can also be
described mathematically according to the current flowing through, and the voltage across
each element as.
By substituting these values into Pythagoras’s equation above for the voltage triangle will
give us:

So we can see that the amplitude of the source voltage is proportional to the amplitude of the
current flowing through the circuit. This proportionality constant is called the Impedance of
the circuit which ultimately depends upon the resistance and the inductive and capacitive
reactance’s.

Then in the series RLC circuit above, it can be seen that the opposition to current flow is
made up of three components, XL, XC and R with the reactance, XT of any series RLC circuit
being defined as: XT = XL – XC or XT = XC – XL with the total impedance of the circuit
being thought of as the voltage source required to drive a current through it.

The Impedance of a Series RLC Circuit

As the three vector voltages are out-of-phase with each other, XL, XC and R must also be
“out-of-phase” with each other with the relationship between R, XL and XC being the vector
sum of these three components thereby giving us the circuits overall impedance, Z. These
circuit impedance’s can be drawn and represented by an Impedance Triangle as shown
below.

The Impedance Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit

The impedance Z of a series RLC circuit depends upon the angular frequency, ω as do XL
and XC If the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance, XC > XL then the
overall circuit reactance is capacitive giving a leading phase angle. Likewise, if the inductive
reactance is greater than the capacitive reactance, XL > XC then the overall circuit reactance is
inductive giving the series circuit a lagging phase angle. If the two reactance’s are the same
and XL = XC then the angular frequency at which this occurs is called the resonant frequency
and produces the effect of resonance which we will look at in more detail in another tutorial.

Then the magnitude of the current depends upon the frequency applied to the series RLC
circuit. When impedance, Z is at its maximum, the current is a minimum and likewise, when
Z is at its minimum, the current is at maximum. So the above equation for impedance can be
re-written as:

The phase angle, θ between the source voltage, VS and the current, i is the same as for the
angle between Z and R in the impedance triangle. This phase angle may be positive or
negative in value depending on whether the source voltage leads or lags the circuit current
and can be calculated mathematically from the ohmic values of the impedance triangle as:

Series RLC Circuit Example No1

A series RLC circuit containing a resistance of 12Ω, an inductance of 0.15H and a capacitor
of 100uF are connected in series across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the total circuit
impedance, the circuits current, power factor and draw the voltage phasor diagram.

Inductive Reactance, XL.

Capacitive Reactance, XC.

Circuit Impedance, Z.
Circuits Current, I.

Voltages across the Series RLC Circuit, VR, VL, VC.

Circuits Power factor and Phase Angle, θ.

Phasor Diagram.
Since the phase angle θ is calculated as a positive value of 51.8o the overall reactance of the
circuit must be inductive. As we have taken the current vector as our reference vector in a
series RLC circuit, then the current “lags” the source voltage by 51.8 o so we can say that the
phase angle is lagging as confirmed by our mnemonic expression “ELI”.

Series RLC Circuit Summary

In a series RLC circuit containing a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor the source voltage
VS is the phasor sum made up of three components, VR, VL and VC with the current common
to all three. Since the current is common to all three components it is used as the horizontal
reference when constructing a voltage triangle.

The impedance of the circuit is the total opposition to the flow of current. For a series RLC
circuit, and impedance triangle can be drawn by dividing each side of the voltage triangle by
its current, I. The voltage drop across the resistive element is equal to I x R, the voltage
across the two reactive elements is I x X = I x XL – I x XC while the source voltage is equal to
I x Z. The angle between VS and I will be the phase angle, θ.

When working with a series RLC circuit containing multiple resistances, capacitance’s or
inductance’s either pure or impure, they can be all added together to form a single
component. For example all resistances are added together, RT = ( R1 + R2 + R3 )…etc or all
the inductance’s LT = ( L1 + L2 + L3 )…etc this way a circuit containing many elements can
be easily reduced to a single impedance.