Clean Techn Environ Policy (2015) 17:187–197

DOI 10.1007/s10098-014-0776-x

ORIGINAL PAPER

Recycling of finished leather wastes: a novel approach

Rethinam Senthil • Thiagarajan Hemalatha •
Baskar Santhosh Kumar • Tiruchirapalli Sivagnanam Uma •

Bhabendra Nath Das • Thotapalli Parvathaleswara Sastry

Received: 6 February 2014 / Accepted: 2 May 2014 / Published online: 16 May 2014
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

Abstract Preparation of leather like material, i.e., Introduction

regenerated leather (RGL) from finished leather wastes is
economical and helps in reducing environmental pollution. Solid leather wastes generated from tanneries and leather
Incorporating plant fibers (PFs) into RGL enhances its goods industries includes mainly skin trimmings, chrome
mechanical properties. Plant fibers are exploited as rein- shavings, buffing dust, finished leather scraps, etc.
forcement materials owing to their low cost, fairly good According to the latest estimates, 20–30 % leather is dis-
mechanical properties, high specific strength, non-abrasive, carded as waste during foot wear production. Also, enor-
eco-friendly and bio-degradability characteristics. Fiber- mous amount of used leather products viz., chappals, shoes,
ized leather wastes and PFs were mixed in various pro- bags, etc. and end products of leather industry constitutes
portions to prepare regenerated leather composites (RLCs). to major solid wastes (Kanagaraj et al. 2006). Improper
Plant fibers viz., coconut, sugarcane, banana and corn silk disposal of these leather wastes causes environmental
were used for the study. RGL and RLCs were characterized pollution; therefore, proper optimized utilization of these
physicochemically using Fourier transform infrared spec- wastes into valuable end products will be a promising
troscopy, thermo gravimetric analysis and scanning elec- solution (Sekar et al. 2007; Assamoi et al. 2012).
tron microscopy. Results clearly portrayed that PFs Leather wastes emanated from used leather products and
significantly improved the mechanical and thermal prop- finished leather scraps is mainly composed of highly
erties of RLCs. Among the composites, RLC prepared ordered type I collagen fiber (Sastry et al. 2005). This
using leather waste and coconut fiber (50:40 ratio) proved leather waste is different from conventional wastes such as
to be a better composite with potent properties. RLCs are chrome shavings, buffing dust or leather trimmings in its
promising for the preparation of leather goods and foot- physicochemical, mechanical properties (Zhang et al.
wear materials in addition to its cost-effectiveness and 2006) and thermal properties (Ozgunay et al. 2007). Sastry
environmental pollution abatement. et al. (2005) have prepared leather like material (LLM)
using chrome shavings. Several products such as insoles,
Keywords Leather wastes
Plant fibers
Flexible chappal uppers, keychain holders, light hand bags and
composites
Mechanical properties wallets were prepared using LLM. Though there are reports
on the production of value added products from tannery
and industrial leather wastes, reports on the production of
useful products from used leather materials is lagging.
R. Senthil
T. Hemalatha
B. S. Kumar

Since used leather materials contribute to a major portion
T. S. Uma
T. P. Sastry (&)
Bioproducts Laboratory, Central Leather Research Institute, of solid wastes, research on the conversion of used leather
Chennai 600 020, Tamil Nadu, India products into useful value added products will be an eco-
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] nomically beneficial way of reducing environmental
pollution.
B. N. Das
Shoe Design and Development Centre, Central Leather Research It is interesting to note that natural fibers such as
Institute, Chennai 600 020, Tamil Nadu, India coconut and banana are abundantly available in developing

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countries like India, but is not optimally utilized (Reddy

and Yang 2004). Plant fibers (PFs), which have been used
by man for many generations, have remained an attractive
material for a variety of potential applications (McDougall
et al. 1993). Plant fibers are nowadays exploited as rein-
forcement materials owing to their low cost, fairly good
mechanical properties, high specific strength, non-abra-
siveness, eco-friendly and bio-degradability characteristics
(Ku et al. 2011). These fibers possess distinctive features,
which makes them excellent materials for soil conservation
(Rowell et al. 2000), textile applications (Karthik and
Murugan 2013) as alternate materials especially as wood
Fig. 1 Photographic images of LFs and PFs (a) LF, (b) CTF,
substitutes in the construction market (Saxena et al. 2008), (c) SNF, (d) BAF, (e) CNF
as reinforcement for composite materials to produce auto-
motive structural components (Suddell and Evans 2005),
etc. Plant fibers, possess good mechanical properties, hence
when it is combined with composite materials, it provides properties such as tensile strength, elongation at break,
smooth surface amenable to be used in footwear, leather flexing index, water absorption and water desorption
goods, textiles materials, etc. (Kalia et al. 2013). Plant properties were also assessed.
fibers are widely used in composite preparation owing to
their structure, composition and properties (Reddy and
Yang 2004). Natural rubber latex (Lopattananon et al. Materials and methods
2006) is used as thermo setting material in the preparation
of composites, because of its eco-friendly nature. Filler of Materials
natural rubber latex with different types of particles can
markedly change its mechanical and thermal properties Leather wastes such as leather scraps, leather upper of
(Ahmed et al. 2012). waste shoes, old leather bags and purses were collected
Conventional leather processing techniques using chro- from leather industry and neighborhood places (Tamil
mium is under pressure due to strict environmental regu- Nadu, India). Plant fibers were collected from local vege-
lations related to effluent discharge. So, a number of table market (Chennai, India). Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
alternatives have been developed in the recent past fibers were obtained from ripe fruits, BAFs (Musa para-
(Seggiani et al., 2014). Even then, these processes could disiaca) were obtained from the trunk. Sugar cane (Sac-
only reduce the level of pollution but could not eliminate it. charum officinarum) bagasse was obtained after juice
Therefore, a viable green technology which could bypass extraction, and corn silk (Zea mays) was obtained from
this entire process would serve as a best alternative. Hence, matured corns. All chemicals used were of analytical
recycling of used and waste leather products into new ones grade.
will be a novel attempt towards this green technology
initiative. Preparation of leather fiber (LF)
Since in recent years, research has been focussed on
production of composite materials containing PFs as The leather portion from shoes and chappals were removed
structural reinforcements, an attempt was made in this and cleaned. These uppers were flattened and cut into
study, to exploit this technology for leather composite pieces. Also, leather waste from other leather goods such as
preparation. Hence, the objective of this study was to old leather bags and leather jackets were cleaned and cut
prepare regenerated leather (RGL) from used leather pro- into pieces. Leather waste was converted into leather fiber
ducts. Plant fibers were incorporated into RGL for the (LF) with the help of fiberizer machine. The fiber size
production of regenerated leather composite (RLCs) to ranged between 0.5 and 1.0 cm in length and 0.3–0.7 mm
enhance its mechanical properties. Plant fibers viz., coco- in width (Fig. 1a).
nut fiber (CTF), sugarcane fiber (SNF), banana fibers
(BAFs) and corn fiber (CNF) were selected for the study. Preparation of plant fiber (PF)
RLCs prepared using different PFs were characterized for
its physicochemical properties using Fourier transform Long uneven PFs (CTF, SNF, CNF, BAF) from agriculture
infrared (FTIR), thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) and wastes were collected and cut into small pieces. Hinged
scanning electron microscopic (SEM). Mechanical Hammer Pulveriser machine (Sturtevant, SDL868, USA)

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was used to convert them into smooth and short fibers. PF resolution of 4 cm-1 in the frequency range of
was prepared using the pulverizer machine. The average 4,000–500 cm-1 using Nicolet 360 FTIR Spectrometer.
fiber size ranged between 1.5 and 2.5 cm in length and Thermo gravimetric analysis was performed using High
0.2–0.7 mm in width (Fig. 1b, e) (Satyanarayana et al. Resolution 2950 TGA thermo gravimetric analyzer (TA
1990). Instrument). Samples weighing between 10 and 20 mg
were placed in a platinum pan and test was carried out in a
Characterization of LF and PF programmed temperature range of 0–800 °C at a heating
rate of 5 °C/min under nitrogen atmosphere at flow rate of
LF and PF were characterized for their mechanical prop- 50 ml/min. Surface morphology of the samples was visu-
erties and surface morphology. Mechanical properties such alized by scanning electron microscope (SEM Model LE-
as tensile strength (MPa) and percentage of elongation at ICA stereo scan 440).
break were measured using Universal testing machine
(INSTRON model 1405) at an extension rate of 5 mm/min. Mechanical properties
Scanning electron microscopic analysis was carried out on
Model LEICA stereo scan 440 instrument. The samples Mechanical properties were assessed using three dumbbell-
were coated with gold ions using an ion coating unit. The shaped specimens of 4 mm wide and 10 mm length. Ten-
micrographs for LF and PF were taken at different mag- sile strength (MPa), elongation at break (%) and tearing
nifications by operating the instrument at 15kv accelerating strength (N/mm) were measured using Universal testing
voltage. machine (INSTRON model 1405) at an extension rate of
5 mm/min. Flexing endurance strength was also assessed
Preparation of regenerated leather (RGL) using fiber board flexing (TER 74) machine according to
STM 129 test method. Water absorption and desorption
Fiberized materials (400 g) were soaked in water over- (%) capacities of different RLCs prepared were determined
night. Later, they were minced using mincer (La Minerva according to Sekar et al. (2007).
C/E 680N). The minced samples were collected and ground
in industrial mixer for 15 min by adding 400 ml of natural Statistical analysis
rubber latex, and pH was adjusted to 5. Finally, 5 ml of
ethylene glycol was added and mixed thoroughly and cast Results are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD)
into sheets of three individual experiments (n = 3). ANOVA (analysis
of variance) and Duncan’s multiple range analysis were
Casting done to determine the significant differences among the
groups. p values of p \ 0.05 were considered significant.
The prepared slurry was poured into vacuum tub (size
3 9 2 feet) and water was drained completely. The wet
sheet formed was pressed for 10 s at 1,000 psi using Results and discussion
hydraulic press (Polyhydron, 4DL10SG S-10) to remove
additional water. The prepared board was dried in sunlight The growing interest on PFs is mainly due to their abun-
for 8 h and further pressed at 40 °C for 10 s at 1,500 psi. dant availability, cost-effectiveness and low specific
weight, which results in composites with higher strength.
Preparation of regenerated leather composite (RLC) This study is a maiden attempt to use natural PFs as rein-
forcement for RGL. Use of PFs has improved the green
To the prepared RGL slurry, PFs were added individually credentials of RLCs due to nil polymer use (Wolcott and
in various proportions and mixed uniformly using an Englund 1999). Composites prepared from leather and
industrial mixer. Leather boards prepared using viz., CTF, agriculture wastes possessed better properties, which could
sugar cane bagasse (SNF), BAF and corn silk (CNF) was be used for the manufacture of footwear, leather goods, etc.
designated as LF:CTF, LF:SNF, LF:BAF and LF:CNF,
respectively. Characterization of LF and PF

Characterization of RGL and RLCs The mechanical properties of LF and PFs viz., CTF, SNF,
BAF and CNF are given in Table 1. Collagen constitutes
Fourier transform infrared measurements were carried out the major portion of LF, whereas cellulose, hemicelluloses
to determine the formation and changes in the functional and lignin constitutes the major portion of PFs. Due to the
groups of RGL and RLCs. The spectra were measured at a natural alignment of the carbon–carbon bonds within the

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Table 1 Mechanical properties of LF and PFs Regenerated leather (RGL)

Sample Tensile strength (MPa) Elongation at break (%)
Regenerated leather boards prepared using LFs are shown
Leather fibre 0.38 ± 0.01 0.38 ± 0.04 in Fig. 3a. Final surface finish was done with binders and
Coconut fibre 0.91 ± 0.03 0.95 ± 0.02 pigments (Fig. 3b). The surface and texture of RGL boards
Sugarcane fibre 0.78 ± 0.03 0.81 ± 0.03 were comparable to those of leather boards prepared using
Banana fibre 0.70 ± 0.02 0.69 ± 0.005 chrome shavings (Sekar et al. 2007).
Corn fibre 0.40 ± 0.01 0.41 ± 0.005
The data are presented as mean ± SD of three individual experiments Regenerated leather composites (RLCs)

structure of the PFs, it is expected that their linear chained Composites prepared using LFs and PFs are shown in
polymers would possess significant strength and stiffness Fig. 4a–d and their corresponding surface finished boards
(Justiz-Smith et al. 2008). Among the PFs, CTF possessed are given in Fig. 4e–h. The composite boards had a smooth
high values of tensile strength and elongation at break %, surface and they were light weight in nature.
while CNF being the least. Lignin provides plant tissue and
individual cells with compressive strength and also stiffens Characterization of RGL and RLCs
the cell wall of the fiber. The presence of high amount of
lignin contributes to increased tensile strength (Sun et al. The FTIR spectra (Fig. 5) of all the products show the
2004). Justiz-Smith et al. (2008) have already reported that characteristic peak of latex 1,370–1,380 cm-1, which is
CTF had the highest lignin content of 59.4 % while attributed to phenolic stretch vibration of OH and aliphatic
bagasse and banana had 13 and 9 %, respectively. Hence, –CH–OH deformation in methyl groups of rubber latex.
the presence of high amount of lignin contributes to Since the raw material used for the preparation of RCL is
increased tensile strength of CTF, followed by SNF and from plant source, the spectrum (Fig. 5b–e) shows the
BNF. The microstructure of the PF and LF were revealed characteristic peaks of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.
by SEM (Fig. 2a, e). The natural fibers presented similar The absorption bands at 1,039–1,164 cm-1 can be attrib-
morphology, while the differences among the various PF uted mainly to the carbohydrates (cellulose and lignin),
types are the number of fiber-cells, the cell wall size, the including C–O–C and C–O stretch (primary and secondary
number of lumens, fiber cross-section area, etc. Therefore, hydroxide groups) and bonds belonging to the glucoside
each fiber presents different characteristics and mechanical linkage and possibly to lignin. The bands in the region of
behavior (Fidelis et al. 2013). 1,700 cm-1 can be attributed to unconjugated CO

Fig. 2 Scanning electron microscopic images of LFs and PFs a LF, b CTF, c SNF, d BAF, e CNF

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Recycling of finished leather wastes 191

Fig. 3 Regenerated leather

a raw board, b finished board

252 and 470 °C, and 11 % remained as final residue. In

RLCs (Fig. 6b–e), LF:CTF had a two step weight loss at
276 and 459 °C, while 33 % remained as residue. Other
RLCs viz., LF:SNF, LF:CNF and LF:BAF exhibited a two
step weight loss around 220 and 450 °C, with a final res-
idue of 15–17 %. The initial weight loss is due to the
evaporation of water molecules in the samples, and the
second weight loss is due to the denaturation of proteins,
cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin (Flandez et al. 2012).
Khan et al. (2012) reported that the weight loss below
300 °C is negligible; above which the fibers begin to
degrade fast. The residue is obtained due to the loss of
hydroxyl groups and depolymerisation of cellulose to
anhydroglucose units. Among the RLCs, LF:CTF pos-
sessed better thermal stability, due to the presence of high
amount of lignin. Thermal stability is revealed by its
increased initial decomposition temperature along with
high amount of residue at 800 °C (Abdullah and Ahmad
2013).
The surface morphology of RGL and RLCs, were
revealed by SEM. In RGL (Fig. 7a), individual collagen
fibers were clearly observed. RLCs (Fig. 7b–e) showed
comparatively smooth surface, which could be due to the
incorporation of PFs. The blending of LFs and PFs were
prominent in RLCs.

Mechanical properties

Mechanical properties of composite materials play an

Fig. 4 Regenerated leather composites. Raw boards prepared using important role in deciding their end applications. Since
a CTF, b SNF, c BAF, d CNF. Finished boards prepared using e CTF, leather goods products such as hand bags, wallets, key
f SNF, g BAF, h CNF chain holder and purses and footwear products such as
shoes insole, ladies chappals, and children’s shoes were
stretching (vibration of aliphatic carboxylic acids and intended to be produced from RLCs, their mechanical
ketones, mainly due to hemicellulose groups), and that near properties such as tensile strength, elongation at break and
1,644 cm-1 can be assigned to conjugated carbonyl present flexibility were studied (Tables 2, 3, 4, 5).
in typical lignin groups (Goncalves et al. 1998; Brigida Tensile strength of RGL was compared with RLCs
et al. 2010; Pelissari et al. 2013; Kamboj and Rana 2014). prepared with various proportions of natural PF. Initially,
TGA revealed the thermal stability of RGL and RLCs. the tensile strength of RGL was very less, but incorporation
In RGL (Fig. 6a), a two step weight loss was observed at of PFs had significantly improved its tensile strength.

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LF:CTF (50:40 ratio) possessed significantly (p \ 0.05) effects on their mechanical properties and dimensional
higher tensile strength (5.88 MPa) compared to RGL and stability. Among the PFs used, SNF has increased the water
other ratios of LF:CRF. An increase in tensile strength was absorption capacity of the composites, which might be due
observed with increase in ratio of CTF. Similar trend was to its hydrophilic nature (Bhardwaj et al. 2006). Most of all
exhibited by SNF and BAF (Ku et al. 2011), while there PFs are hydrophilic in nature with a moisture content of
was no increase in tensile strength due to the incorporation 8–13 % due to the presence of cellulose in cell structure
of CNF. Rowell et al. (1997) reported that the increase in (Venkateshwaran and ElayaPerumal 2010). Justiz-Smith
tensile strength of the composites could be attributed to the et al. (2008) has also reported that water absorption by SNF
cellulose content of PFs, hence there was increase in tensile (235 %) is higher compared to CTF (169 %) and BAF
strength due to the incorporation of PFs viz., CTF, SNF and (40 %). Water absorption and desorption capacity of a
BNF. Since corn silk contains very negligible amount of composite material play a major role in deciding its use in
cellulose (Rosli et al. 2008), it could not contribute much footwear and leather goods manufacture. Since, maintain-
towards tensile strength. Also, it could be observed that ing a dry product surface is essential to prevent slipperiness
addition of PFs to RGL has produced a synergistic effect in and microbial growth. Among the RLCs, LF:CTF (50:40)
tensile strength. displayed significantly increased water desorption values
Elongation at break % (E) reveals the elasticity of the compared to RGL, which could be attributed to the pre-
composite. LF:CTF (50:40 ratio) exhibited significantly sence of high content of lignin in CTF (Geethama et al.
(p \ 0.05) higher elongation at break percentage compared 1995; Persico et al. 2011).
to RGL and other RLCs. Nevertheless, increase in the ratio Ethylene glycol was used to increase the flexibility of
of PFs viz., CTF, SNF and BNF, have increased the the composite material. Among the composites, LF:CTF
elongation at break percentage of RLCs compared to RGL. and LF:BAF have displayed significant increase in flexi-
An increase in tearing strength was observed with increase bility, compared to RGL. With increase in PF content,
in the ratio of all PFs, among which CTF (50:40 ratio) has there was an increase in flexural strength which could be
displayed the higher value. caused by the bridging formed in between them. Com-
The amount of water absorbed is an important factor in paratively better flexural strength in RLCs could suggest
composites characterization, since it can have undesired that there is a considerable interfacial interaction in

Fig. 5 FTIR analysis of a RGL and RLCs prepared using b CTF, c SNF, d BAF, e CNF

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Recycling of finished leather wastes 193

Fig. 6 TGA analysis of a RGL and RLCs prepared using b CTF, c SNF, d BAF, e CNF

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Fig. 7 Scanning electron microscopic images of a RGL and RLCs prepared using b CTF, c SNF, d BAF, e CNF

between the PFs and RGL matrix, and, at the same time, enormous amount of water is used, which causes envi-
fiber entanglements act as resistant junction points against ronmental pollution. This water has to be treated as per the
deflection forces (Persico et al. 2011). regulations before it is discharged out. But, during the
According to Dodwell (1989), fashion and comfort production of RGL, much less water is used thereby
footwear could be made from leather boards with tensile reducing the water treatment cost considerably and also the
strength of 5.5 N/mm2, while inexpensive and light foot entire production is eco-friendly.
wears could be made from leather boards with tensile
strength of 4.0 N/mm2 and the water absorption and
desorption (%) should be minimum of 35 and 40 %, Conclusion
respectively. Hence, from the results of mechanical prop-
erties, it could be inferred that the RLCs prepared using Production of RGL from leather wastes and used leather
CTF could be used for the preparation of fashion and goods is an efficient way of recycling leather products.
comfort footwear, while those prepared using SNF and Since, RGL prepared from leather wastes did not have
BNF could be used for preparation of light leather goods enough mechanical strength, the study aimed to increase its
items. strength by incorporation of PFs. Four PFs viz., coconut,
The study deciphers a viable technology to produce sugarcane, banana and corn were selected for the study.
recycled/RGL from used leather products. Natural PFs Composites fabricated using these PFs possessed enhanced
were incorporated in RGL, because they provide stiffness mechanical properties. Among the prepared composites
and strength to the composites and unlike brittle fibers such prepared, LF:CTF (50:40 ratio) exhibited significant values
as glass, biofibers will not be fractured when processing in terms of tensile strength, elongation at break, tearing
over sharp curvatures (Eichhorn et al. 2001). RLCs pre- strength, water desorption and flexibility. These smooth
pared possess better mechanical properties and offer twin surfaced composites find potential applications not only in
advantages of cost-effectiveness and pollution control. footwear and leather goods industry but also it could be
Leather boards prepared using regular method cost Rs. exploited for other purposes such as roofing, wall partitions
50/Sq feet, while leather boards prepared using this RGL and components of furniture. The study also envisions the
cost Rs. 25/Sq feet. Hence, there is 50 % reduction in the production of cost-effective composites, by conversion of
cost of leather board production. During the production of wastes into wealth and thereby simultaneously decreasing
leather boards using regular methods (Ferguson 1983), the environmental pollution.

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 Table 2 Mechanical properties of RGL and regenerated leather composite prepared using CTF
S.no. Composition Tensile Elongation at Tearing strength Water Water Flexing index Thickness
(%) LF:CTF strength(Mpa) break (%) (N/mm) absorption (%) desorption (%) (mm)
Along Across

1 50:0 (RGL) 3.41 ± 0.18 3.06 ± 0.12 13.76 ± 0.64 38.88 ± 0.68 50.3 ± 0.60 1.13 ± 0.20 1.24 ± 0.04 0.58
2 50:40 5.88 ± 0.09* 5.62 ± 0.07* 28.69 ± 1.06* 58.43 ± 1.32* 62.66 ± 0.97* 2.13 ± 0.15* 2.3 ± 0.2* 0.58
Recycling of finished leather wastes

3 50:30 5.53 ± 0.09* 5.39 ± 0.07* 26.133 ± 0.4* 48.77 ± 1.3* 55.6 ± 1.21* 1.91 ± 0.04* 1.9 ± 0.05* 0.57
4 50:20 5.2 ± 0.09* 5.26 ± 0.15* 25.6 ± 1.2* 48.7 ± 0.6* 47.26 ± .64* 1.81 ± 0.07* 1.85 ± 0.05* 0.89
5 50:10 5 ± 0.2* 5.09 ± .11* 25.33 ± 0.66* 39.36 ± 1.1 43.66 ± 2.08* 1.7 ± 0.05* 1.61 ± 0.07* 0.70
The data are presented as mean ± SD of three individual experiments
* p \ 0.05 as compared to RGL, using Duncan’s multiple range analysis

Table 3 Mechanical properties of regenerated leather (RGL) and regenerated leather composite prepared using SNF
S.No. Composition Tensile Elongation at Tearing Water Water Flexing index Thickness
(%) LF:SNF strength (Mpa) break (%) strength (N/mm) absorption (%) desorption (%) (m/m)
Along Across

1 50:0 (RGL) 3.41 ± 0.18 3.06 ± 0.12 13.76 ± 0.64 38.88 ± 0.68 50.3 ± 0.60 1.13 ± 0.20 1.24 ± 0.04 0.58
2 50:40 5.09 ± 0.13* 5.2 ± 0.09* 21.9 ± 0.98* 62 ± 0.75 47.7 ± 0.8 1.42 ± 0.9* 1.27 ± 0.05 0.55
3 50:30 4.82 ± 0.07* 4.7 ± 0.24* 20.75 ± 0.916* 59.56 ± 0.97* 60.1 ± 2.53* 1.19 ± 0.08 1.14 ± 0.07 0.54
4 50:20 4.7 ± 0.04* 4.39 ± 0.34* 19.4 ± 0.64* 51.1 ± 0.81* 48.7 ± 1.2 1.63 ± 0.07* 1.97 ± 0.67* 0.88
5 50:10 4.05 ± 0.15* 3.84 ± 0.09* 19 ± 0.36* 39.4 ± 1.44* 54.4 ± 2.35* 1.55 ± 0.08* 1.77 ± 0.02* 0.90
The data are presented as mean ± SD of three individual experiments
* p \ 0.05 as compared to RGL, using Duncan’s multiple range analysis
195

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Table 4 Mechanical properties of regenerated leather (RGL) and regenerated leather composite prepared using BAF
S.No. Composition Tensile Elongation Tearing Water Water Flexing index Thickness
(%) LF:BAF strength (Mpa) at break (%) strength (N/ absorption (%) desorption (%) (m/m)
mm) Along Across

1 50:0 (RGL) 3.41 ± 0.18 3.06 ± 0.12 13.76 ± 0.64 38.88 ± 0.68 50.3 ± 0.60 1.13 ± 0.20 1.24 ± 0.04 0.58
2 50:40 4.19 ± 0.27* 3.94 ± 0.07* 18.26 ± 0.55* 52.46 ± 1.64* 52.4 ± 1.44 1.58 ± 0.05* 1.74 ± 0.09* 0.90
3 50:30 3.8 ± 0.05* 3.81 ± 0.06* 17.9 ± 0.55* 60.9 ± 1.2* 53.9 ± 1.34* 1.443 ± 0.31 1.54 ± 0.1* 0.54
4 50:20 3.71 ± 0.07* 3.51 ± 0.07* 17.23 ± 0.68* 47.12 ± 1.09* 54.5 ± 1.1* 1.44 ± 0.31 1.34 ± 0.09 0.55
5 50:10 3.54 ± 0.08 3.66 ± 0.17* 17.8 ± 0.26* 46.56 ± 0.66* 55 ± 2.27* 1.72 ± 0.06* 1.44 ± 0.08* 0.98
The data are presented as mean ± SD of three individual experiments
* p \ 0.05 as compared to RGL, using Duncan’s multiple range analysis

Table 5 Mechanical properties of regenerated leather (RGL) and regenerated leather composite prepared using CNF
S.No. Composition Tensile Elongation Tearing Water Water Flexing index Thickness
(%) LF:CNF strength (Mpa) at break (%) strength (N/mm) absorption (%) desorption (%) (m/m)
Along Across

1 50:0 (RGL) 3.41 ± 0.18 3.06 ± 0.12 13.76 ± 0.64 38.88 ± 0.68 50.3 ± 0.60 1.13 ± 0.20 1.24 ± 0.04 0.58
2 50:40 3.72 ± 0.25 3.55 ± 0.06* 17.8 ± 0.75* 49.6 ± 1.07* 31.4 ± 0.88* 1.46 ± 0.08* 1.15 ± 0.08 0.59
3 50:30 3.58 ± 0.18 3.46 ± 0.11 16.5 ± 0.75* 47.7 ± 0.66* 55.05 ± 1.35* 1.67 ± 0.06* 1.28 ± 0.14 0.54
4 50:20 3.41 ± 0.03 3.42 ± 0.40 16.9 ± 0.55* 42.5 ± 1.1* 39.6 ± 1.1* 1.17 ± 0.14 1.56 ± 0.09* 0.55
5 50:10 3 ± 0.15* 3.2 ± 0.2 15.2 ± 0.4* 47.3 ± 1.45* 44.6 ± 1* 1.15 ± 0.18 1.78 ± 0.1* 0.98
The data are presented as mean ± SD of three individual experiments
* p \ 0.05 as compared to RGL, using Duncan’s multiple range analysis
R. Senthil et al.
Recycling of finished leather wastes 197

Acknowledgments The award of STRAIT fellowship to R. Senthil Ku H, Wang H, Parrarachaiyokoop N, Trada M (2011) A review on
and CSIR-fellowship to T. Hemalatha is gratefully acknowledged. the tensile properties of natural fiber reinforced polymer
composites. Compos Part B Eng 42:856–873
Conflict of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of Lopattananon N, Panawarangkul K, Sahakaro K, Ellis B (2006)
interest. Performance of pineapple leaf fiber–natural rubber composites:
the effect of fiber surface treatments. J Appl Polym Sci
102:1974–1984
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