Introduction to Computers

Training Manual
Diamond Systems Ltd.
  Introduction to Computers

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
TERMINOLOGY example) are used for the next stage,
which is the actual calculation
Hardware is the term used to describe all process.
the physical components that make up a iv. Details of gross pay, tax, insurance
Computer system. and net pay are arrived at. Reference
Program. A program is a set of is made to data held in tax tables in
instructions written in the language of the tables of rates of pay and in employee
Computer used to make the Computer records, the latter must be brought up
perform a specific task such as producing to date e.g. pay to Date details.
a payroll. v. Individual pay slips, a summarize pay
Data is the term used to describe basic roll and coin analysis are produced
facts about the activities of a business. (information).
For example, the number of hours worked
by an employee on a particular machine; Each of these stages is identified by a
his rate of pay, the amount and type of name viz.
materials consumed in a particular
process; the number of tons of finished i. Origination -of data
product produced in a day or week. ii. Preparation -getting the data ready
iii. Input -the act of passing the
DATA PROCESING STAGES data to the processing stage.
This is the term given to the process of iv. Processing -all that is necessary to
collecting all the items of data together to arrive at the net pay etc. and to keep
produce meaningful information. data up to date (e.g. data in employee
Whatever method, or combination of records).
methods, is used it will be seen that data v. Output -the production of the
will pass through the same basic stages in end product.
the processing cycle.
Note:
Payroll example i. How data is transmitted from stage to
Stage stage.
i. Details of hours worked by each ii. Use made of temporary storage after
employee (data) is recorded on a Time preparation.
Sheet (source document). All Time iii. The reference to stored data (tax
Sheets are forwarded to the wages tables, rates of pay and employee
office; the source documents will be records) during the processing stage.
sorted into the sequence required by iv. Controls will be part of the whole
the payroll. procedure e.g. checking Time Sheets.
ii. The data is then checked for
correctness and validity and some Information: This is the result obtained by
form of copying (transcription) onto assembling items of data into a
another document (e.g. summary meaningful form. E.g. a payroll, efficiency
sheet) may take place. The source reports etc.
documents are then temporarily Input: Data entering an electronic data
stored. processing system.
iii. The source documents now Input devices: They are the devices that
accumulated for the complete pay either accept data at a keyboard and then
period (probably a week in our convert the data into machine sensible
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  Introduction to Computers

former they accept data which has already BASIC TYPES OF COMPUTERS
been created in machine sensible form
(e.g. a machine readable document). DIGITAL: They are so called because it
Output: It is the information produced by functions by taking discrete numbers and
an electronic data processing system is an performing arithmetic calculations on them
output. and is the type used in commercial data
Output devices: They are used to processing.
produce the data in a human sensible
form (or in a machine sensible form for ANALOG: This is the type of Computer
later reprint). that measures physical magnitudes such
as temperature, pressure etc. a slide rule
and a car speedometer, are examples of
ORIGINATION OF DATA analogue devices
Source documents (orders,
clockcards, goods received, notes) Computers can further be subdivided into
two types: - special and general purposes.

Special purpose Computers:

As their name suggests are Computers
PREPARATION OF DATA
FOR INPUT
designed for a particular job only to solve
Transcription, sorting problems of restricted nature. Examples
are Computers designed for air traffic
control or weapons guidance systems.

General purpose Computers:

INPUT OF DATA These are Computers designed to solve a
Introducing data into the processor
wide variety of problems within the
(a clerk, or a Computer)
limitations imposed by their particular
design capabilities, they can be adopted
to perform particular tasks or solve
problems by means of specially written
PROCESSING OF DATA programs.
Calculating, summarizing,
maintaining records
FURTHER CLASSIFICATION
The following terms are used to describe
different types of Computers:

OUTPUT OF INFORMATION a) A Main Frame Computer is a

Reports, analysis, documents, medium or large machine, which
invoices, payrolls keeps its records on magnetic tapes.

b) A Mini Computer is a small machine

Notes: -
which has however all the
Data is transmitted from one stage
characteristics of the main frame.
to another.
Use will be made of storage at the
Note: There is no clear dividing line
various stages.
between the small mainframes and
Control will be established where
the large minis, the distinctive
necessary.
features are not technical but small
size and price.
Fig. 1.1 Data Processing Stages
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  Introduction to Computers

c) A MicroComputer is the smallest mimic human sense, manual skills and

machine in the range of Computers intelligence.
and is the latest to be developed.
There is little practical difference BASIC ELEMENTS (FUNCTIONS) OF
between the smallest mini Computers A COMPUTER SYSTEM.
and the larger MicroComputers.
d) A Personal Computer or a PC is a The basic elements or functions which
MicroComputer designed primarily for make up a Computer system are no
independent use by an individual at different from those found in conventional
work or in the home. methods of data processing and are as
e) A Word Processor is a special follows: -
purpose Computer used in the
production of office documents, letters, a) Input
contracts etc. b) Storage
c) Control
N.B: A General Purpose Computer d) Computing /processing
can run a word processing e) Output
program and hence temporarily
become special purpose. A. INPUT
COMPUTER GENERATIONS. A Computer can not accept data in forms
customary to human communication. It is
The first electronic Computers were necessary therefore, to present data to the
produced in the 1940s. Since then a Computer in a way which provides easy
series o radical breakthrough the conversion into its own electronic pulse
Computers based upon the older form of based forms. This is commonly achieved
electronics have been replaced by a “New by typing the data into the keyboard
Generation” of Computers based upon devices, which convert it into machine
the newer form of electronics. These sensible form. In some cases machine-
“generations” are classified as follows: - readable documents or media are
produced as part of the input process.
a) First Generation. Early Computers Data finally enters storage.
using electronic valve. 1940s.
Examples of input devices include the
b) Second Generation. More reliable following: -
Computers using transistors which a) Mouse
replaced the first generation. (1950s). b) Keyboard
c) Joystick
c) Third Generation. More powerful, d) Tracker ball
reliable and compact Computers using e) Lightpen
simple integrated circuits.(1960s). f) Digitizer
g) Scanner
d) Fourth Generation. The Computers h) Floppy disk
in use today and which contain more i) Voice data entry machine
sophisticated micro electronic devices.

e) Fifth Generation. There are many B. STORAGE

predictions that by the end of this
century Computers will be able to Data and instructions enter main storage,
converse with people in a human like and are held until needed to be worked
manner and which will be able to on. The instructions dictate action to be
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  Introduction to Computers

taken on the data. Results of the action such as editing and masking data for
will be held until they are required for arithmetic operations.
output. Main storage is supplemented by
less costly auxiliary or backing storage for Both the arithmetic and logic unit performs
mass storage purposes. other functions by utilizing registers.
Computer registers are small memory
C. CONTROL devices that can receive, hold and transfer
data. Each register consists of binary
Each Computer has a control unit, which cells to hold bits of data. The number of
fetches instructions from main storage, bits per word can be as few as 4(early
interprets them, and issues necessary MicroComputers) or as many as 64 (large
signals to the components making up the scientific Computers).
system. It directs all hardware operations The arrangement of these registers
necessary in obeying instructions. constitutes several functional areas of the
CPU. A representative configuration is
given in the figure below.
D. COMPUTING/PROCESSING
Program Counter
The central processing (CPU) regulates Address
Connection
the operation of all system components
and performs the arithmetic and logic Input
Data Memory Address Register
operations on the data. To accomplish
these functions the CPU consists of two
operating units.
Instruction Register
1. Control Unit
Output Data
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Connection
Accumulator
The control unit coordinates the various
operations include receiving data, which
enter the Computer, and deciding how
and when the data should be processed. Status Register
The control unit directs the operation of
the arithmetic logic unit. It sends data to
the ALU and tells it what functions to Arithmetic - Logic Unit
perform on the data and where to store
the results. The capability of the control
Typical arrangement of registers in the
unit accomplish these operations is
Computer’s CPU
provided by a set of instructions called an
executive program which is stored in
To accomplish a given sequence of
memory.
programmed instruction, the functions of
these registers would be as follows: -
The arithmetic and logic unit performs
operations such as addition, subtraction
and comparisons. These operations are
carried out on data in binary form. The
logic section can also be used to alter the
sequence in which instructions are
executed when certain conditions are
indicated and to perform other functions,

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Program Counters:
The program CPU. A status register is a 1-bit register
counter holds the location or address of (often called a flag). Flags are used to
the next instruction. An instruction word identify such conditions as logical decision
contains two parts: - An operator and an outcomes, overflows where the result of
operand or a reference to an operand. an arithmetic operation exceeds the word
The operator defines the type of arithmetic capacity), and interrupt conditions (used in
or logic operation to be carried out process control).
(additions, comparisons, etc.). The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The
operand usually specifies the data on ALU) provides the circuitry required to
which the operation is to be performed. perform the various calculations and
The CPU sequences the instructions to be manipulations of data. A typical
performed by fetching words from memory configuration of the Arithmetic Logic
according to the contents of the program Unit is illustrated in the figure below.
counter. After each word is obtained, the Function Inputs
program counter is incremented to go to
the next instruction word.
Data Input A
Memory Address Register:
The
location of data contained in the
Data Input B A.L.U. Data Output

Computer’s memory units must be

identified for an instruction, and this is the
function of the memory address register. Status Output
This unit is used to hold the address of
data held in memory. A Computer may The unit has two inputs for data, inputs for
have more than a single memory address defining the function to be performed, data
register. outputs, and status outputs used to set the
status registers or flags (described
Instruction Register. The instruction above).
register is used to hold the instruction for
decoding. Decoding refers to the E. OUTPUT
interpretation of the coded instruction
word so that the CPU carries out the Results are taken from main storage and
desired operation. fed to an output device. This can be a
printer, in which case the information is
Accumulator: The accumulator is a automatically converted to a printed form.
temporary storage register used during an
arithmetic or logic operation. For The elements are produced in chart form
example, in adding two numbers, the in figure 1.2 below.
accumulator would be used to store the
first number would be used to store the Notice particularly the following points in
first number while the second number was the figure:
fetched. The second number would then
be added to the first. The sum, still a) Data flow is as follows:
contained in the accumulator, would then
be operated on or transferred to i. Data flows from the input devices
temporary storage, according to the next into main storage ready to be
instruction in the program. processed and the result of
processing flow from main storage
Status register: Status registers are to the output devices.
used to indicate the initial condition of the

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  Introduction to Computers

ii. Data flows from main storage to the c) Backing storage

ALU. The ALU performs d) Data entry
operations on the data thus e) Data transmission and networks
generating results, which flow back f) Output
to main storage.
A. THE SILICON CHIP
iii. Data in main storage which is not Although the control unit, ALU and main
needed for the time being may be memory of the Computer carry out
passed to auxiliary storage from different functions from a hardware point
where it subsequently may be of view the basic components of these
brought back to main storage elements of a modern Computer are very
when needed for processing. similar. This similarity arises from
common manufacturing processes. The
iv. Instructions essentially a special form complex circuits found in these elements
of data flow from main storage to of the Computer are manufactured from a
the control unit which interprets single minute sliced wafers of silicon
them and causes the required crystal. Such devices are called “silicon
hardware operations to take place. chips” or “semi-conductor devices”
MicroProcessors. A microprocessor is
b) Commands flow from the control unit an entire small Computer processor
to the other elements of the Computer manufactured on a single chip.
system and are distinct from data flow. Computers built around such devices are
called microprocessors, or more correctly
c) The arithmetic and logic unit ALU and “MicroComputer based systems”.
Control unit combine to form the
Processor. Semi conductor memory is the name
given to main storage manufactured on
d) Data held on backing storage may be silicon chips. The most common types of
input to main memory during semiconductor memory are volatile which
processing, used, brought; up to date means that all data is lost if power supply
using newly input data and then is removed.
returned to backing storage. The main features of semi conductor
devices within the Computer have the
Questions. following features: -
1. What is a personal Computer? Their operation is wholly electronic, are
2. Describe the flow of data and consequently they are very fast and
commands in a Computer system. reliable. Despite the complexity; of these
3. State four possible classifications of devices, modern manufacturing methods
Computers. have enabled them to be produced at
costs which represent only minor portions
HARDWARE: AN OVERVIEW of the total costs of whole Computer
system.
Hardware is the term used to describe all These devices are highly miniaturized.
the physical components that make up a This feature may be exploited in order to
Computer system. provide Computer hardware, which can be
accommodated comfortably in the office or
Common types of hardware are listed home.
below:
a) The silicon chip
b) Data storage

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B. DATA STORAGE need to use your own memory instead of

There are several different types of the book, as your data storage medium.
hardware used for data storage. This
variety stems from the fact that there are a Size
number of physical characteristics which Despite major strides in miniaturization,
must be considered in deciding; the some backing storage devices and media
appropriateness of a particular device in a remain understandable bulky. Most
given situation. backing storage devices have some
electro-mechanical parts, which contribute
Some general hardware aspects of data to their bulk. When data is to be stored for
storage applicable to both main storage long periods with minimal access the most
and backing storage includes compact backing storage media are
favored because of the saving space.
a) Storage capacity Compared with normal paper based data
b) Access facilities storage, as in the form of rows of cabinets,
c) Size Computer storage methods are all
d) Robustness incredibly more compact.
e) Relative costs.
Robustness
Storage capacity Compared with paper based storage,
This may be expressed and compared in Computer data storage may appear to be
terms of the number of characters stored less robust. Such a view is based upon
(A character is a symbol such as letter A- the fact that most Computer storage
Z, or digit 0-9, or special symbols such as media may only be used in carefully
+, _, @ etc. For example, main storage of controlled environments. In practical
a small Computer may be expressed in terms this is seldom a serious problem for
terms of tens of thousands of characters data processing applications, since the
whereas backing storage of a larger office environment is one which is suitable
Computer may be expressed in terms of for most Computer hardware.
tens of millions of characters.
Relative costs
Access facilities. There are big differences in costs between
Broadly speaking, the two main factors the various types of Computer storage.
are: - Awareness of the various alternatives
allows the most economical alternative to
 Mode of access be selected in a given situation.
 Speed of access Conversely, if the storage requirements
have not been properly specified, an
For example, you may “access” data i.e. alternative may be selected unnecessarily.
get facts in a book in two modes: -
C. BACKING STORAGE
a) Serially, by reading through from The main backing storage in use today
the first page to the last, or are:
b) Directly by using the index to go
straight to the data you need. a. Magnetic disk (hard or floppy)
b. Magnetic tape.
The first alternative is more efficient if you
require most or all of the facts, but the Magnetic disks: These are flat rotating
latter is faster if you only require a few circular plates coated with magnetic
facts. If you require to have the material. Some magnetic disks are rigid
immediate recall of facts, then you may
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  Introduction to Computers

and called hard disks, others are flexible keyboard, and is both passed into the
disks or diskettes. Hard disks are more Computer and displayed on; the screen.
expensive but are faster more reliable and The VDU can also receive and display
bigger. Disks provide direct data access. messages from the Computer.

Magnetic tapes: These are similar in There are many different types of VDU but
principle to the tapes used domestically the two main ways of using VDUs are: -
for audio or video recording. Tape is a
serial medium and is mainly used as a a) To connect the VDU directly to the
backup or archiving medium. Tape is also Computer. This is known as on-
used as an input medium because data on line data entry in this manner is
the media may be converted onto called a terminal.
magnetic tape prior to input in order to b) To use the VDU in conjunction with
give faster input in order to give faster some other data entry system in
input. order to prepare data in a fast and
The disadvantages of magnetic media reliable input media. A popular
includes susceptibility to stray magnet modern example of this is the key
fields and dust, physical damage as a to floppy disk or key to diskette
result of dropping or falling, while the system. These are Micro
advantages includes confidentiality of data Computer-based systems, which
stored in them as opposed to; the same take in data from the VDU and
stored on paper since; they can not be store it on floppy disks. At some
directly readable by humans and my be later date the floppy disks are used
wiped magnetically. for input to the main Computer.

D. DATA ENTRY In both cases just given the data can be

There are problems associated with checked and corrected as it is being input
entering data into Computers because and no non-reusable medium is being
humans communicate less quickly than wasted.
Computers and in a different way i.e. by It has become common in recent years to
speech, writing etc. a Computers internal use MicroComputers as terminals in
communication is based upon codes addition to any other tasks they do. PCs
formed from high frequency electronic are often used for this purpose. The PC
pulses. The basic problems are overcome may also be able to process some of the
by using devices, which can encode our data and thus relieve the load on the main
data into a form, which is usable, by the Computer to which it is connected. A
Computer. terminal with such capabilities, i.e. able to
Act not only as a terminal but to do some
Modern methods fall into three broad processing itself, is normally called a
categories: - “workstation”. The more sophisticated
 Keyboard Entry VDUs often have the ability to serve as
 Documents Reading workstations. Thus the term workstation
indicates a capability rather than a specific
 Data Capture
type of device.
Keyboard Entry.
Document Reading
One typical keyboard input devices is the
The idea behind document reading is to
VDU – visual display unit. These are
get a machine to record source
really two devices in one; one for input
documents (i.e. the documents on which
one for output. Data is fed in via a
the data is originally recorded). This
keyboard, which is like a typewriter
avoids the problems associated with
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  Introduction to Computers

transcription and verification of data when

using keyboard devices. The data is Modem Modem

recorded on the documents using special

marks or characters, and is read by optical Communications
or magnetic reading techniques. Link

Data capture. Terminal

This heading covers a wide variety of Fig. 1.2 Point to point data
methods all of which try to combine data communications
creation with data entry i.e. the data is
captured at source in a machine sensible Special equipment is needed to provide
form. link. In the figure above, the devices called
Examples pre recorded, or pre printed, MODEMS are able to send data along and
data on some suitable medium attached to receive data from a telephone circuit so
goods, may be read or collected as the that the terminal can be used in exactly
goods are sold. This application is known the same way it could be if connected
as PoS (Point of Sale) data capture. directly to the Computer by a short piece
A further very different example of data of cable when in fact the terminal could be
capture is audio input either by means of a in another city or country.
microphone or via a telephone. Since Fig 1.3
devices may be fitted to a workstation in
addition to the normal keyboard. Terminal
Concentrator Concentrator Computer
Multiplexor Multiplexor
E. DATA TRANSMISSION AND
NETWORKS
Used in the general sense the term data PABX PABX
transmission refers to the movement of
data from one location to another. Data in Telephone Telephones
a physical form such as documents can s
be moved by dispatching through the post,
by using a car or van or by employing a Figure 1.3 above provides an example of
courier service. a more advanced form of communications
In data processing, data transmission is link but based upon the same based upon
usually understood to mean the the same basic idea shown in figure 1.2.
movement of data by telecommunications The device called concentrators are able
systems. It is possible by this means to to use one single communications link to
link a number of remote terminals to a the Computer for a number of terminals
central Computer and the terminals in which are close to one another i.e. the
both directions. The use of data to and from of terminals is
telecommunication facilities makes concentrated into a single data stream.
possible much faster transmission. This means using one single
communications link to carry a number of
The basic components of a data separate signals is known as
transmission system are: multiplexing and hence the device is
called a multiplexor.
a) A central Computer Another feature of the figure above is the
b) A terminal device use of the same communications link for
c) A telecommunications link telephone messages. The telephones are
between a and b. (figure below) connected to the concentrator/multiplexor
Fig 1.2 via a PABX (private automatic branch
exchange). There are many different
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  Introduction to Computers

types of PABX but the significant point to communication server on the LAN, which
note is the integration of two technologies; enables communication between
Computer and telecommunications. equipment on the network and system
elsewhere.
The whole concept of data transmission LANs can not be used over long
has been extended in two ways: distances, instead Long Haul Networks
Many systems now have Computers at (LHNs) are used. The feature of a typical
both ends of the telecommunications link, LHN is shown in outline in figure 1.5
and several Computers may be interlinked below. Computers at separate locations
in a similar manner to form a complete each have their own connection to the
Computer network. network. The point of connection is often
called a gateway. When the network is
The networks are able to do more than used for electronic mail the gateway
pass data from point to point. Messages connection normally takes the form of
can be dispatchedfrom one point in the some kind of IMP (Interface message
network and passed by the network to processor) which has the ability to receive,
one or more destinations specified when store and forward messages. The
the messages are sent. This is a form of communications links between IMPs can
electronic mail. take a variety of forms such as cables,
A Local Area Network (LAN) as may be optical fiber or satellite transmission.
used on a single site within an
organization. The purpose of the LAN is F. OUTPUT.
equipment by means of a shared link in Most of the information produced by
order to allow their intercommunications. Computers is output in the form of printed-
Fig 1.4 paper documents, reports etc. an increase
Workstations in the number of Computer system being
used for online information retrieval has
File server Print Server
Host meant that considerable volumes of data
Computer are displayed on VDU screens instead of
being produced in printed form.
In both these cases the information is
Network
expressed in terms of characters, but in
Hub the long term more information may be
External provided in the form of images (i.e. picture
Host Communication
Computer or diagrams).
Server
The development of output devices has
Terminal
been largely concerned with trying to find
s Telephones ways of improving the speeds, costs and
reliability of printers. Print quality and
quietness have been additional aims for
The terminals and workstations in figure some printer applications.
1.4 above are able to connect to either
one of two-host Computer at will. The The two main types of printers currently in
network also has a file server and a print use are: -
server. The former is a special Computer a. Character Printers
which provides a form of auxiliary storage, b. Line Printers.
which can be used, by any other
Computer on the network and the latter is Character printers
a special Computer which can receive Are low speed printers, which mimic the
data from other Computers on the network actions of typewriters by printing one
and print it. There is also an external
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  Introduction to Computers

characters at a time. Most of the printers,

which produce high quality print, are
character printers.

Line printers
The majority of high-speed printers print
whole lines at a time (or appear to) and
consequently called line printers. Line
printers usually have a considerable
workload on mini or mainframe Computers
used for data processing.

Questions:
a. What do the term semi-conductor
devices mean?
b. Give three features of semi-
conductor devices.
c. Explain the term data
transmission.

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INPUT DEVICES AND MEDIA iv. Color – on the more expensive

models

A. Keyboard Devices f) Cursor controls: A cursor is

a small character sized symbol
1. Visual Display Unit (VDU). displayed on the screen, which can
There are many different types of VDU in be moved about the screen both
use today. Only the common features and vertically and horizontally by
variants will be discussed. means of special keys on the
keyboard. During data input, the
Features: display may resemble a blank
a) It is a dual-purpose device with a form. In this case data may be
keyboard for data input and a entered by first moving the cursor
cathode ray tube display for to a space on the form and then
output. The latter is similar to a TV typing in the data. Further keys
screen. may allow the data to be edited or
corrected.
b) The keyboard resembles the
typewriter keyboard, but usually g) In-built MicroProcessors.
has several additional keys, which The numerous internal functions of
are used to control and edit the almost all modern VDUs are
display. controlled by in-built
microprocessors. The more
c) Characters are displayed on; the expensive models are often called
screen in a manner that resembles intelligent terminals. These
printed text. A typical full screen devices are sometimes capable of
display is 243 rows by 80 columns limited amounts of processing and
i.e. 1920 characters). with further enhancements these
devices can often be turned into
d) The display can be generated in small MicroComputer systems in
two different modes. their own right. As was indicated
earlier an advanced VDU or a
i. Scrolling mode in which lines personal Computer able to not only
appear at the bottom and move acts as a terminal but also able to
up the screen rather like do some processing itself is
credits on a movie screen. normally called a workstation.
ii. Paging mode in which one
complete screen full is h) Mice & Joysticks. These
replaced by another rather like devices have a variety of uses as
a slide projector display. alternatives to the keyboard. In
simple cases they can be used to
e) Most VDUs have features, which move the cursor about the screen.
allow particular parts of the display As the mouse is moved about the
to be highlighted or contrasted e.g. desktop the cursor moves about
the screen. A button on top of the
i. Inverse (Reverse) video i.e. mouse can be pressed when the
black on white instead of white desired position is reached. The
on black. underside of the mouse is sensed
ii. Blinking displays by a rolling ball, which is mounted
iii. Two levels of brightness in the underside of the mouse, and
in contact with the desktop. The
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joystick can be moved left, right, operator (i.e. the person responsible for
up or down to move the cursor and operating the Computer) and the program,
also has a button used like that of which is controlling the Computer. (This
the mouse. special program is often called the
monitor.) Terminal typewriters and VDUs
Variations on the VDU. can both be used as consoles, although
a) Graphics Versions. Some VDUs the use of a terminal typewriter is usually
have high quality displays, which can preferred because of the permanent print
be used for line drawings, draftsmen’s record which they produce.
drawings etc.
C Document Readers
b) Light pens. A special pen used in
conjunction with a graphics VDU. The Optical Reading and Documents.
VDU can detect the location of light There are two basic methods of Optical
shining on the screen by means of Document Reading:
special hardware and software. This
is a design aid, which simplifies input a) Optical Character Recognition
of details of positions on the screen. (OCR).
b) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
c) Touch terminals. An alternative to
the light pen. The VDU can detect These two methods are often used in
when a point on the screen is touched. conjunction with one another and have
much in common. Their common
d) Voice Data Entry (VDU). Additional distinguishing features are discussed
circuitry plus a microphone is added to below.
the VDU. The unit can be switched to
learn a number of words, typically less Features of an Optical reader:
than 200, which it achieves by It has a document feed hopper and
recording a sound pattern for each several stackers including a stacker for
word typed in. When the unit is “rejecting” documents
switched to input it displays and inputs Reading of documents prepared in optical
any word which it recognizes. These characters or marks is accomplished as
units are particularly suitable for follows:
people wishing to use a few words a. Characters. A scanning device
again in situations where their hands recognizes each character by the
are not free to use a keyboard e.g. amount of reflected light (i.e.
people in laboratories. OCR).
b. Marks. A mark in a particular
B. Terminal position on the document will
Typewriters. trigger off a response. It is the
position of the mark that is
converted to a value by the
A terminal typewriter is also a dual-
Reader. (i.e. OMR)
purpose device. It has a Keyboard for
c. Document may be read up to
data input and a small printer for output. It
10,000 A4 documents per hour
closely resembles a modern Electric
typewriter, hence its name.
Features of a document:
a. Documents are printed in a
C. Consoles. stylized form (by printers’ etc.
A console is a device, which is being Fitted with a special typeface)
used, for communication between the
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which can be recognized by a c) The two most common sizes are

machine. The stylizes print is also ¼” and 3 ½”.
recognizable to the human eye. d) Storage capacities range from 400
Printing must be on specified A4 size paper full of characters to
areas on the document. 4 times this.
b. Some documents incorporate
optical marks. Pre-determined OUTPUT DEVICES AND
positions on the document are
given values. A mark made in a MEDIA
position using a pencil is read by
the reader. A. PRINTERS
c. Good quality printing and paper
are vital. A basic classification of printers is:
d. Documents require to be
undamaged for accurate reading a) Character printers, which print
e. Sizes of document, and scanning one character at a time.
area may be limited b) Line printers, which print whole
lines at a time.
8. Floppy Disk Unit and Floppy c) Page printers also called image
Disk (Diskette) printers which print whole pages at
a time.
Features of the floppy disk unit.
a) Most floppy disk units are dual Print speeds tend to be expressed in
drive units, i.e. able to hold two terms of CPS - Characters Per Second
separate floppy disks at a time. or 1pm lines per minute. Printers may be
b) Each disk is inserted in to a narrow classified as:
slot in the front of the disk drive.
The slot has small flap over it, a) Low speed 10 cps to
which must be clipped shut once approximately 300 1pm usually
the disk is inserted. line printers.
c) The action of closing the flap b) High speed typically 300 1pm –
engages a turntable, which rotates 3000 1pm usually line printers or
the disk and also brings a page printers.
“read/write head” into contact with
the disk. The read/write head is Basic methods of producing print.
moved to and from across the disk a) Impact or non-impact printing.
in order to either record data on Impact printers hit inked ribbons
the disk surface (a “write”), or against paper whereas non-impact
‘read’ back data, which has printers use other methods of
previously been recorded. printing e.g. thermal or
d) Floppy disks rotate at 360 rpm. electrostatic. Most impact printers
e) Floppy Disk Units are sometimes are noisy.
incorporated physically into the b) Shaped or dot matrix.
VDU associated with the system. It can also be used to produce a
whole picture or image, similar in
Features of the floppy disk. principle, but superior in quality, to
a) A pliable disc permanently sealed the minute pattern of dots in a
within a rigid smoothly lined newspaper picture.
protective plastic envelope.
b) Data is stored on tracks.

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LOW SPEED PRINTERS b) These printers are filled with

Dot matrix impact character exchangeable print heads called
printers. daisywheels. To print each
These are the most popular and widely character the wheel is rotated and
used printers. They are often loosely the appropriate spoke is struck
referred to as dot matrix printers. against an inked ribbon.
c) Speed typically 45 cps.
Features: d) Similar to dot matrix printers in
a) As with all character printers the terms of page six and multiple
device mimics the action of a copy printing.
typewriter by printing single
characters at a time in lines across Other low speed printers.
the stationary. The print is These are many other low speed printers
produced by a small print head to numerous to mention.
which move to and from across the Two others worth to mention are: -
page, stopping momentarily in
each character position to strike a a) Thermal Printers.
print ribbon against the stationary These are non-impact character matrix
with an array of wires. printers, which print onto special paper
b) According to the number of wires using a heated print head. They are
in the print head, the character very quiet and this gives them a big
matrix may be 7x,5,7x7,9x7,9x9. advantage for some applications.
The more dots the better the
image. b) Inkjet printers
c) Line widths are typically These are non-impact printers, which
80,120,135 or 160 characters fire ink droplets onto the paper by
across. using an electrostatic field. They too
d) Speeds are typically from 30 cps to are very quiet but are not so widely
200 cps used at present.
e) Multiple print copies may be
produced by the use of carboned HIGH SPEED PRINTERS
paper. There are two basic types of high speed
f) Some higher quality versions printers
have:- a. Line Printers
b. Page Printers
i. Inbuilt alternative character
sets. Line printers
ii. Very good print quality. These are impact shaped character
iii. Features for producing graphs, printers, which as their name suggest print
pictures, and even color by whole lines at a time. There are three
means of multiple print ribbons. main types: -
a. Drum Printers ;
Daisy Wheel printers. b. Chain Printers
Another popular type of low speed printer c. Brand Printers.
which is favored when high print quality is
demanded. A principle of operation typically of the
faster models, is that of a moving chain,
Features: with links being engraved character-
a) An impact shaped character printing slugs, moving at a high constant
printer. speed past printing position. Magnetically

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controlled hammers force the paper basic methods of producing graphical

against the appropriate print slug. images are: -
Typically there are 120 printing positions
to a line. Speeds of up to 50 lines per a. Block based images
second can be achieved although, as yet, b. Pixel based images
20 approx. per second is a more typical
speed. Using continuous stationery with Blocked Based Images.
interleaved carbons, upto 7 copies can be Are simple and effective. The basic
obtained. building blocks are graphics characters,
The band printer works in a similar which the devices can display or print in
manner to the chain printer but the bands, addition to the ordinary alphabetic and
which are made of steel, may be numeric characters. The graphics
exchanged quite readily to provide a characters available vary from device to
variety of character sets. device.

Page Printers. Pixel Based Images.

The printers print an image of a whole These are of a higher quality than block
page at a time. The image may consist of based images. The principle is basically
conventional print, diagrams, pictures, or a the same as that used for simple dot
combination of these thus making pre matrix character printing i.e. the image is
printed stationery unnecessary. These built up from an appropriate combination
printers are also known as optical of dots. To achieve this the whole VDU
printers, laser printers or xerographic screen is organized into rows and
An electronically controlled laser beam columns of individual dot positions called
marks out an electrostatic image on the pixels. On a black and white screen each
rotating surface of a photo-conductive pixel can simply either be on black or off
drum. Ink toner is attracted onto the white. On a color screen each pixel may
electrostatic pattern on the surface of the comprise a cluster of red, green and blue
drum. The toner is then transferred onto primary colored dots which can be on and
the stationary as the stationery comes into off in different combinations.
contact with the drum. The more pixels there are the more detail
can be represented, i.e. the higher
A typical laser printer will print 146 pages resolution. A screen with more than
per minute. When printing at a normal 6 30,000 pixels will normally be classified as
lines per inch vertically this represents a A High Resolution Graphics (HRG)
speed of, 500 1pm but with smaller screen and will be capable of representing
spacing speeds of upto 30,000 lines per reasonably smooth curves and accurate
minute may be achieved on some models. drawings.
Low speed, low price laser printers are
also available which are able to produce MAIN STORAGE
high quality printing at speeds of up to 500
lines per minute.
Introduction
Terminals Main storage plays a vital role in the
One feature of many terminals or operation of the central processor. It is
workstat5ions is Computer graphics. A wholly electronic and in close proximity to
wide variety of pictures, diagrams, line the rest of the processor. Therefore any
drawings animated cartoons etc. can be data within main memory is almost
produced on Computer output devices instantly accessible to the processor. For
and the general term for such forms of this reason main memory is also called
output is Computer graphics. The two
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Immediate Access Storage (IAS), but is

called Internal Storage or main memory.

Function.
Main storage in modern Computers is
constructed from semi conductor memory
chips. The most common type of semi
conductor memory is called RAM (random
access memory). RAM is volatile i.e. data
is lost when the power supply is removed.
A non-volatile alternative to RAM is ROM
(Read On Memory), in which all contents
are permanently set during manufacture.

Uses.
a. ROM usually forms a small
proportion of main storage, and is
used to store vital data and
programs which need to be held
within main storage at all times.
b. RAM usually forms the major
proportion of main storage, and is
used to store vital data and
programs temporarily during those
times when they are needed in
main memory. It is constantly
being reused for different data
items or programs as required.

Data is represented in magnetic tapes by

spots of magnetism. Inside the Computer,
data is represented electronically by
storage cells, which are either charged or
discharged. In RAM the cells may be
charged and discharged at will, and can
thus be reused to store different data
items. In ROM the cells are permanently
set to one state or the other.

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THE BINARY SYSTEM

As has just been indicated Computer storage is based upon two-storage concept e.g.
charged or discharged, and use is made of a numbering system, which has two as its
base the BINARY system. Remember this is a digital Computer

BINARY REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS.

The basic points to be aware of are:
a. All numbering systems are based on two concepts:-

i. Absolute value
ii. Positional value

b. The decimal system as absolute values 0 to 9 and positional values allied to

powers of 10
c. The binary system has absolute values 0 to 1 and positional values allied to
powers of 2

Example 1:
The number '26' in decimal is made up thus: -
POSITIONAL VALUES 103 102 101 100 101 100
(1000) (100) (10) (1)
Digit 6 in position 100 6 =6X100= 6
Digit 2 in position 101 2 =2X101= 2 0
= DECIMAL 26

Example 2:
The number '26' in binary is made up thus: -
POSITIONAL VALUES 24 23 22 21 20 24 23 22 21 20
(16) (8) (4) (2) (1)
Digit 0 in position 20 0 =0X20 0
1
Digit 1 in position 2 1 =1X21 1 0
2
Digit 1 in position 2 0 =0X22 0 0 0
Digit 1 in position 23 1 =1X23 1 0 0 0
4
Digit 1 in position 2 1 =1X24 1 0 0 0 0
= BINARY 1 1 0 1 0

Notes: -
a. The 0s and 1s making up a binary number are referred to as Binary digits or
BITS. Thus the number 26 is composed of 5 BITS.
b. Inside the Computer's storage a 1 would be represent by an electronic cell in a
chip being in an electrically charged state or on and a 0 by an electronic cell in
a chip being in an electrically discharged state.

Binary codes.
Most Computers nowadays use a deviation of pure binary notation just described, in what
may be called “Binary Coded” representation of data. These methods use a fixed number
of binary digits (bits), in fact the basis for most systems is the use of the just 4 binary
positional values only. Each decimal values only.

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Each decimal digit may be represented by four bits (see fig below)

DECIMAL VALUE BINARY (PURE)

BINARY CODED DECIMAL
(assuming a BIT CODE)
0 0000 001010
1 0001 000001
2 0010 000010
3 0011 000011
4 0100 000100
5 0100 000101
6 0110 000110
7 0111 000111
8 1000 001000
9 1001 001001
10 1010 000001 001010
11 1011 000001 000001
22 10110 000010 000010
26 11010 000010 000110
34 100010 000011 000100
47 101111 000100 000111
90 1011010 001001 001010
631 1001110111 000110 000011 000001
Fig 1.5 Selected examples of decimal, binary coded decimal codes.

In order to accommodate 26 letters of the alphabet, and a certain number of special

characters (i.e. full stops, commas etc.) further bits are added to make a total of 6,7 or 8
bits according to the coding system used.

The three most commonly used codes are: -

A. ASCII (American Standard Code of Information Interchange).

A set of 128 characters is represented by this code. Most of the characters are used for
normal printing purpose but a few characters are not printable and are use to control the
hardware used in printing characters or transmitting them.

BINARY ASCII BINARY ASCII BINARY ASCII

CODED CHARACTERS CODED CHARACTERS CODED CHARACTERS
0010 0000 0011 0000 0 0100 1111 @
0010 0001 ! 0011 0001 1 0100 0001 A
0010 0010 " 0011 0010 2 0100 0010 B
0010 0100 $ 0011 0011 3 0100 0011 C
0010 0101 % 0011 0100 4 0100 0100 D
0010 0110 & 0011 0101 5 0100 0101 E
0010 1011 + 0011 0011 > 0100 1111 O
0010 1111 / 0011 1111 ? 0100 1010 Z
0101 1100 \ 0101 1111 - 0110 0001 a
0110 0010 b 0110 0011 c 0111 1010 z

Fig. 1.5. THE ASCII CHARACTER SET

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B. BCD (BINARY CODED DECIMAL) – a 6-bit code.

This is by far the least common.

ALPHA CHARACTER BINARY CODE ALPHA CHARACTER BINARY CODE

A 11 0001 J 10 0001
B 11 0010 K 10 0010
C 11 0011 L 10 0011
D 11 0100 M 10 0100
E 11 0101 N 10 0101

C. EBCDIC (EXTENDED BINARY CODED DECIMAL INTERCHANGE

CODE)- an 8-bit code. (sometimes called 8-bit ASCII)

ALPHA CHARACTER BINARY CODE ALPHA CHARACTER BINARY CODE

A 1100 0001 J 1101 0001
B 1100 0010 K 1101 0010
C 1100 0011 L 1101 0011
D 1100 0100 M 1101 0100
E 1100 0101 N 1101 0101

How main storage operates.

Once data is read into storage from an Storage Capacity
input unit it remains there (i.e. the Storage sizes are sometimes expressed
particular cells are charged or in terms of ‘K’ (K = 2 10 = 1024 ) e.g. typical 8-
discharged) until it is replaced by other bit micro Computer may have a main
data. Data read into the same locations storage capacity of 32 k bytes. Larger
will destroy what was there previously capacities are sometimes expressed in
(rather like the latest recording you make terms of megabytes (mega for a million).
on your tape recorder will destroy the
previous one) as internal storage is Questions:
limited and only used for holding data Explain the following terms as they relate
currently worked on, the contents of the to the representation of data in a
storage locations can in some ways be Computer:
regarde4d as pigeon holes in a mail a. Bit
room. Each pigeon hole (storage b. Byte
location is addressable and will contain c. Binary coded decimal
different data depending on what was d. Word
last put in it.

Access Time.
Each item of data stored in main storage
whether stored as characters, bytes or
Words is accessible to the control unit on
a completely random basis. The speed
with which this access is made is so fast
as to be called immediate e.g. accessible
in less than one millionth of one second.
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THE ARCHITECTURE OF a. It carries out the arithmetic, i.e. add,

subtract, multiply, divide.
COMPUTER SYSTEMS b. It performs certain logical operations,
e.g. the comparison of two numbers
THE PROCESSOR to determine which is the greater

Basic features of the processor. How it works:

The diagram of the elements of a a. The various factors to processed are
Computer system shows the processor taken from main storage as directed
as consisting of two parts: - by the control unit, and stored in its
registers. They are then added etc.
a. The Control Unit together and the results placed back
b. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit. in the main storage. Basically most
Computers only add . subtraction is
The function of the processor: achieved by complementing and
It is to control the sequence of adding. Division is carried out by
operations, to give commands to all successive complementing, adding
parts of the Computer system, and to (i.e. = to subtraction) and shifting.
carry out the necessary processing. Multiplication is achieved by shifting
The processor controls the input of data and adding.
into main storage, processes the data, b. Logical operations are virtually the
passes the results to main storage and same arithmetical process, but the
then sends the results from main storage results(say of subtracting one
to output devices of various types. number from another) will determine
All movements within the processor are different courses of action to be
wholly electronic, which is also true of taken by the control unit. This gives
main storage but not of other hardware. the Computer its decision taking
capability.
CONTROL UNIT.
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE.
Functions: Although the basic elements of a
The control is the nerve center of the Computer are essentially the same for
Computer, controlling all hardware almost all digital Computers, there are
operations, i.e. those of the input-output variations in construction, which reflect
units, storage and of the processor itself. the differing ways in which Computers
are used.
How it operates: The many parts of a Computer are its
It fetches the requisite instruction from architecture. In order to recognize the
main storage, stores it in a number of characteristics of the different types of
special registers interprets the instruction modern Computer systems, and to
and causes the instruction to be understand how these systems are
executed by giving signals (or used, some basic features of Computer
commands) to the appropriate hardware architecture must be understood.
devices.
MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT The principle of modular construction
(ALU) were established in the 1960s and have
Function: been developed through to the present
The ALU has two main functions: day. Broadly speaking, modules are

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standard components, which can be  Install additional physical memory.

combined together in a variety of ways. Typically this involves plugging a
memory board into a slot inside your
Buses: Computer or adding more memory to
Busses provide a standardize way of an already existing memory board.
interconnecting modules. Just as the  Make the most of the memory your
ring main electrical circuit in a house has Computer already has. One way to
standard sockets into which a variety of do this is to run the MemMaker
electrical appliances may be plugged, a memory optimization program, which
buss has slots with multiple electrical adjusts the way your device drivers
contacts into which modular components and programs use memory.
can be placed.
Busses are used to convey power, data IDENTIFYING YOUR
and Control signals.
COMPUTER’S MEMORY
Main CONFIGURATION.
Processor Storage Because your Computer’s memory
configuration significantly affects your
system’s performance, its important to
BUS know how much and what type of
memory your Computer has. You can
find out about your memory configuration
by using the MS-DOS mem command.
Character
Printer VD
U Keyboard Floppy
Disk Unit
To find out about your Computer’s
memory configuration:
1. If windows is running, quit windows.
Simplified typical architecture of a small 2. At the command prompt, type mem
MicroComputer based system. and press ENTER

MEMORY ORGANIZATION Ms-DOS displays information about the

Memory exists in your Computers main type and amount of memory your
system board or on add in memory Computer has.
board. Before information is processed
by the Computer or displayed on the
screen, it is first placed in memory. For
Example, application files are usually
stored on a hard disk. When you run an
application, its files are loaded into
memory for processing. Memory also
provides temporary storage for
applications and data.

In general, the more memory you have,

the more applications you can run
simultaneously in the windows
environment.

There are several ways to make more

memory. You can:

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Type of memory Description

Conventional memory Upto the first 640 kilobytes of memory on a Computer.
Because MS-DOS manages conventional memory, you
don’t need an additional memory manager to use
conventional memory. All MS-DOS based programs
require conventional memory.
Upper memory area The 384K of memory above your Computers 640K of
conventional memory. The upper memory area is used
by system hardware, such as your display adapter.
Unused parts of upper memory area called upper
memory blocks (UMBs).
Extended memory (XMS) Memory beyond 1 megabyte (MB) on Computers with
80286,80386, 80486, or 80686 processors. Extended
memory requires and extended memory manager.
Windows and Windows based applications require
extended memory.
High memory area (EMS) The first 64K of extended memory. On a Computer with
extended memory, setup installs MS-SOS to run in the
high memory area. This leaves more conventional
memory available for programs.
Virtual memory Space on your hard disk that windows uses as if it were
actual memory.
Expanded memory (EMS) Memory in addition to conventional memory that some
MS-DOS based applications can use. Most personal
Computers can accommodate expanded memory.
Expanded memory is installed on an expanded memory
board and comes with an expanded memory manager.
Programs use expanded memory 64k at a time by
addressing a part of the upper memory area called an
EMS page frame.

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The following illustration shows the memory configuration of a typical Computer.

3MB

Extended Memory
(XMS)
(2MB)

Expanded Memory
(EMS)
(1 MB)
HMA
1MB
Upper Memory
Area (384)
640K

Conventional Memory
(640K)

Classification of processors they are needed in main memory.

Computer processors may be classified The bigger the RAM the faster the
according to their speeds in terms of: Computer.
4. Clock speed. Usually a Computer
1. Word length i.e. 6 bit processor, 8 bit has a clock, which is rated in
processor, 16 bit processor or 32 bit megahertz. This is the speed at
processor. which the Computer processed data.
2. Hard disk space in terms of kilobytes. The higher the rating the faster is the
The more the disk space the faster is Computer e.g. a Computer rated
the Computer. 100MHz is faster than that rated 60
3. RAM. This usually forms the major MHz.
proportion of main storage, and is
used to store vital data and programs
temporarily during those times when
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COMPUTER NETWORKS AND Computers are connected in the case of

LHNs.
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS.
An interconnected set of two or more
Computers may be called a Computer
network. However, if the Computers in
the network operate together as a single
unit which to the user appears as a
single Computer, then the complete
system is more accurately described as Star Network Loop or Ring
a distributed system. Network

Networks used to interconnect

Computers in a single room, rooms
within a building or building on one site
are normally called Local Area
Networks (LANs). LANs normally
transmit data in a digital form using
media such as coaxial cable or multi Multidrop or
stranded cable. Bus Network
Tree Network
The networks, which interconnect
Computers on separate sites, separate
cities or even separate countries are
called Long Haul Networks (LHN) or
Wide Area Networks (WANs). LANs
tend to use packet switching methods Mesh Interconnected
and exploit optical fiber media and Network Rings
satellite transmission in many cases.

Basic Advantages of Using

Networks.
There are many possibly advantages in
using networks. The basic ones are
a. The sharing of resources (e.g.
Computers and staff) and information
b. The provision of local facilities
without the loss of central control.
c. The even distribution of work,
processing loads etc.
d. Shared risks and mutual support
e. Improved and more economic
communication facilities in general,
e.g. including voice communication.

NETWORK STRUCTURES
A number of standard network structures
are shown in the figure below. The
individual circles represent Computers
connected to the network in the case of
LANs and represent IMPs (Interface
Message Processors) to which
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TERMINOLOGIES File protection

The MS-DOS operation system is a
1. PROGRAM powerful and useful tool for processing
Programs are often called Application personal and business information. As
software. Application software are series with any computer, this information must
of instructions written in Computer be protected, since errors may occur and
language and stored in files. They tell information may be misused. So if you
the Computer to perform tasks e.g. are doing work that cannot be replaced
sorting names alphabetically, sum or or that requires a lot of security, you
calculate data etc. should protect your programs.

2. FILE You can take simple but effective

A file is a collection of related measures like putting your disks away
information, like the contents of a file when you are not using them, or
folder in a disk drawer. covering the write-protect notch on your
program disks. Another way to protect
your program is by installing your
3. FILE NAME.
equipment in a secure office or work
Each file on a disk has a name which
area. Also, if your disks contain valuable
consists of two parts i.e. file name and
information, you should make backup
extension.
copies of them on a regular basis.
 The file name can contain up to 8
characters in length and can be
typed in upper or in lower case. MS-
How MS-DOS keeps track of your
DOS converts them to upper case. files
 The extension consists of a period MS-DOS stores files in directories. In
followed by one, two or three addition to directories, it uses an area on
characters. Extensions are optional a disk called the File allocation Table.
but it is good practice to use then When you format a disk with the Format
since they are used to describe the command, MS-DOS copies this table
contents of a file. onto the disk and creates an empty
directory, called the root directory. On
How to name files each of your disks, the directories store
When naming files, you may have the files, and the File Allocation Table
trouble finding a name that uniquely keeps track of their locations. The table
identifies the file contents. File names also allocates the free space on your
can contain only letters and numbers but disks so that you have enough room to
you can also use any of the following create new files.
symbols and letters in your file name and
extensions: A-Z a-z 0-9 $%@(( ) & File Allocation
Table
Note: Some applications may not let you File 1 location
use all of these symbols. File 2 location
File 3 location
Invalid file name
Although you do have some freedom
when naming files, avoid names such as Directory
aux.,clock$,com1, com2 com3, 1pt, Lpt2 File 1 size date
etc. because MS-DOS reserves them for File 2 size date
specific devices that your Computer File 3 size date
uses.
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These two system areas, the directories e.g. C:\RECIEPES\ENTRIES\LAS. TXT.

and the file allocation table, enable MS- In the example above,
DOS to recognise the files on your disks. C: represents the drive
To check these areas on a disk for \ represents the root directory of the
consistency and errors, you should use current drive
the MS-DOS chkdsk command. RECIPES represent directory
For example, to check the disk in drive ENTRIES represent a sub directory
A, type the chkdsk command, followed LAS represents a file name
by A: .TXT represents the file extension

In response, MS-DOS displays a status 5. DIRECTORY

report and any errors it has found, such
as files that show a non zero size in the Directory is a table of contents of a disk.
directory but that really have data in It contains names of files, their sizes and
them. dates of creation or last modification.

Multilevel directories 6. A PARENT DIRECTORY

When dealing with large number of files,
you may want to keep your files separate A parent directory is any directory that
from co-workers, or organize files that contains subdirectories. MS-DOS
belong to several people or that relate to provides special shorthand notations for
specific projects by putting them in the working directory and the parent of
different file cabinets. the working directory, and automatically
creates these two entries whenever you
Directories let you group your files in create a directory:
convenient categories. These
categories in turn may; contain other  MS-DOS uses the shorthand name”.”
directories referred to as sub-directory. To indicate the name of the working
This organized file structure is called a directory in all multilevel directory
multilevel or hierarchical directory listings.
system.  These two dots are the shorthand
name”.” For the working directory
Note: the maximum number of files or one level up. If you type the dir
directories that the root directory may command followed by two dots, MS-
contain varies, depending on the type of DOS lists the files in the parent
disk and disk drive you are using. directory of your working directory.
Usually the maximum number is 112 for
a double sided, double density, 5.23 inch How to create A directory
floppy disk. The maximum number of
entries in the root directory of a 1.44 To create a sub-directory in your working
megabyte, 3.5 inch floppy disk is 224. directory, use the mkdir (make directory)
This maximum capacity for a root command. For example, to create a new
directory may vary depending upon how directory named user under your working
the disk is formatted. The number of directory, simply type the following
subdirectories is not restricted. command:
4. PATH Mkdir user
A path is the course that leads from the After MS-DOS runs this command, a
root directory of a drive to the file you new directory will exist under your
want to use.
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working directory. You can also make

directories anywhere in the directory How to delete a directory
structure by specifying mkdir followed by To delete a directory, you can use the
a path. MS-DOS automatically creates MS-DOS rmdir (remove directory)
the “.” and “.” Entities in the new command.
directory.
The rmdir command lets you delete any
To create files in the new directory, you directory by specifying its path, but the
can use the MS-DOS line editor, Edline. directory must be empty except for the
“.” and “.” entities. This prevents you
How to change your working from accidentally deleting files and
directory. directories.
With MS-DOS to change from your
working directory to a different directory To remove all the files in a directory
you type the chdir (change directory) (except for the “.” and “.” entities) type
command followed by a path. For del followed by the pate of the directory.
example, to change the working For example, to delete all files in the
directory to user, you simply type the \user\emily directory, type the following
following: command:

Chdir\user Del\user\emily

You can also specify any path after the MS-DOS prompts you with the following
command so that you can travel around message:
the directory structure. The following
command, for example. Puts you in the Are you sure (Y/N)
parent directory of your working
directory. If you really want to delete all the files in
the directory, type Y for yes if not, type N
Chdir .. for no to stop the command.

How to display your working Now you can use the rmdir command to
directory delete the \user\emily directory by typing
All commands are executed while you the following command
are in your working directory. You can
find out the name of the directory you rmdir\user\emily
are in by typing the MS-DOS chdir
command with no path. For example, if How to rename a directory
your working directory is \usre\pete, There is no command to rename a
when you type chdir and press the directory in MS-DOS. You can ,
ENTER key, you will see the following: however rename a directory that has no
subdirectories. Suppose, for example
A:\user\pete you want to rename the \user\emily. To
do this you would follow the following
This message shows your working drive, procedure
A, plus your working directory,
\user\pete.  To create the new directory, type

Note that you can also use the shortcut Mkdir\user\emily

cd for the chdir command to save time.

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 Then copy the files from the old Default drive and MS-DOS prompt.
directory to the new directory, type If you don’t specify a drive name when
you type a filename, MS-DOS
Copy\user\pete\*.*\user\emily automatically searches for the file in the
default (current) drive.
 Now to delete the contents of the old To let you know that the Computer is
directory, type ready to receive a command, MS-DOS
displays a symbol, called a prompt sign
Del\user\pete\*.* (>). Following the sign is the cursor, the
blinking box or flashing underline that
(Type Y in response to the prompt ”Are shows where the next character you type
you sure?”) will appear.

 Finally, to remove the old directory, So when the prompt is A:>, MS-DOS
type searches only the disk in drive A: (the
default drive) for files and programs
Rmdir\user\pete unless otherwise specified.
To change the default drive, simply type
7. VOLUME LABEL the desired drive letter followed by a
colon and press ENTER key.
When using a new disk, you put a label
on the outside of it to help you identify its 10. COMMAND
contents. You can also give each of the
disks an internal label (name) to identify Just as when running programs to create
it called a volume label. and update files, you will also need to
run special programs, called MS-DOS
8. DISK DRIVE commands, that let you work with entire
files.
To use files or programs on a floppy
disk, you must first insert the disk into a 11. DEVICES
floppy disk drive. Floppy disk drives
commonly referred to as the drive A: and Whenever you use your Computer, you
the drive B: A hard disk drive is normally supply the information (input) and expect
installed inside the Computer, usually a result (output). Your Computer uses
referred to as the C: drive. pieces of hardware called devices to
receive input and send output.
9. DRIVE NAME
A complete drive name consists of a 12. DEVICE NAMES
drive letter and a colon. When using a
command, you may need to type a drive Device names are special names given
name before your filename to tell MS- to each device that your Computer
DOS where to find the disk that contains "knows" about. An example of a device
your file. name is LPT1, which stands for the First
Parallel Line Printer connected to your
E.g: B:finance.doc Computer.

Where, b: is the drive name 13. ERROR MESSAGES.

finances is the file
.doc is the file extension. If your Computer make a mistake when
using a device or MS-DOS Command,

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MS-DOS displays an appropriate error MS-DOS 4.0 (and above) also supports
message. Error messages apply to 3.5-inch disks, which, like the 5.25-inch
general errors (such as misspelling a floppy disks, are portable magnetic
command) or to device errors (such as disks. Data on 3.5-inch disk is more
trying to use a printer that is out of densely packed, so depending on the
paper). style, a single 3.5-inch disk can store as
much (or more data) as a high-density
DISKS floppy disk.
Floppy disks These smaller disks, sometimes called
A floppy disk is a flexible, magnetized Microfloppies, have rigid plastic covers
plastic disk. A double density floppy disk with metal shields that guard the disk
can store up to 400 single spaced pages from dirt and fingerprints. When you
of text. High-density disk stores up to 3 place the disk into the disk drive, the
times this. computer automatically moves this shield
Every floppy disk is enclosed in its own aside to read the disk.
protective cover. The front of this cover Notice that the 3.5 ` disks have a write
is smooth, while the back has visible protect notch. This notch can be
seams. Remember the following when covered with a built-in tab. When the tab
using floppy disks: covers the write-protection notch, no
data can be written to the disk.
 Place labels at the front of the cover,
at the top so that the label does not Hard Disks
touch the magnetic surface of the In addition to floppy disks, some
disk. Computers use a hard disk, which can
 Use a felt tipped pen when writing on store much more information than a
the label. Pencil or ballpoint pens floppy disk. Computers also take less
damage the disk if pressed hard time to find information stored on a hard
while writing. disk than on a floppy disk. A hard disk is
 Store floppy disks in safe place away usually built into the Computer.
from
- dust
- moisture
- extreme heat
- magnetism.

Disk protection labels help you keep

track of the information on your disks,
but you may also need to protect the
disks themselves. Some floppy disks
are protected, letting you examine
information on them without letting you
change anything. These are called
write-protected disks. Floppy disks
can be write-protected in one of two
ways. Some have a small piece of tape,
called a tab, covering a notch on the
right side of the disk to write-protect it.

3.5-inch Disks

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MS-DOS AND MS-DOS INTERNAL COMMANDS

These are the simplest, most commonly
COMMANDS. used commands. When you list the
directory on your MS-DOS disk, you
MS-DOS is short for Microsoft Disk cannot see these commands because
Operation System and acts as a they are part of a file named
translator between you and your command.com. When you type internal
Computer. The programs in this commands, MS-DOS performs them
operating system allows you to immediately. This is because they were
communicate with your Computer, your loaded into your Computer’s memory
disk drives, and your printer, letting you when you started MS-DOS.
use these resources to your advantage.
MS-DOS also helps you to manage Some of these commands internal are:
programs and data.
When you start MS-DOS, it automatically Break exit ren(rename) cls
searches for a file named config.sys on Copy path pause dir
your system disk. This file contains Time del rmdir(rd) prompt
special commands that let you set up
(configure) MS-DOS for use with devices Some internal commands can use paths
or application programs. and pathnames. Specifically, four
MS-DOS also searches for a second file commands – copy, dir, del and type -
when you start your Computer. This file have greater flexibility when you specify
is called autoexec.bat. It performs any a pathname after the command.
set of commands you would normally However, you never specify a path or
give when you start MS-DOS. For pathname before you specify any
example, you might use the file to internal command.
prepare MS-DOS for running an
application program. The formats for these commands are as
follows:
How these special files differ,
MS-DOS uses the config.sys and  Copy pathname pathname
autoexec.bat files in different ways If the second name is a directory (a
because they perform different types of path), MS-DOS copies all the files you
commands. While the autoexec.bat file specify in the first pathname into that
may contain any MS-DOS command or directory, as in the following:
program the config.sys file may contain
only a special set of configuration Example:
commands. Copy\user\pete\*.* sales
In addition you must restart MS-DOS to
perform the commands in the config.sys  Del pathname
file. But to perform the commands in the If the pathname is a directory (a path), all
autoexec.bat file, you simply type the the files in that directory are deleted. If
word autoexec. you try to delete a path, MS-DOS
displays the prompt ”Are you sure
There are two types of MS-DOS (Y/N)?”. Type Y for (Yes) to complete
commands. the command, or N (for No) to stop the
command.
 Internal commands
 External commands Example del\user\pete

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 Dir path command, a special program that

The following command displays the structures a disk so that MS-DOS can
directory for a specific path find information on it. The format
command also checks the disk for
Dir \user\pete defective spots.
You can format both the floppy and hard
 Type path name disks. But remember that if a disk is not
You must specify a pathname or blank, formatting it destroys any data
filename for this command. MS-DOS already on the disk.
then displays this file on your screen in
response to the type command. Syntax C:format drive:
Example at the MS-DOS prompt, type
Example:
Type\user\emily\report.nov Format a:

EXTERNAL COMMANDS The format command creates the

Any filename with an extension of directory and the file allocation tables on
.com, .exe or .bat is considered an a disk. Format also assigns a unique
external command. For example, files volume serial number to each disk. You
such as format.com and diskcopy are must use this command to format new
external commands. And because all disks before MS-DOS can use them.
external commands are also files you
can create new files and add them to To format and label anew disk, simply
MS-DOS. Notice, however, that when follow these steps:
you use an external command, you don’t 1. make sure that you are in MS-DOS
need to type its filename extension. mode
2. at the MS-DOS prompt, type the
Note: if you have more than one external following command:
command with the same name, MS-DOS format a:
will run only one of them, according to 3. Press ENTER key.
the following order of precedence:
.com, .exe, .bat Your screen should look like this:
Some of external commands are listed C>format b:
below: Insert new diskette for drive A: and
press ENTER when ready …
Format print chkdsk
Diskcopy attri fdisk 4. Insert a blank disk in drive A:
Label mem mode 5. Press enter key to start the format
Sort tree sys process.

The following is a listing of some of the When formatting is complete, MS-

MS-DOS Commands and their syntax DOS displays the following prompt:
and usage. (I) indicates internal
commands while (E) indicates external Volume label (11 characters, ENTER for
commands. none)?

 The format command (E) 6. Type a label that identifies the

Before you can use your new disks for contents of this disk (for example
storing information, you must format DATA DISK), and press the ENTER
them, you do this with the format key, MS-DOS then asks,

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  Introduction to Computers

Format another? (Y/N) Syntax:

ren Source drive/path destination
7. Type N for (No) to exit the format drive/path
program. E.g. ren a:\message message.txt
 Help
Help at the command prompt to give a  Delete Command.
list of all commands (their usage and This command is used to delete
syntax) or type a particular command unnecessary file or files from a disk.
followed by a slash and a question mark
to give help and options for that Syntax: del drivename/path
particular command. For example dir/? E.g. Del a:\message.txt
Gives all the options of Dir (directory)
command.  Attrib Command
This command sets or displays file
 Ver command attributes.
When you type this command at the MS-
DOS prompt, it informs you the DOS Syntax:
version you are using. Attrib [-+r] [-+h][-+-a][drive:] pathname [/s]

Syntax: - ver Where:

+r sets the read only attribute of a file
 Dir command -r disables read-only mode
+a sets the archive attribute of a file
Displays a list of files in a particular -a clears the archive attribute of a file
directory. Can be viewed with some +h sets the hidden attribute of a file
options viz/w – views files -h removes the hidden attribute
horizontally, /p – view files screen by
screen, /s. you can also view files using TO QUIT MS-DOS
wild cards e.g. Dir C*.* etc. There is no command to quit MS-DOS
but you can end MS-DOS session by
 Copy command following these steps:
This command is used for organizing 1. Make sure last command is finished.
and making copies of files by copying You should see the MS-DOS prompt
from one directory or disk to another. (e.g. C:>) on the screen.
You can also rename a file as you copy 2. Remove floppy disks from the drives.
it and copying groups of files by using 3. Switch off the screen, then the
wildcards control unit and finally the power
backup if any. If there is no power
Syntax: backup, then you can switch off from
Copy<sourceDrive/path> <Destination the socket outlet.
Drive/path>
E.g. Copy C:\MESSAGE A: VIRUSES
A virus is a Computer program, which is
 Rename command designed to copy itself without the user
This command can be used to change knowing about it. For example it might
the name of a file without changing the attach itself to the FORMAT command,
location. This is helpful when you have 2 and be run every time you format a
files in Drive A and C and you want to diskette
distinguish them.

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  Introduction to Computers

VIRUS TRANSMISSION write protected. If possible avoid using

The most common sources of virus one diskette on several machines.
transmission are:
 Contact with contaminated The following steps should be taken if a
diskettes virus attack is suspected.
 Pirated software  Identify and isolate the PCs and
 Fake games disks which could be affected
 Update of software distributed via  Use an Anti-Virus program to
networks remove the virus.
 Determine how the virus was
Sharing of Computer software through introduced to the system
illegal software pirating remains one of  Find out if any floppies could
the principal methods of virus have left the site.
transmission e.g. GAMES programs.
TOOL KIT ANTI-VIRUS PROGRAM
SYMPTOMS OF A VIRUS The program helps in the prevention,
The presence of a virus can be indicated detection and removal of \viruses.
if one or more of the following symptoms Presently it can detect up to about 6950
appear on your Computer. Any viruses, Trojans and variants.
evidence of these or similar events
should be of an immediate concern. Prevention
Isolate the PC at once and investigate. GUARD is a program that protects your
machine against all the viruses known to
 Unfamiliar graphical or quizzical the current version of the TOOLKIT anti-
messages appearing on the virus program. To activate the GUARD
screen program you type GUARD at the sub-
 Programs taking longer than directory where the TOOL KIT program
usual to load is installed.
 Disk access time too long for
simple task. i.e. [C:\TOOLKIT].guard [ENTER]
 Unusual error messages
occurring more frequently. THIS loads the guard program into your
 Less memory available than memory for long as the Computer is on.
usual This only occupies about 5k bites of
 Access lights turning ON for non RAM. Since this would be a daily
referenced devices. procedure it is better to include the
following statement at the beginning of
 Programs / files mysteriously
the AUTOEXEC.BAT file.
disappearing
 Executable files changing for no
C:\TOOLKIT\GUARD
obvious reason
 Changes of disk volumes ids To make sure that GUARD is executed
 Data files changing size for no before any other program including
obvious reason. COMMAND.COM the GUARD device
 Frequent READ/WRITE error. driver must be loaded in the system.
This is achieved by including the
PREVENTION OF A VIRUS following line in the CONFIG.SYS file.
Follow these steps to prevent virus DEVICE=C:\TOOLKIT\GUARD.SYS
infection. Scan all boot diskettes using C:\TOOLKIT\GUARD.COM
an up-to-date Anti-Virus program and

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  Introduction to Computers

Detection key to take you back to menus and press

FIND VIRUS is a program that searches F4 for repair.
for all the boot sector, partition, and file This gives you a report on the viruses
viruses which it can recognize. This removed
program can be run from both the To be safe scan the disk again using F3
command line and from the TOOLKIT Do the same for all the other diskettes
menu. you have f6 gives the virus encyclopedia
(all viruses which can be detected by
Removal TOOLKIT).
CLEANBOOT, CLEANPART and To quit the program press ESC key.
UNVIRUS are programs used for When asked exit toolkit press the
cleaning up infected diskettes. These ENTER key to accept OK. This takes
programs can be run from both the you back to the operating system.
command line and TOOLKIT menu. To
start the TOOLKIT menu go to the sub- Scanning the Hard disk
directory that contains the TOOLKIT If you suspect the Hard Disk is infected,
program and type TOOLKIT at the the anti-virus program installed in it will
prompt. not work. Thus any diskettes used in the
machine will be infected. To remove the
i.e. [C:\TOOLKIT]> toolkit [ENTER] virus infection,
this loads the program and gives you the  Boot the machine from a clean
pull down menu file, scan, repair etc. at write protected system disk.
the top and another one using function  Load TOOLKIT from a clean
keys F3 find, F4 repair etc. diskette that contains the
program. Sometimes the same
Note: when virus guard does detect a program disk can act as a BOOT
virus, it does nothing but warn you and diskette.
prevent the infected file from being  Select the Hard disk (Drive C)
copied or run. You will see an alarm box using the spacebar
pop up and hear the siren noise. You  Follow the same procedure as for
should press the <ctrl> key as instructed scanning and cleaning a hard
by the pop up box, remove the infected disk already described above.
diskette save any current work in the
hared disk, and exit from the application Since a disk could be infected by several
calmly. The alarm informs you that a viruses it is important to scan the disk
virus has been intercepted. again after the first successful virus
removal. Try to establish how many
Scanning a suspected diskette diskettes could have been used on the
Insert the diskette into drive A start the same system during the time of infected.
TOOLKIT program. Make arrangements to clean all diskettes
Choose the drive to be scanned using infected.
the up and down arrow keys and select
using the space bar. Some common terms used:
This highlights the drive selected
Press F3 or find to run the FINDVIRUS Trojans: These are programs, which
program. This checks all the executable deliberately set out to destroy your data.
programs and gives a full report of the The trigger could be time (time bombs)
viruses found and their family names if or certain logical conditions (logic
there are viruses found then press any bombs). Trojans do not multiply like
viruses but are equally harmful.

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  Introduction to Computers

Variants: These are programs very to run the program. Select C drive for
similar to virus coded and go by the drive to repair.
same virus family name but give slightly
different effects. Machine won’t boot
Example, a virus called DATACRIME 1 In some cases the Computer might not
causes COM files to increase by 1168 be in a position to start by itself (boot).
bytes while its two variants DATACRIME In such a case, the most probable cause
1B and DATACRIME 2 increases them of this may be either that it is infected
by 128 and 1514 bytes respectively. with a virus or the start-up file or system
files (usually COMMAND.COM) could
Worm: This is often used have been deleted.
interchangeably with virus. A worm is a
program that borrows into a Computer’s To solve this problem:
memory. It is designed to search for idle If it is a virus, use a Virus removal
Computer memory, it then rewrites itself program like DR SOLONON’S Toolkit.
successively through the Computer’s Alternatively, if the machine cant boot,
memory until the system crashes. boot from a clean SYSTEM disk and
copy the start-up files by typing SYS C:
TROUBLE SHOOTING at the A prompt, remove the diskette
When you are running programs there from the drive and reboot the machine, it
arises instance when the Computer does should be able to start normally. It is
not respond to your commands the way good practice to use these two possible
it should. This may take the form of ways to solve the problem.
some unfamiliar signs or symbols At some stages in the process of using
appearing on the screen, or the the Computer you might encounter an
Computer does not seem to carry out error message: DISK FULL
whatever instructions you give it. This This implies that you need more space in
requires you to have a forethought of your respective disk drive. To solve the
what could be the matter. problem, run the CHDSK/F program to
delete unnecessary files in terms of
The Computer may at some instances LOST ALLOCATION UNITS. You would
inform you that there is an error in either be prompted with:
the floppy disk or in the hard disk.
CONVERT LOST ALLOCATIONS TO
Disk error on the floppy disk. FILES?
This error occurs when the Computer Answer NO and some disk space will be
identifies a fault in the floppy disk. To freed.
rectify this problem, run the Norton Disk
Doctor program from the hard disk to Device drivers
diagnose and repair the fault. In most Device drivers is a programs that let the
cases, the error is fixed by the Disk operating system recognize devices that
Doctor program. are not part of the Computer. Examples
of devices are modems, a printer, a
Disk error on the hard disk mouse and an external disk drive. Some
If the Computer informs you that there is device drivers are already installed with
disk error in the hard disk, then there MS-DOS. Other devices, called
might be a problem WITH the hard disk. insatiable device drivers, come with MS-
In this case, put off the machine and DOS for you to install if you need them.
boot from a clean SYSTEM diskette.
Insert Disk kin to drive A and type NDD Insatiable devices drivers provided with
MS-DOS includes
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  Introduction to Computers

Ansi.sys loads the ANASI character set Computer spends reading data from
The ansi.sys insatiable device driver lets your hard disk.
you use ANSI escape sequences in real Smartdrv.sys is ideal for users who work
time mode. An ANSI escape sequence with many applicat5ions and files at
is a series of characters (beginning with once. It is especially useful when
an escape keystroke) developed by the running multiple standard applications
American National Standards Institute) that require swapping-copying
ANSI. These sequences are used to applications to and from the hard disk to
define functions for MS-DOS. make room for all the applications in
Specifically, you can change graphics memory.
function and affect the movement of the
cursor. MS-DOD SHELL
Display.sys support code-page switching MS-DOS shell is a graphical extension of
on the console device. MS-DOS that lets you take advantage of
Display.sys is an installable device driver the power of MS-DOS with a few
that supports code-page switching for keystrokes or a click on the mouse.
the console device When working with MS-DOS SHELL you
Driver.sys supports external floppy disk are using the graphic extension together
drives. with the MS-DOS operating system to
Driver.sys is an installable device driver perform tasks from menus with a few
that allows a physical disk drive to be keystrokes. It lets you perform 2 kinds of
referenced by a logical drive. A logical tasks. You can start programs and work
drive is a pointer to a physical disk drive with your files.
in the system. It includes an optional
different set of parameters describing the Starting programs
disk drive to MS-DOS and is associated MS-DOS SHELL lets you select (start) all
through a drive letter e.g. A. the other programs available in MS-DOS
Printer.sys is an installable device driver commands as you work with your files.
that supports code-page switching for
parallel ports PRN, LPT1, LPT2 AND When shell is active, the start program
LPT3 (the port name PRN may be screen appears. It contains the main
substituted for LPT1 to refer to the first group of programs you will use. DOS
parallel port.) utilities is one of your choice. DOS utility
Ramdrive.sys is an installable device is not a program but leads you to
driver that lets you use a potion of your another group of programs called utility
Computer’s memory as if it were a hare programs in which you can work with
disk. This memory area is called a RAM your disks and set the date and time.
disk and is sometimes referred to as a You can start MS-DOS shell in several
virtual disk. Ramdrive .sys supports one ways based on the capacity of your disk
or more RAM (virtual) drives. RAM disks and the method used to install the
are much faster than hard disks because system determines how you reset your
the information they contain is always system and restart the shell. The most
loaded into memory. common way is to remove all disks and
Smartdrv.sys adds a disk-catching press Ctrl + Alt+Del. Keys. This resets
program for Computers that have a disk your system and starts MS-DOS SHELL.
and expanded or extended memory.
Smartdrv.sys is a disk catching program
for Computers that have a hard disk and
expanded or extended memory. Disk
catching programs are designed to
reduce the amount of time your
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Tutorial, follow the directions on the

WINDOWS screen.

SEARCHING FOR HELP IN

STARTING WINDOWS. WINDOWS MODE.
Once Windows and MS-DOS are set up
on your Computer, to start Windows, at On-line help
the command prompt, type win and then On-line help is a convenient, quick way
press ENTER. to look up information about a task you
are performing or a feature or dialogue
box you would like to know more about.
Windows Modes
Help for Windows is a available
Windows can run in two modes: 386
whenever you see a Help command
enhanced mode and standard mode.
button in a dialogue box or Help as an
When you type win by itself, windows
item on a menu bar. Most applications
starts in the most appropriate mode for
and accessories you received with
your system. Windows uses the
windows include help. Other windows –
following criteria when determining which
based applications and MS-DOS based
mode to use:
applications might also have help.
Windows starts in 386 enhanced mode if
you have an 80386SX Computer (or
higher) with at least 640 K of Getting Windows Help
conventional memory plus 1024K of Because Help may be displayed
extended memory. However, more differently, depending on which
memory is required to use the more application you are using and what kind
advanced features of windows. it information you need, you can request
Windows starts in standard mode if you Help in several ways. Not all methods
have an 80286 Computer (or higher) can be used with every application.
with at least 640 k of conventional
memory and 384K of extended memory. To request for help, use one of the
Windows also starts in standard mode following methods
on 80386 Computers that have less than From the Help menu, choose a Help
2MB of free memory. command press F1. Then choose a
topic form the help contents for the
Windows Basics application you are using, or search for a
Running the Microsoft windows tutorial topic by using the search button choose
The Microsoft Windows tutorial is an the help button available in many dialog
interactive on-line application that boxes. This method gives quick access
teaches you the basics of using a mouse to specific information about the dialogue
and windows. box.

To run the tutorial from windows. Use the keyboard to select an item on a
In the program manager window, move menu, and then press F1 to see a
the mouse pointer so that it is pointing to description of the item (available in
the Help Menu, and then press and certain applications)
release the left mouse button. The help Select a dialog box option or command,
menu opens. and then press F1 or the help button to
Move the mouse pointer to the Windows move directly to an explanation of the
Tutorial command, and then press and option.
release the left mouse button. The
Windows tutorial starts. To run the
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Finding information in help the Go To Button. Information about the

You can find information in help by using topic you selected appears on your
Help contents or Search for help on, two screen
commands on the help menu.
Opening and Saving Documents
Finding information by using help Choosing the open command from an
contents application’s File menu opens a dialog
If you are using an application that has box that is often the same regardless of
help on the menu bar, you can view all which application you are using. This
available help topics. Each application box is designed to save time because
has a unique help file, so the help topics you can select the drive directory and file
displayed are for the application you are from the ones displayed in the list boxes.
currently using.
To open a file
To display help contents and From the application’s file menu choose
choose a topic Open: -
From the help menu, choose contents or The open dialog box appears.
press F1 If the file you want to open is on a
Scroll to the topic you want information different drive, select the drive you want
about. from the drives box
Click the topic, or press TAB until you In the Directories box, choose the
reach the topic you want, and then press directory you want to open. (Double click
ENTER. the directory, or press the UP ARROW
OR DOWN ARROW key to select the
Finding Information By Using directory, and then press ENTER.)
Windows displays the names of all files
Search
in that directory that are the type
The search feature is an efficient way to
selected in the List Files Of Type box. To
find information you need. When you
display a different type of file, select the
have a topic that you want help with, you
type you want from the List Files of Type
can use help to find the information.
box.
From the list of files, select the file you
To search for a help topic want to open.
From the Help menu in your application,
Double click the filename or choose the
choose search for help on. Or press F1
OK button.
to open Help. And then choose the
search button. The search dialogue box
appears.
Saving Files
In many applications, the File menu
Select the word or phrase you want to
contains two commands for saving files:
search for.
Save and Save As. You use the save
Or type a word in the text box. You do
command to save changes to an existing
not have to type an entire word: Help
file. You use the Save As command to
matches the characters you type as
name and save a new file or to save an
closely as possible with the available
existing file under a new name. By using
keywords.
the save as command, you can save
Double click the word or phrase, or
another copy of the original file by giving
chose the Show topic button. A list of
it a different name.
topics is displayed at the bottom of the
dialog box.
Double click the topic. Or select the
topic you want to view, and then choose
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To save an existing file associated with this program item icon,

From the application’s File menu, choose the application opens, displaying the
Save. document.

To save a new file or an existing To start an application from a

file under a new name group
From the application’s file menu, choose If necessary, double click the group icon
Save As to open the group window that contains
The Save As dialog box appears. the application you want to run.
If you want to save the file on a different Double click the icon for the application.
drive, select the drive you want from the
Drivers box. In the Directories box, Returning to Program Manager
choose the directory in which you want from an Application
to save file double click the directory, or When you are working with an
press the UP ARROW or DOWN application or documents and you want
ARROW key to select the directory, and to start a different application, you can
then press ENTER. do so by returning to Program manager.
In the file name box, type a name for the
file. If you don’t specify a filename To return to Program Manager
extension, the application may add one. Click the Program Manager window. Or
The default extension, from the Save file double click anywhere on the Windows
As type box. To use a different desktop or press CTRL+ESC to display
extension, the application may add one. Task List, and then choose Program
The default extension is shown in the Manager from the lost of running
save file As type box. To use a different applications.
extension, select the extension from the
save file as type list, or type an Running Two or More Applications
extension. With windows, you can start an
Choose OK button. application and then keep it running
while you start one or more additional
PROGRAM MANAGER applications.

A major advantage of using windows is When applications run at the same time,
that you can run two or more they share Computer resources. The
applications at the same time. For way they share resources depends on
example, you can have a spreadsheet the type of Computer you have, the type
calculating complex formulas while you and amount of available memory,
are using a word processing application whether the applications are windows
to prepare an annual report. At the based or MS-DOS based, and which
same time, your Computer can be mode Windows is running in.
receiving the latest report about the
industry sales trends that can use in the Switching Between applications
introduction of your report. and Documents
When you have more than one
Starting an application from application window open at once, the
Program Manager window you are currently working with is
If an application is in a group, the easiest the active window. The active window
way to start it is to choose the program always appears in the foreground, so it
item icon for the application from the might overlap or completely obscure
group window. If a document is other windows. To work with another
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application, you must select its window You can use the CASCADE and TILE
to make it active. buttons in the Task List to rearrange
application windows so that all running
To switch to an application, use applications are visible on your desktop.
one of the following methods The Cascade command causes the
If the application is visible, click windows to overlap so that each title bar
anywhere in the application window. If is visible. The tile command arranges
the application is running as an icon, the open windows in smaller sizes to fit
double click the icon. next to each other on the desktop
To return to the application you last
used, press ALT+ESC. To arrange application windows
To switch quickly to another application, on your desktop
press and hold down ALT, and then Double click anywhere on the desktop to
press TAB repeatedly. As you continue open Task List. Or press CTRL+ESC.
to press TAB, you see the title of each Choose the Cascade or Tile button.
open application. If you have a number of application
running as icons and they are scattered
When the title of the application you across your desktop, follow the next
want appears in the center of your procedure to rearrange them evenly.
screen, release ALT. The application
you want appears in the foreground. To rearrange application icons
Double click anywhere on the desktop to
Press ALT+ESC repeatedly to cycle open Task List. Or press CTRL+ESC
through open application windows and CHOOSE the arranged icons button.
application icons until you reach the The icons are arranged along the lower
application you want.. edge of the desktop.
Display task list, and use it to switch to
the application you want. Dragging files to perform tasks
When using file manager, program
Using task list to switch between manager, and certain other windows
applications based applications, you can perform
Task List is a window that displays a list some essential tasks by dragging File
of all applications you are currently manager files from one place to another
running. You can use Task list to switch with the mouse. This is known as
to another application. dragging and dropping.

To switch to an application by To drag and drop a file

using Task list In the main group, double click the file
Double click anywhere on the desktop manager icon to start file manager.
that is not inside an open window to Select the drive and directory containing
display Task List, or choose Switch To the file you want to drag
from the control menu in program Make sure the application where you
manager, or press CTRL+ESC. want to drag the file is running either as
In Task list, double click the name of the a window or an icon.
application to switch to. Or select the
name of the application you want, and Arrange the windows on your screen so
then choose the switch To button. that both the file manager file you want
to drag and the application window or
Arranging Application Windows icon you want to move the file onto are
and Icons visible.

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Select the file you want. The directory window is divided by the
Press; and hold down the left mouse split bar. The left side of the window
button, drag the file onto the application displays the structure of the current
window or icon, and then release the drive, or the directory tree. The right
mouse button. side of the window displays a list of files
Quitting an Application in the selected directory.
There are various ways to quit an
application. If you are working on a The following table describes the various
document and you haven’t saved your icons used in the directory window.
changes, you are prompted to save
them. Icon description
Displays the contents of the
To quit a Window based directory one level up in the
application, use one of ;the directory tree.
following methods
From the applications file menu, choose Represents a directory
exit
From the control menu, choose close Represents an application file.
Press ALT+F4 These files start applications or
Double click the CONTROL menu box run programs.

Represents a document file

FILE MANAGER associated with an application.
When you open this file, the
File manager is an application included application associated with it
with windows that can help you organize starts.
files and directories on disk drives.
Some of the more common tasks you Represents a system or hidden
can perform by using file manager are file. These files have system or
discussed below. hidden attributes.

Windows VS. MS-DOS Represents other documents

Windows allows you to perform all the
same file and directory tasks as MS- You can use the drive icons on the drive
DOS. The main difference is in the way bar to choose what drive is displayed in
these things are done. Rather than type a directory window. You can choose to
in commands at prompt, windows allows hide the drive bar. The status bar
you to move a mouse pointer to the displays information about the current
command you need, and windows will drive and directory, and other
execute that command. Windows information that helps explain the task
commands for working with files and you are performing with file manager.
directories correspond directly to those You can choose to hide the status bar.
commands in MS-DOS. The MS-DOS The menu bar contains menus listing file
conventions in working with files are also commands.
valid under windows.
Viewing information in a directory
The File Manager Window window
When you start File Manager from the File Manager provides many ways to
main group, the file Manager window display files. Often, if you are looking
appears. for a particular file or group of files, it

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helps you to change the way the files are A check mark next to the command
listed or to display only the files that means it is in effect.
meet a particular criteria. Also when you
are preparing to copy or move a file, it Looking at Drivers, Directories and
may be useful to display both the file and files
the directory that you will move or copy In order to perform tasks in file manager,
the file to. you must be able to locate the file or
directory you want to work with.
Opening a New Directory Window
You can open more than one directory Selecting Files and Directories
window to display more than one drive or To select a file or directory
directory at a time. Among other things, Click the icon. Or press TAB to move to
opening more than one directory window the list of files, and then use the arrow
allows you to move and copy files by keys.
dragging them from one directory
window to another. To select consecutive items
Click first item, press and hold down
To open a new directory window SHIFT, and then click the last item in the
From the window menu, choose new group. Or select the first item by using
window. the arrow keys, press and hold down
SHIFT, and then use the arrow keys to
If you want the new window to display extend the selection to the last item in
the contents of a different drive, double the group.
click the drive icon instead.
To select or cancel selection of non
Use the following commands on the view consecutive items
menu to determine what information is Press and hold down CTRL, and click
displayed for each file. each item,
Or press SHIFT+F8, use the arrow keys
Use this command to move to each item, use the
To Name Display only the names of files SPACEBAR to select it or to cancel
All File Details Display the names, sizes, selection, and press SHIFT+f8 AGAIN.
dates and times of creation, and
attributes of files. To select files with similar filenames.
From the file menu, choose select files
Sort by Name Display s files in In the files box, specify the type of files
alphabetic order, based on the filename you want to select. For example,
sort by type displays files in alphabetic type*.doc to select all files that have
order, based on the filename extension .DOC extension.
Sort by sizes displays files in order of Choose the select button.
size from largest to smallest. Sort By
Date Displays files in chronological order
Changing Drives and Directories
Partial Details Displays specific
The files you want to work with may be
information about each file By File Type
on a different drive or in a different
Specify which types of files are displayed
directory. File manager enables you to
in a directory window.
easily view and work with them.
To change the current drive click a drive
To save the new settings when you quit
icon in the driver bar or double click it to
file manager, choose the save settings
create a new directory window displaying
on exit command from the options menu.
information for the new drive.
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To change to another directory either by the drag and drop method or by

Select the directory in the directory tree using the copy or move command.
(or select the directory in the list of files)
by using the mouse or the arrow keys. To move or copy a file or directory
In the list files, you can move up one To move a file or directories on the same
level in the directory structure by clicking drive, drag the item. To copy to the
the Up icon. same drive, press and hold down CTRL
while you drag the item.
Viewing Different Directory Levels To move a file or directory to a
In the directory tree, you can view the destination on a different drive, press
sub-directories in a director by and hold down SHIFT while you drag the
expanding the directory. You can also item. To copy to a different drive, drag
choose not to view sub-directories by the item to the appropriate drive icon.
collapsing the directory. When you Select the file or directory, and then
expand a directory, the names of its sub- choose move or copy from the edit
directories are displayed in the directory menu. Then complete the appropriate
tree. dialog box.

You can expand an entire branch all Creating directories

levels of sub-directories are not shown in You can create a directory by using the
the directory tree. All directories except create Directory command.
the root directory are collapsed the first To create a directory
time you start file manager. From the File Menu, choose create
Directory.
To expand one level of a directory Then type the new directory’s path in the
In the directory tree, double click the icon Name box.
of the directory you want to expand. Or
select it, and then press enter. Deleting files and directories
You can delete a file or an entire
To collapse a directory directory, including all the files and sub-
In the directory tree, double click the icon directories contained in it.
of the directory you want to collapse. Or
select the icon by using the arrow keys, To delete a file or directory
and then press ENTER. Select the file or directory you want to
You can also use the Collapse Branch delete
command on the Tree menu. (you can extend the selection to include
more than one file or directory). Then
Working with Files and directories choose delete from the file menu, or
You can use File Manager to move, press DEL.
copy, create, delete, rename, and search
for files or directories. Renaming files and directories
You can also print files from file You can change the names of files, but
manager. you must be careful when working with
system or hidden files. S system file
Moving and copying files and contains information required for running
directories the Microsoft MS-DOS operating system.
You can move and copy files and A hidden; file is a file not intended to be
directories from one location called the viewed in a directory listing.
source to another called destination
To rename a file or directory
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Select the file or directory you want to To copy a floppy disk to another floppy
rename, and then choose Rename from disk insert the source disk in the drive
the file menu you want to copy from. If you have two
In the from and to boxes, type filenames floppy disk drives of the same size insert
to rename a single file, or use wildcards the destination disk in the drive you want
(*or?) to rename a group of files. to copy to. Then choose copy disk from
the disk menu.
Searching for files and Directories Both disks must have the same storage
If you know a particular file is on your capacity. But you do not need two drives
disk, but you don’t remember where, you if the same storage capacity.
can use the search command to find it.
More ways to use file manager
To search for a file or directory There are many other features that you
Select the directory that you want to start can use to customize file manager to fit
the search from, and then choose search your needs and to perform various tasks.
from the File Menu. These includes:
Type filename or use a wildcards (* or ?)
in the search for box to search for a Associating files with applications
group of files or directories that have Changing the look of file manager
related filenames or extensions. Managing floppy disks
To cancel the search, press ESC. To Moving around in file manager
closed the search Result window, Starting applications
choose close from the control menu Turning off confirmation messages
Working with files and directories
Printing files Working with network drives.
You can print files by dragging the file
icons onto the Print Manager icon or PRINT MANAGER
window. Some applications do not
support printing through file manager. Print Manager is an important part of the
To print a file by using file manager Microsoft Windows operating system.
Make sure print manager is activated You use windows print manager to install
and then drag the document file icon and configure printers, connect to
onto the print manager icon or window. network printers, and control the printing
Or in the directory window, select the file of your files.
you want to print, and then choose print
from the file menu If you print from a windows application
when Print Manager is active, the
Working with floppy disks application creates a print file and sends
You can use commands on the Disk it to Print Manager. Print Manager works
menu to format floppy disks and copy in the background, sending your files to
the contents of one disk to another. the printer while you continue working.
To format a floppy disk
Insert a disk in a drive Before you can use print manager to
From disk menu, choose format disk perform printing tasks, you must activate
In the disk in list, select the letter for the it.
drive you want to format. The other
parameters are adjusted to match that To activate print manager
drive. In the main group, choose the control
Complete the other areas of the dialog panel icon. Double click the icon. Or
box, and then choose the OK button. use the arrow keys to move the selection
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  Introduction to Computers

cursor to the icon, and then press A printer driver file gives important
ENTER. information about your printer. Windows
In the control panel window, choose the comes with printer driver files for most of
printers icon. the commonly used printers.
Select the Use Print Manager check box, To install a printer driver file
if its not already selected. In the main group, choose the print
Choose the close button. manager icon
From the options menu, choose printer
Installing and configuring a Printer setup
Before you can print in windows you Choose the add button.
need to connect your printer to your In the List Of Printers box, select the
Computer, and then install it. If you did printer you want to install.
not install a printer when you set up Choose install button
windows, or if you want to add another If necessary, insert the disk that contains
one, use the procedures described in the printer driver file, and then choose
this section. the OK button.
If you are prompted for other files, insert
The PRINTERS. WRI file supplied with the appropriate disk, and then choose
windows provides specific information the OK button.
about printers that windows supports. Choose the close button.
By using windows write, you can view
this file to determine whether it includes Installing a Printer Driver Not
information about your printer. It is Supplied with Windows
recommended that you read this file To install a printer driver not supplied
before installing a printer. with Windows
In the main group, choose the print
To use a printer with windows manager icon.
applications, you must first do the
following: From the options menu, choose printer
Install printer driver file for the printer you setup
want to use Choose the Add button
Select the port you want to assign the In the list of printers box, select install
printer. unlisted Or updated printer.
Choose the install button
Insert the disk that contains the printer
After you install a printer driver file and driver file.
assign the printer to a port, you may be Choose the OK button
able to print, but you may not get the In the list of printers box select the
results you want. If this is the case, you printer you want. If your printer still does
may want to perform some or all of the not appear in this list, you need to
following procedures: contact your printer manufacturer for the
Set the print options that the printer correct printer driver
driver will use while printing your Choose the OK button
documents. Choose the close button.
Specify how much time should elapse
before you receive messages about Setting the printing options
printer problems. Printing options are printer specific
Select the default printer. settings, as resolution, color and text
quality. These options vary, depending
Installing a Printer Driver File on the capabilities of your printer.

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Windows assigns settings that should Deleting a File from a Print Queue
work for your printer in most situations. You can use the Delete button in the
You can change these settings to specify print manager window to delete a file
different options. from a print queue at any time.
To change printer settings
If you are not already in the printers To delete a file from the print queue
dialog box, choose printer setup from the From the print queue, select the file you
options menu.. want to delete
In the installed printers box, select your Choose the Delete button
printer. Choose the O.K. button.
Choose the set up button.
Make any necessary changes to the To delete all files from all print queues
options, and then choose the OK button. From the view menu, choose Exit
Choose the close button.
A message appears, asking you to
Looking at the Print Queue confirm that you want to cancel printing.
As you send files to print manager, a
print queue forms. A print queue lists Choose the OK button
the installed printers that have had files
sent to them and show the status of Quitting Print Manager
those files. It shows all files sent from a When running as an icon, print Manager
windows application to a printer quits (and frees the memory it was
connected locally to your Computer (that using) as soon as it finishes printing. If
is, the Computer and printer are directly the Print Manager window is open, print
connected by a cable). manager does not quit automatically.
To look at the print queue To quit print manager
In the main group, choose the print From the options menu, choose exit.
manager icon If there is still files in the print queue, a
message appears, asking whether you
The print queue displays the following want to cancel printing these files
printer information: Choose the OK button to cancel printing
The name of the printer and quit Print Manager.
The port your printer is connected to
The current status of the printer (such as COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
active or idle).
Beneath the printer information, the print LANGUAGES
queue displays the following file
information: Machine and assembly languages
The title of the print job
The files position in the queue, or a The language used by the Computer is
printer icon if the file is printing called machine language. It is written in
The size of the file in kilobytes (if the binary with each instruction containing
print file size command has a check an operation code and an operand. The
mark next to it). operand might be a memory address, a
The time and date you sent the file to device address, or data. In machine
Print Manager (if the time or date set has language programming, storage
a command check mark next to it) locations are designated for the program
If a file is currently printing, the amount and data, and these are used throughout
(as a percentage) of the file printed so the program to refer to specific data or
far. program steps. In addition, the
programmer must be familiar with the
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specific Computer system since machine

language instructions are different for FIG, portion of an assembly language
each Computer. Programming in program
machine language is tedious,
complicated, and time consuming. To High level language
alleviate the difficulties in writing Assembly languages are machine
programs in binary, symbolic languages oriented. High level languages by
have been developed which substitute contrast, are procedure oriented. They
an English like mnemonics for each are to a large extent independent of the
binary instruction. Mnemonics are easy Computer on which they are used. This
to remember than binary, so they help means that a program written on one
speed up the programming process. A Computer can be run on different
language consisting of mnemonic Computer without significant
instructions is called an assembly modifications to the program. High level
language. languages consists of English-like
The figure below show an example of statements and traditional mathematical
machine language. symbols. Each high level statement is
equivalent to many instructions in the
Address Contents machine language as in the example
0 001000001 _1 010000000 _2 0000000 below.
00 _3 000100001 _4 011000000 _5 00
0000000 _6 000000110 _7 000001010 _ DO 100 1=1,10
8 011111110 _9 000100010 _10 001000 100 BLK1 (I)=BLK2(I)
Portion of FORTRAN program
011 _11 000100110 _12 000000101 _13
The advantage of High Level Languages
110000010 _14 000010000 _ is that it is not necessary for the
programmer to be familiar with machine
Assembly languages are considered to language. The program is written as an
be low level languages. The English like algorithm to solve a problem.
programmer must be very Like assembler languages, high level
knowledgeable about the Computer and languages must also be converted into
equipment being programmed. Low machine code. A special program called
level languages are the most efficient in a compiler accomplishes this. The
terms of fast execution on the Computer, compiler takes the high level program,
but there are obvious difficulties for the and converts it into a low level code,
programmer in writing large programs for such as machine language. If there are
various applications using different any errors in the program (e.g.
Computers. misspelled words), error messages are
LXI H,BLK1 ;memory pointer 1 =start of printed in a special program listing by the
block 1 compiler
LXI d, BLK2 ; memory pointer2 =start of
block 2 Some common High level Computer
MVI B, COUNT ; count = length of blocks languages for Business and Engineering
TRANS:MOV A,M ;get elements of block Applications
1
STAX D ;move element to block 2 FORTRAN
INX H Stands for FORmula TRANslation.
INX D It is one of the oldest and most popular
DCR B of the high level languages. It was
JNZ LOOP developed in the mid-50s for scientists,
HLT engineers and mathematicians, but it
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has also been used for some business performs analysis of data, and generates
processing applications. documents and reports.

COBOL PASCAL
Stands for Common Business Oriented Is a high level language developed in the
Language and was developed around early 1970’s and named for the famous
1959. It has become a major Computer French mathematician Blaise Pascal.
language for business data processing The objectives in developing the
applications. COMBOL can be used for language were to facilitate the teaching
numeric and alphabetic data processing of Computer programming as a
and in data file applications. However systematic discipline of knowledge and
the language presumes an to accomplish programming
understanding of information processing implementations, which are reliable and
principles. Therefore, it is not intended efficient on modern Computers.
for the inexperienced programmer.
While COMBOL is suitable for a file OPERATING THE COMPUTER
environment, it is not capable of the
complex mathematical calculations that
In the evolution of the Computer system,
can be accomplished with FORTRAN.
one of the most important considerations
has been the ease of operation of the
BASIC system. Many technological
(Beginners ALL Purpose Instruction
improvements have been made which
Code) was developed as an interactive
now make Computer systems much
language, where the user appears to be
easier to operate and much more
interacting directly with the Computer
efficient.
rather than through punched cards or
other off-line I/O format. Programs are
Input /output control systems and
usually entered and executed by means
of CRT terminals in a time sharing operating systems
network. BASIC is used heavily in the An input/output control system is series
field of MicroComputers, and is being of related programs which, when loaded
used increasingly as an interactive into main storage, interpret input/output
teaching tool in schools. data transfer commands (such as Read
and Write) and control the transfer of
data to and form main storage.
APL (A PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGE) An input/output control system is
Was designed for interactive language,
designed to help improve Computer
where the user appears to interacting
operating efficiency. As the use of
problem solving. A significant feature is
Computers has increased, attention has
that it permits users to define complex
been focused on other areas that require
Algorithms efficiently. The primary data
control. One of these areas deal with
structure in APL is in the form of arrays
the time wasted in the CPU between
and an extensive set of array operators
jobs. In the early systems, the CPU was
is provided.
forced to remain idle while the operator
manually staged the next job by
RPG (Report Program Generator) mounting the correct tape or reading in
Is a language designed for writing the deck of cards. In present systems,
programs that produce printed reports as processing of one job and input of
output. It is widely used in business another can occur concurrently by
environments, where it updates files,

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means of input/output channels and one time; hence system throughput is

some sort of buffering system. increased.
Another problem was the interaction of
jobs requiring little CPU time but much Virtual storage is accomplished by one of
input/output time, with those jobs that two methods: segmentation, the program
needed little input/output time but that is divided into variable size blocks, which
monopolize the CPU. A solution to this represent logical program units such as
problem involves placing both programs subroutines and data groups. By
in memory simultaneously and executing monitoring each block’s location in a file
parts of each for short intervals. To called a segment table, the operating
accomplish this, there must be a set of system loads only those segments
control programs to prevent the user needed by the part of the program
programs from writing over each other in currently being executed, and
main memory, resulting in the exchanges program segments as
destruction of both programs. This set of required.
programs is called the Operating
System. Managing the various Paging methods divide the usable main
Computer resources (CPU, memory, and memory into fixed size called page
Input/output) and controlling peripheral frames. Programs and data are
devices are accomplished by the separated into units of the same size
operating system. Unlike user programs, called pages. Page size depends on
which supports the applications external system hardware, and ranges from 1K to
to the computing system, an operating 4K bytes. The operating system monitors
system supports the internal functions of page frame usage, and as a program
the entire computing system. Its completes the current page, the next
objective is to maximize the performance page is exchanged so that execution
and efficiency of the system and to continues almost uninterrupted.
increase the ease with which the system
can be used. In both methods, virtual storage is
achieved by the use of disk storage
VIRTUAL STORAGE devices. The transfer of program and
A problem arises when a program data units to and from main storage is
requires more storage than the handled by a program called the disk
Computer possesses. For example, if operating system (DOS). Segmentation
there is 70K (1k equals 1024 bits) of and paging systems are sometimes
main storage, and the user program combine into a single system to yield the
requires 75k of storage, where does the benefits of both methods. More
Computer acquire the additional 5k to programs can be executed at a given
execute the program? time, for higher CPU and I/O device
With virtual storage, programs are not utilization.
limited to memory locations in primary
storage (main memory). Although each Time-sharing is a function on some
program instruction must be in main operating systems that permits more
storage at the time it is executed, not all than one user to have simultaneous
instructions must be there all the time. access to a Computer system. To each
Maintaining only a portion of the program user, it seems as if the Computer is
in real storage at any given time, and giving its undivided attention. In reality,
bringing in other portions as they are the Computer is sharing its resources
needed, increases the effective main among many separate users.
memory available. This means that When CPU time is requested by a user
more user programs can be executed at terminal, a portion of main memory is
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  Introduction to Computers

assigned to that terminal. During locally, but providing each group with
operation, the CPU switches from one access to a large central Computer for
terminal to another, executing small jobs requiring a large mainframe and
portions of each program. When a access to corporate data bases.
particular program has completed
execution, a new program is entered into
the newly available memory space. The
concept of many programs executing
almost simultaneously with one CPU is
called multiprogramming.

Time sharing systems are of three

major types:
General purpose time sharing systems
that permit programmers to write and
execute their own programs in various
languages. Execution only systems that
only allow users to execute programs,
but not to create, alter, or delete
programs.
Single application systems in which all
programs are related to certain
application area. In these systems, the
user supplies the appropriate inputs and
the system respond accordingly.

Distributed processing
Consistent with modern management
philosophies for decentralization in the
control of business, advances in
Computer technology have made
possible a procedure called distributed
Computer processing. Although there is
no universally accepted definition for the
term, distributed Computer processing.
Although there is no universally
accepted definition of the term,
distributed processing generally refers to
the use of intelligent’ terminals which can
perform local editing and data
manipulation and which can transmit
partially processed data to a central
Computer facility for further work. This
type of configuration also occurs when a
communications network exists to
facilitate the transfer of data from
terminals to a central Computer.
Distributed processing allows
geographically separate groups of users
to accomplish much of their processing

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