BI314-ASSIGNMENT#1

Q1.Define the following terms and provide example for each.

A).Coevolution

The evolution of two or more species that interact closely with one another, with each species adapting
to changes in the other.

in biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution
through the process of natural selection. ... Charles Darwin mentioned evolutionary interactions
between flowering plants and insects in On the Origin of Species (1859).

What are the benefits of coevolution?

In mutualistic coevolution, two species that benefit from each other evolve together. In competitive
coevolution, prey will evolve traits to prevent being eaten, and predators will then evolve to be able to
eat their prey. This type of interaction is also called an evolutionary arms race.

What would happen if coevolution did not occur?

That view fails completely to capture one of the most fundamental facts of biology: intimate coevolved
interactions, often mutualistic, form the base of all species-rich ecosystems. Without these coevolved
interactions, highly diverse ecosystems would collapse immediately.J

In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution
through the process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species
affecting each other's evolution, as well as gene-culture coevolution. Charles Darwin mentioned
evolutionary interactions between flowering plants and insects in On the Origin of Species (1859).
Although he did not use the word coevolution, he suggested how plants and insects could evolve
through reciprocal evolutionary changes.

Valston Hancock (31 May 1907 – 29 September 1998)

Types of Coevolution

Predator-prey relationship coevolution: Predator-prey relationships are universal the world over; two
have already been described in general terms. Predator and prey coevolution is thus easy to locate and
verify in almost any ecosystem.

Cheetahs and gazelles are perhaps the most-cited example, while wolves and caribou represent another
in a different, far colder part of the world.
Competitive species coevolution: In this type of coevolution, multiple organisms are vying for the same
resources. This kind of coevolution can be verified with certain interventions, as is the case with
salamanders in the Great Smoky Mountains of the eastern United States. When one Plethodon species
is removed, the other's population grows in size and vice versa.

Mutualistic coevolution: Importantly, not all forms of coevolution are necessarily damaging to one of the
species involved. In mutualistic coevolution, organisms that rely on each other for something evolve
"together" thanks to unconscious cooperation – a sort of unstated negotiation or compromise. This is
evident in the form of plants and the insects that pollinate those plant species.

Parasite-host coevolution: When a parasite invades a host, it does so because it has dodged the
defenses of the host at that point in time. But if the host evolves in a way so that it is not drastically
harmed without "evicting" the parasite outright, coevolution is in play.

Example

Competitive species: Certain butterflies have evolved to taste bad to predators so that those predators
avoid them. This increases the likelihood of other butterflies being eaten, adding a form of selective
pressure; this pressure leads to the evolution of "mimicry," wherein other butterflies evolve to look like
the ones predators have learned to avoid.

Another competitive species example is the evolution of the king snake to look almost exactly like the
coral snake. Both can be aggressive toward other snakes, but the coral snake is highly venomous and not
one that humans want to be around.

Figure 1:the pollinating wasp(Dasyscolia ciliata) in Peseudcopulation with a flower of Ophrys speculum
B).Red Queen Hypothesis

An example of the Red Queen Hypothesis might be one of the plants that evolve toxins to kill off
predators such as caterpillars. If the plant, under predation selection pressure, evolved a new type of
toxin to which the caterpillar had no immunity, most of the caterpillars would die off and the tree would
flourish.

The Red Queen is a fictional character from Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking Glass. ... The Red Queen
hypothesis was coined in evolutionary biology to explain that a species must adapt and evolve not just
for reproductive advantage, but also for survival because competing organisms also are evolving.Mar 1,
2019.

The supposed benefit of the Red Queen Hypothesis is that organisms compete against one another (co-
evolutionary arms races) which allows them to adapt, evolve and become better versions of themselves
in order to become better suited to their environment and the conditions they face when living.

Van Valen

The Red Queen hypothesis (RQH) was first proposed by Van Valen [1] to explain a pattern he argued was
manifest in the fossil record involving component members of several major taxonomic groups:
survivorship curves that were linear when plotted against geologic time.May 2, 2018

What does the Red Queen mean?

The Red Queen hypothesis (also referred to as Red Queen's, the Red Queen effect, Red Queen's race,
Red Queen dynamics) is an evolutionary hypothesis which proposes that species must constantly adapt,
evolve, and proliferate in order to survive while pitted against ever-evolving opposing species.

The Red Queen hypothesis was coined in evolutionary biology to explain that a species must adapt and
evolve not just for reproductive advantage, but also for survival because competing organisms also are
evolving. It’s important to note that competing organisms can be friendly — for instance, those that rely
on the same food sources.

The “Red Queen” hypothesis in evolution is related to the coevolution of species. It states that species
must continuously adapt and evolve to pass on genes to the next generation and also to keep from
going extinct when other species within a symbiotic relationship are evolving. First proposed in 1973 by
Leigh Van Valen, this part of the hypothesis is especially important in a predator-prey relationship or a
parasitic relationship.

Predator and Prey

Food sources are arguably one of the most important types of relationships in regards to survival of a
species. For instance, if a prey species evolves to become faster over a period of time, the predator
needs to adapt and evolve to keep using the prey as a reliable food source. Otherwise, the now faster
prey will escape, and the predator will lose a food source and potentially go extinct. However, if the
predator becomes faster itself, or evolves in another way like becoming stealthier or a better hunter,
then the relationship can continue, and the predators will survive. According to the Red Queen
hypothesis, this back and forth coevolution of the species is a constant change with smaller adaptations
accumulating over long periods of time.

C).Oscillation hypothesis

D).Speciation

Speciation occurs when a group within a species separates from other members of its species and
develops its own unique characteristics. ... An example of speciation is the Galápagos finch.

Speciation is how a new kind of plant or animal species is created. Speciation occurs when a group
within a species separates from other members of its species and develops its own unique
characteristics. The demands of a different environment or the characteristics of the members of the
new group will differentiate the new species from their ancestors.
An example of speciation is the Galápagos finch. Different species of these birds live on different islands
in the Galápagos archipelago, located in the Pacific Ocean off South America. The finches are isolated
from one another by the ocean. Over millions of years, each species of finch developed a unique beak
that is especially adapted to the kinds of food it eats. Some finches have large, blunt beaks that can
crack the hard shells of nuts and seeds. Other finches have long, thin beaks that can probe into cactus
flowers without the bird being poked by the cactus spines. Still other finches have medium-size beaks
that can catch and grasp insects. Because they are isolated, the birds don’t breed with one another and
have therefore developed into unique species with unique characteristics. This is called allopatric
speciation.

There are five types of speciation: allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric and artificial.

Allopatric speciation (1) occurs when a species separates into two separate groups which are isolated
from one another. A physical barrier, such as a mountain range or a waterway, makes it impossible for
them to breed with one another. Each species develops differently based on the demands of their
unique habitat or the genetic characteristics of the group that are passed on to offspring.

When small groups of individuals break off from the larger group and form a new species, this is called
peripatric speciation (2). As in allopatric speciation, physical barriers make it impossible for members of
the groups to interbreed with one another. The main difference between allopatric speciation and
peripatric speciation is that in peripatric speciation, one group is much smaller than the other. Unique
characteristics of the smaller groups are passed on to future generations of the group, making those
traits more common among that group and distinguishing it from the others.

In parapatric speciation (3), a species is spread out over a large geographic area. Although it is possible
for any member of the species to mate with another member, individuals only mate with those in their
own geographic region. Like allopatric and peripatric speciation, different habitats influence the
development of different species in parapatric speciation. Instead of being separated by a physical
barrier, the species are separated by differences in the same environment.

Parapatric speciation sometimes happens when part of an environment has been polluted. Mining
activities leave waste with high amounts of metals like lead and zinc. These metals are absorbed into the
soil, preventing most plants from growing. Some grasses, such as buffalo grass, can tolerate the metals.
Buffalo grass, also known as vanilla grass, is native to Europe and Asia, but is now found throughout
North and South America, too. Buffalo grass has become a unique species from the grasses that grow in
areas not polluted by metals. Long distances can make it impractical to travel to reproduce with other
members of the species. Buffalo grass seeds pass on the characteristics of the members in that region to
offspring. Sometimes a species that is formed by parapatric speciation is especially suited to survive in a
different kind of environment than the original species.
Sympatric speciation (4) is controversial. Some scientists don’t believe it exists. Sympatric speciation
occurs when there are no physical barriers preventing any members of a species from mating with
another, and all members are in close proximity to one another. A new species, perhaps based on a
different food source or characteristic, seems to develop spontaneously. The theory is that some
individuals become dependent on certain aspects of an environment—such as shelter or food sources—
while others do not.

A possible example of sympatric speciation is the apple maggot, an insect that lays its eggs inside the
fruit of an apple, causing it to rot. As the apple falls from the tree, the maggots dig in the ground before
emerging as flies several months later. The apple maggot originally laid its eggs in the fruit of a relative
of the apple—a fruit called a hawthorn. After apples were introduced to North America in the 19th
century, a type of maggot developed that only lays its eggs in apples. The original hawthorn species still
only lays its eggs in hawthorns. The two types of maggots are not different species yet, but many
scientists believe they are undergoing the process of sympatric speciation.

Artificial speciation (5) is the creation of new species by people. This is achieved through lab
experiments, where scientists mostly research insects like fruit flies.

Allopatric speciation occurs when an animal population is forced to be split between two
geographical areas as a result of geographical change. As a result, there are mutations that occur in
the split populations which affect the ability of the two groups to reproduce if and when they are
reintroduced.

Peripatric speciation occurs when new species arise in isolation. As in allopatric speciation, the new
species is unable to reproduce with others in the original population.

Parapatric speciation occurs when populations are only partially separated and therefore do
sometimes make contact. In this situation, the reproduction is based on selection of the best traits
within the group.

Sympatric speciation is differentiated from the other three because it occurs in one geographic
location. Some scientists would call this type of speciation controversial and there are some who do
not believe it exists. The cause of sympatric speciation is not known but could be based on varied food
sources or traits that spontaneously develop.

speciation occurs as a result of several factors which are:

1. Natural selection

 As explained by Charles Darwin, different individuals in a species might develop specific

distinct characteristics which are advantageous and affect the genetic makeup of the
individual.
 Under such conditions, these characteristics will be conserved, and over time, new
species might be formed.
 However, in this case, the essential aspect of this factor is that speciation occurs only
when a single species splits into several species resulting in the multiplication of species.

2. Genetic drift

 Genetic drift is the change in the allele frequencies in a population as a result of

“sampling error” while selecting the alleles for the next generation from the gene pool of
the current population.
 It has been, however, argued that genetic drift doesn’t result in speciation and just results
in evolution, that is, change from one species to another, which cannot be considered
speciation.

3. Migration

 When a certain number of species from a population migrate from one geographical
region to another, the species might accumulate characteristics which are different from
that of the original population.
 Migration usually results in geographical isolation and ultimately leads to speciation.

4. Chromosomal Mutations

 Chromosomal mutations have the potential to serve as (or contribute to) isolating
mechanisms, and the locking up and protection of a particularly favorable gene
complement through a chromosomal mutation.
 These mutations, when preserved from one generation to another, might result in the
formation of new species.

5. Natural causes

 Sometimes, natural events imposed by the environment like a river or a mountain range
might cause the separation of what once a continuous population is divided into two or
smaller populations.
 These events result in geographical isolation of the incipient species followed by
reproductive isolation leading to speciation.

6. Reduction of gene flow

 Speciation might also occur in the absence of some extrinsic physical barriers.
 There might be a reduced gene flow over a broad geographical range where individuals in
the far east would have zero chance of mating with individuals in the far western end of
the range.
 In addition, if there are some selective mechanisms like genetic drift at the opposite ends
of the range, the gene frequencies would be altered, and speciation would be ensured
Q2.Explain the evolution of sex and its influence in the species diversity

Q3.In paragraphs, explain how the evolution has impact on the biodiversity

Evolution affects biodiversity by increasing the total number of species found on the planet.

Q4.Is study of human evolution good or bad, when you take different human race into consideration?