Computer

Technically, a computer is a programmable machine. This means it can execute a

programmed list of instructions and respond to new instructions that it is given.
Today, however, the term is most often used to refer to the desktop and laptop
computers that most people use. When referring to a desktop model, the term
"computer" technically only refers to the computer itself -- not the monitor,
keyboard, and mouse. Still, it is acceptable to refer to everything together as the
computer. If you want to be really technical, the box that holds the computer is
called the "system unit."

Some of the major parts of a personal computer (or PC) include the motherboard,
CPU, memory (or RAM), hard drive, and video card. While personal computers
are by far the most common type of computers today, there are several other types
of computers. For example, a "minicomputer" is a powerful computer that can
support many users at once. A "mainframe" is a large, high-powered computer that
can perform billions of calculations from multiple sources at one time. Finally, a
"supercomputer" is a machine that can process billions of instructions a second and
is used to calculate extremely complex calculations.

Different types of Computers

Based on the operational principle of computers, they are categorized as analog

computers and hybrid computers.

Analog Computers: These are almost extinct today. These are different from a
digital computer because an analog computer can perform several mathematical
operations simultaneously. It uses continuous variables for mathematical
operations and utilizes mechanical or electrical energy.

Hybrid Computers: These computers are a combination of both digital and

analog computers. In this type of computers, the digital segments perform process
control by conversion of analog signals to digital ones.
Following are some of the other important types of computers.

Mainframe Computers: Large organizations use mainframes for highly critical

applications such as bulk data processing and ERP. Most of the mainframe
computers have the capacities to host multiple operating systems and operate as a
number of virtual machines and can thus substitute for several small servers.

Microcomputers: A computer with a microprocessor and its central processing

unit is known as a microcomputer. They do not occupy space as much as
mainframes. When supplemented with a keyboard and a mouse, microcomputers
can be called as personal computers. A monitor, a keyboard and other similar input
output devices, computer memory in the form of RAM and a power supply unit
come packaged in a microcomputer. These computers can fit on desks or tables
and serve as the best choices for single-user tasks.

Personal computers come in a variety of forms such as desktops, laptops and

personal digital assistants. Let us look at each of these types of computers.

Desktops: A desktop is intended to be used on a single location. The spare parts of

a desktop computer are readily available at relative lower costs. Power
consumption is not as critical as that in laptops. Desktops are widely popular for
daily use in workplaces and households.

Laptops: Similar in operation to desktops, laptop computers are miniaturized and

optimized for mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter
that charges the computer batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard,
touch pad acting as a mouse and a liquid crystal display. Its portability and
capacity to operate on battery power have served as a boon for mobile users.

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): It is a handheld computer and popularly

known as a palmtop. It has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of data.
PDAs can also be effectively used as portable audio players, web browsers and
smart phones. Most of them can access the Internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-
Fi communication.
Minicomputers: In terms of size and processing capacity, minicomputers lie in
between mainframes and microcomputers. Minicomputers are also called mid-
range systems or workstations. The term began to be popularly used in the 1960s to
refer to relatively smaller third generation computers. They took up the space that
would be needed for a refrigerator or two and used transistor and core memory
technologies. The 12-bit PDP-8 minicomputer of the Digital Equipment
Corporation was the first successful minicomputer.

Supercomputers: The highly calculation-intensive tasks can be effectively

performed by means of supercomputers. Quantum physics, mechanics, weather
forecasting, molecular theory are best studied by means of supercomputers. Their
ability of parallel processing and their well-designed memory hierarchy give the
supercomputers, large transaction processing powers.

Wearable Computers: A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was

the creation of wearable computers. These computers can be worn on the body and
are often used in the study of behavior modeling and human health. Military and
health professionals have incorporated wearable computers into their daily routine,
as a part of such studies. When the users’ hands and sensory organs are engaged in
other activities, wearable computers are of great help in tracking human actions.
Wearable computers are consistently in operation as they do not have to be turned
on and off and are constantly interacting with the user.

Characteristics

1. Speed
The computer is a very high speed electronic device. The operations on the data
insidethe computer are performed through electronic circuits according to the
given instructions. The data and instructions flow along these circuits with high
speed that is close to the speed of light. Computer can perform million of billion of
operations on the data in one second. The computer generates signals during the
operation process therefore the speed of computer is usually measure in mega hertz
(MHz) or gega hertz (GHz). It means million cycles units of frequency is hertz per
second. Different computers have different speed.
2. Arithmetical and Logical Operations
A computer can perform arithmetical and logical operations. In arithmetic
operations, it performs the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on the
numeric data. In logical operation it compares the numerical data as well as
alphabetical data.
3. Accuracy
In addition to being very fast, computer is also very accurate device. it
gives accurateoutput result provided that the correct input data and set of
instructions are given to the computer. It means that output is totally depended on
the given instructions and input data. If input data is in-correct then the resulting
output will be in-correct. In computer terminology it is known as garbage-in
garbage-out.

4. Reliability
The electronic components in modern computer have very low failure rate. The
modern computer can perform very complicated calculations without creating any
problem and produces consistent (reliable) results. In general, computers are very
reliable. Many personal computers have never needed a service call.
Communications are also very reliable and generally available whenever needed.

5. Storage
A computer has internal storage (memory) as well as external or secondary storage.
In secondary storage, a large amount of data and programs (set of instructions) can
be stored for future use. The stored data and programs are available any time for
processing. Similarly information downloaded from the internet can be saved on
the storage media.

6. Retrieving data and programs

The data and program stored on the storage media can be retrieved very quickly for
further processing. It is also very important feature of a computer.
7. Automation
A computer can automatically perform operations without interfering the user
during the operations. It controls automatically different devices attached with the
computer. It executes automatically the program instructions one by one.
8. Versatility
Versatile means flexible. Modern computer can perform different kind of tasks one
by one of simultaneously. It is the most important feature of computer. At one
moment your are playing game on computer, the next moment you are composing
and sending emails etc. In colleges and universities computers are use to deliver
lectures to the students. The talent of computeris dependent on the software.
9. Communications
Today computer is mostly used to exchange messages or data
throughcomputer networks all over the world. For example the information can be
received or send throug the internet with the help of computer. It is most important
feature of the modern information technology.
10. Diligence
A computer can continually work for hours without creating any error. It does not
get tired while working after hours of work it performs the operations with the
same accuracy as well as speed as the first one.
11. No Feelings
Computer is an electronic machine. It has no feelings. It detects objects on the
basis of instructions given to it. Based on our feelings, taste, knowledge and
experience: we can make certain decisions and judgments in our daily life. On the
other hand, computer can not make such judgments on their own. Their judgments
are totally based on instructions given to them.
12. Consistency
People often have difficulty to repeat their instructions again and again. For
example, a lecturer feels difficulty to repeat a same lecture in a class room again
and again. Computer can repeat actions consistently (again and again) without
loosing its concentration:
 To run a spell checker (built into a word processor) for checking spellings in
a document.
 To play multimedia animations for training purposes.
 To deliver a lecture through computer in a class room etc.
A computer will carry out the activity with the same way every time. You can
listen a lecture or perform any action again and again.
13. Precision
Computers are not only fast and consistent but they also perform operations very
accurately and precisely. For example, in manual calculations and rounding
fractional values (That is value with decimal point can change the actual result).
In computer however, you can keep the accuracy and precision upto the level, you
desire. The length calculations remain always accurate.
Batch files
a batch file is a text file containing a series ofcommands intended to be executed
by the command interpreter. Similar to job control languageand other systems on
mainframe and minicomputer systems, batch files were added to ease the work
required for certain regular tasks by allowing the user to set up a batch script to
automate many commands. When a batch file is run, the shell program
(usually COMMAND.COM orcmd.exe) reads the file and executes its commands,
normally line-by-line. Batch files are useful for running a sequence
of executables automatically and are often used to automate repetitive or tedious
processes.[1] Unix-like operating systems (such as Linux) have a similar type of file
called a shell script

System software

System software refers to the files and programs that make up your
computer's operating system. System files include libraries of functions, system
services, drivers for printers and other hardware, system preferences, and other
configuration files. The programs that are part of the system software include
assemblers, compilers, file management tools, system utilites, and debuggers.

The system software is installed on your computer when you install your operating
system. You can update the software by running programs such as "Windows
Update" for Windows or "Software Update" for Mac OS X. Unlikeapplication
programs, however, system software is not meant to be run by the end user. For
example, while you might use your Web browser every day, you probably don't
have much use for an assembler program (unless, of course, you are a computer
programmer).

Since system software runs at the most basic level of your computer, it is called
"low-level" software. It generates the user interface and allows the operating
system to interact with the hardware. Fortunately, you don't have to worry about
what the system software is doing since it just runs in the background. It's nice to
think you are working at a "high-level" anyway.

Application software
Application software, also known as an application or an "app", is computer
softwaredesigned to help the user to perform singular or multiple related specific
tasks. It helps to solve problems in the real world. Examples include enterprise
software, accounting software, office suites, graphics software, and media players.
Application software is contrasted with system software and middleware, which
manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply
them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. A simple, if
imperfect, analogy in the world of hardware would be the relationship of an
electric light bulb (an application) to an electric power generation plant (a system).
The power plant merely generates electricity, not itself of any real use until
harnessed to an application like the electric light that performs a service that
benefits the user.
Word processor
A word processor (more formally known as document preparation system) is
acomputer application used for the production (including composition, editing,
formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of printable material.
Word processor may also refer to a type of stand-alone office machine, popular in
the 1970s and 1980s, combining the keyboard text-entry and printing functions of
an electric typewriterwith a dedicated processor (like a computer processor) for the
editing of text. Although features and design varied between manufacturers and
models, with new features added as technology advanced, word processors for
several years usually featured a monochrome display and the ability to save
documents on memory cards or diskettes. Later models introduced innovations
such as spell-checking programs, increased formatting options, and dot-matrix
printing. As the more versatile combination of a personal computer and
separateprinter became commonplace, most business-machine companies stopped
manufacturing the word processor as a stand-alone office machine. As of 2009
there were only two U.S. companies, Classic and AlphaSmart, which still made
stand-alone word processors.[1]Many older machines, however, remain in use.
Word processors are descended from early text formatting tools (sometimes
called text justification tools, from their only real capability). Word processing was
one of the earliest applications for the personal computer in office productivity.
Although early word processors used tag-based markup for document formatting,
most modern word processors take advantage of a graphical user
interface providing some form ofwhat-you-see-is-what-you-get editing. Most are
powerful systems consisting of one or more programs that can produce any
arbitrary combination of images, graphics and text, the latter handled with type-
setting capability.
Microsoft Word is the most widely used word processing software. Microsoft
estimates that over 500,000,000 people use the Microsoft Office suite, which
includes Word. Many other word processing applications exist,
including WordPerfect (which dominated the market from the mid-1980s to early-
1990s on computers running Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system) and open
source applications OpenOffice.org Writer, AbiWord, KWord, and LyX. Web-
based word processors, such as Google Docs, are a relatively new category.

History
Webster's Dictionary defines "computer" as any programmable electronic device that
can store, retrieve, and process data. The basic idea of computing develops in the
1200's when a Moslem cleric proposes solving problems with a series of written
procedures.

As early as the 1640's mechanical calculators are manufactured for sale. Records exist
of earlier machines, but Blaise Pascal invents the first commercial calculator, a hand
powered adding machine. Although attempts to multiply mechanically were made by
Gottfried Liebnitz in the 1670s the first true multiplying calculator appears in Germany
shortly before the American Revolution.

In 1801 a Frenchman, Joseph-Marie Jacquard builds a loom that weaves by reading

punched holes stored on small sheets of hardwood. These plates are then inserted into
the loom which reads (retrieves) the pattern and creates(process) the weave. Powered
by water, this "machine" came 140 years before the development of the modern
computer.

Shortly after the first mass-produced calculator(1820), Charles Babbage begins his
lifelong quest for a programmable machine. Although Babbage was a poor
communicator and record-keeper, his difference engine is sufficiently developed by
1842 that Ada Lovelace uses it to mechanically translate a short written work. She is
generally regarded as the first programmer. Twelve years later George Boole, while
professor of Mathematics at Cork University, writes An Investigation of the Laws of
Thought(1854), and is generally recognized as the father of computer science.

The 1890 census is tabulated on punch cards similar to the ones used 90 years earlier
to create weaves. Developed by Herman Hollerith of MIT, the system uses electric
power(non-mechanical). The Hollerith Tabulating Company is a forerunner of today's
IBM.

Just prior to the introduction of Hollerith's machine the first printing calculator is
introduced. In 1892 William Burroughs, a sickly ex-teller, introduces a commercially
successful printing calculator. Although hand-powered, Burroughs quickly introduces an
electronic model.

In 1925, unaware of the work of Charles Babbage, Vannevar Bush of MIT builds a
machine he calls the differential analyzer. Using a set of gears and shafts, much like
Babbage, the machine can handle simple calculus problems, but accuracy is a problem.

The period from 1935 through 1952 gets murky with claims and counterclaims of who
invents what and when. Part of the problem lies in the international situation that makes
much of the research secret. Other problems include poor record-keeping, deception
and lack of definition.

In 1935, Konrad Zuse, a German construction engineer, builds a mechanical calculator

to handle the math involved in his profession. Shortly after completion, Zuse starts on a
programmable electronic device which he completes in 1938.

John Vincent Atanasoff begins work on a digital computer in 1936 in the basement of
the Physics building on the campus of Iowa State. A graduate student, Clifford (John)
Berry assists. The "ABC" is designed to solve linear equations common in physics. It
displays some early features of later computers including electronic calculations. He
shows it to others in 1939 and leaves the patent application with attorneys for the school
when he leaves for a job in Washington during World War II. Unimpressed, the school
never files and ABC is cannibalized by students.

The Enigma, a complex mechanical encoder is used by the

Germans and they believe it to be unbreakable. Several people
involved, most notably Alan Turing, conceive machines to handle
the problem, but none are technically feasible. Turing proposes a
"Universal Machine" capable of "computing" any algorithm in
1937. That same year George Steblitz creates his Model
K(itchen), a conglomeration of otherwise useless and leftover
The Enigma material, to solve complex calculations. He improves the design
while working at Bell Labs and on September 11, 1940, Steblitz
Courtesy U. S. Army
uses a teletype machine at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire
to transmit a problem to his Complex Number Calculator in New
York and receives the results. It is the first example of a network.

First in Poland, and later in Great Britain and the United States, the Enigma code is
broken. Information gained by this shortens the war. To break the code, the British, led
by Touring, build the Colossus Mark I. The existence of this machine is a closely
guarded secret of the British Government until 1970. The United States Navy, aided to
some extent by the British, builds a machine capable of breaking not only the German
code but the Japanese code as well.

In 1943 development begins on the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer

(ENIAC) in earnest at Penn State. Designed by John Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert of the Moore School, they get help from John von Neumann and others. In
1944, the Havard Mark I is introduced. Based on a series of proposals from Howard
Aiken in the late 1930's, the Mark I computes complex tables for the U.S. Navy. It uses
a paper tape to store instructions and Aiken hiresGrace Hopper("Amazing Grace") as
one of three programmers working on the machine.Thomas J. Watson Sr. plays a
pivotal role involving his company, IBM, in the machine's development.

Early in 1945, with the Mark I stopped for repairs, Hopper notices a moth in one of the
relays, possibly causing the problem. From this day on, Hopper refers to fixing the
system as "debugging". The same year Von Neumann proposes the concept of a
"stored program" in a paper that is never officially published.

Work completes on ENIAC in 1946. Although only three years old the machine is
woefully behind on technology, but the inventors opt to continue while working on a
more modern machine, the EDVAC. Programming ENIAC requires it to be rewired. A
later version eliminates this problem. To make the machine appear more impressive to
reporters during its unveiling, a team member (possibly Eckert) puts translucent
spheres(halved ping pong balls) over the lights. The US patent office will later recognize
this as the first computer.

The next year scientists employed by Bell Labs complete work on the transistor (John
Bardeen,Walter Brattain and William Shockley receive the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1956), and by 1948 teams around the world work on a "stored program" machine. The
first, nicknamed "Baby", is a prototype of a much larger machine under construction in
Britain and is shown in June 1948.

The impetus over the next 5 years for advances in computers is mostly the government
and military. UNIVAC, delivered in 1951 to the Census Bureau, results in a tremendous
financial loss to its manufacturer, Remington-Rand. The next year Grace Hopper, now
an employee of that company proposes "reuseable software," code segments that could
be extracted and assembled according to instructions in a "higher level language." The
concept of compiling is born. Hopper would revise this concept over the next twenty
years and her ideas would become an integral part of all modern computers. CBS uses
one of the 46 UNIVAC computers produced to predict the outcome of the 1952
Presidential Election. They do not air the prediction for 3 hours because they do not
trust the machine.

IBM introduces the 701 the following year. It is the first commercially
successful computer. In 1956 FORTRAN is introduced(proposed
1954, it takes nearly 3 years to develop the compiler). Two
additional languages, LISP and COBOL, are added in 1957 and
1958. Other early languages include ALGOL and BASIC. Although
Small portion of never widely used, ALGOL is the basis for many of today's
the IBM 701 languages.
Courtesy IBM
With the introduction of Control Data's CDC1604 in 1958, the first
transistor powered computer, a new age dawns. Brilliant
scientist Seymour Cray heads the development team. This year integrated circuits are
introduced by two men, Jack Kilby andJohn Noyce, working independently. The
second network is developed at MIT. Over the next three years computers begin
affecting the day-to-day lives of most Americans. The addition of MICR characters at
the bottom of checks is common.

In 1961 Fairchild Semiconductor introduces the integrated circuit. Within ten years all
computers use these instead of the transistor. Formally building sized computers are
now room-sized, and are considerably more powerful. The following year the Atlas
becomes operational, displaying many of the features that make today's systems so
powerful including virtual memory, pipeline instruction execution and paging. Designed
at the University of Manchester, some of the people who developed Colossus thirty
years earlier make contributions.
On April 7, 1964, IBM introduces the System/360. While a technical marvel, the main
feature of this machine is business oriented...IBM guarantees the "upward compatibility"
of the system, reducing the risk that a business would invest in outdated technology.
Dartmouth College, where the first network was demonstrated 25 years earlier, moves
to the forefront of the "computer age" with the introduction of TSS(Time Share System)
a crude(by today's standards) networking system. It is the first Wide Area Network. In
three years Randy Golden, President and Founder of Golden Ink, would begin working
on this network.

Within a year MIT returns to the top of the intellectual computer community with the
introduction of a greatly refined network that features shared resources and uses the
first minicomputer(DEC's PDP-8) to manage telephone lines. Bell Labs and GE play
major roles in its design.

In 1969 Bell Labs, unhappy with the direction of the MIT project, leaves and develops its
own operating system, UNIX. One of the many precursors to today's Internet, ARPANet,
is quietly launched. Alan Keys, who will later become a designer for Apple, proposes
the "personal computer." Also in 1969, unhappy with Fairchild Semiconductor, a group
of technicians begin discussing forming their own company. This company, formed the
next year, would be known as Intel. The movie Colossus:The Forbin Project has a
supercomputer as the villain. Next year, The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes was the first
feature length movie with the word computer in the title. In 1971, Texas Instruments
introduces the first "pocket calculator." It weighs 2.5 pounds.

With the country embroiled in a crisis of confidence known as Watergate, in 1973 a little
publicized judicial decision takes the patent for the computer away from Mauchly and
Eckert and awards it to Atanasoff. Xerox introduces the mouse. Proposals are made for
the first local area networks.

In 1975 the first personal computer is marketed in kit form. The Altair features 256 bytes
of memory. Bill Gates, with others, writes a BASIC compiler for the machine. The next
year Apple begins to market PC's, also in kit form. It includes a monitor and keyboard.
The earliest RISC platforms become stable. In 1976, Queen Elizabeth goes on-line with
the first royal email message.

Generations
The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different
generations of computing devices. A generation refers to the state of improvement in
the product development process. This term is also used in the different advancements
of new computer technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller
and more advanced than the previous generation before it. As a result of the
miniaturization, speed, power, and computer memory has proportionally increased. New
discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we live, work and play.

Each generation of computers is characterized by major technological development that

fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in
increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and
reliable devices. Read about each generation and the developments
that led to the current devices that we use today.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. A magnetic
drum,also referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide
material on which data and programs can be stored. Magnetic drums were once use
das a primary storage device but have since been implemented as auxiliary storage
devices.

The tracks on a magnetic drum are assigned to channels located around the
circumference of the drum, forming adjacent circular bands that wind around the drum.
A single drum can have up to 200 tracks. As the drum rotates at a speed of up to 3,000
rpm, the device's read/write heads deposit magnetized spots on the drum during the
write operation and sense these spots during a read operation. This action is similar to
that of a magnetic tape or disk drive.

They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation
computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve
one problem at a time. Machine languages are the only languages understood by
computers. While easily understood by computers, machine languages are almost
impossible for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers. Computer
Programmers, therefore, use either high level programming languages or
an assembly language programming. An assembly language contains the same
instructions as a machine language, but the instructions and variables have names
instead of being just numbers.

Programs written in  high level programming languages retranslated into assembly

language or machine language by a compiler. Assembly language program retranslated
into machine language by a program called an assembler (assembly language
compiler).
Every CPU has its own unique machine language. Programs must be rewritten or
recompiled, therefore, to run on different types of computers. Input was based onpunch
card and paper tapes, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing

devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computerdelivered to a business client,
the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, the world's first operational
electronic digital computer, developed by Army Ordnance to compute World War II
ballistic firing tables. The ENIAC, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power
and consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes,1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of
resistors,capacitors, and inductors, was completed in 1945. In addition to ballistics, the
ENIAC's field of application included weather prediction, atomic-energy calculations,
cosmic-ray studies, thermal ignition,random-number studies, wind-tunnel design, and
other scientific uses. The ENIAC soon became obsolete as the need arose for faster
computing speeds.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second

generation computer. Transistor is a device composed of
semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a
circuit. Invented in 1947 at Bell Labs, transistors have become the
key ingredient of all digital circuits, including computers. Today's latest
microprocessor contains tens of millions of microscopic transistors.

Prior to the invention of transistors, digital circuits were composed of vacuum tubes,
which had many disadvantages. They were much larger, required more energy,
dissipated more heat, and were more prone to failures. It's safe to say that without the
invention of transistors, computing as we know it today would not be possible.

The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until
the late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube,allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper,more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that
subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to

symbolic, or assembly, languages,which allowed programmers to specify instructions in
words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such
as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that
stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to
magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic
energy industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips,
called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers.

A nonmetallic chemical element in the carbon family of elements. Silicon - atomic

symbol "Si" - is the second most abundant element in the earth's crust, surpassed only
by oxygen. Silicon does not occur uncombined in nature. Sand and almost all rocks
contain silicon combined with oxygen, forming silica. When silicon combines with other
elements, such as iron, aluminum or potassium, a silicate is formed. Compounds of
silicon also occur in the atmosphere, natural waters,many plants and in the bodies of
some animals.

Silicon is the basic material used to make computer chips, transistors, silicon diodes
and other electronic circuits and switching devices because its atomic structure makes
the element an ideal semiconductor. Silicon is commonly doped, or mixed,with other
elements, such as boron, phosphorous and arsenic, to alter its conductive properties.

A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material(usually silicon) on which an

integrated circuit is embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inches and can
contain millions of electronic components(transistors). Computers consist of many chips
placed on electronic boards called printed circuit boards. There are different types of
chips. For example, CPU chips (also called microprocessors) contain an entire
processing unit, whereas memory chips contain blank memory.

Semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor of electricity (like copper)

nor a good insulator (like rubber). The most common semiconductor materials are
silicon and germanium. These materials are then doped to create an excess or lack of
electrons.

Computer chips, both for CPU and memory, are composed of semiconductor materials.
Semiconductors make it possible to miniaturize electronic components, such as
transistors. Not only does miniaturization mean that the components take up less space,
it also means that they are faster and require less energy.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to
a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of

computers, as thousands of integrated circuits we rebuilt
onto a single silicon chip. A silicon chip that contains a CPU.
In the world of personal computers,the terms
microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. At the
heart of all personal computers and most workstations sits a
microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from
clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

 Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.

 Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.

 Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute.

In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit
microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bitmicroprocessor that
runs at 25MHz.

What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand.
The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer -
from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.

Abbreviation of central processing unit, and pronounced as separate letters. The CPU is
the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central
processor, the CPU is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing
power,the CPU is the most important element of a computer system.
On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal
computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a
microprocessor.

Two typical components of a CPU are:

 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.

 The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and
executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to
use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could

be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to
the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUI's, the mouse
and handheld devices

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial

Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development,though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today.

Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making

computers behave like humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Artificial intelligence includes:

 Games Playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and

checkers

 Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life

situations (for example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases
based on symptoms)
  Natural Language: programming computers to understand natural human
languages

 Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce

the types of physical connections that occur in animal brains

 Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory
stimuli

Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate
human behavior). The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing.
The best computer chess programs are now capable of beating humans. In May,1997,
an IBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion Gary
Kasparov in a chess match.

In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but they are
capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great difficulty identifying objects based
on appearance or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily.

Natural-language processing offers the greatest potential rewards because it would

allow people to interact with computers without needing any specialized knowledge.
You could simply walk up to a computer and talk to it. Unfortunately, programming
computers to understand natural languages has proved to be more difficult than
originally thought. Some rudimentary translation systems that translate from one human
language to another are in existence, but they are not nearly as good as human
translators.

There are also voice recognition systems that can convert spoken sounds into written
words, but they do not understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation.
Even these systems are quite limited -- you must speak slowly and distinctly.

In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent the future of artificial
intelligence and of computers in general. To date, however, they have not lived up to
expectations. Many expert systems help human experts in such fields as medicine and
engineering, but they are very expensive to produce and are helpful only in special
situations.
Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving
successful in an umber of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language
processing.

There are several programming languages that are known as AI languages because
they are used almost exclusively for AI applications. The two most common are LISP
and Prolog.

Introduction
The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the outside
world. Input/Output devices are required for users to communicate with the computer.
In simple terms, input devices bring information INTO the computer and output
devices bring information OUT of a computer system. These input/output devices are
also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory of a computer
system.
Some commonly used Input/Output devices are listed in table below .

Input Devices
Keyboard
Mouse
Joystick
Scanner
Light Pen
Touch Screen
Output Devices
Monitor
LCD
Printer
Plotter

a) Keyboard
It is a text base input device that allows the user to input alphabets, numbers and other
characters. It consists of a set of keys mounted on a board.
(b) Mouse

The mouse is a small device used to point to a particular place on the screen and
select in order to perform one or more actions. It can be used to select menu
commands, size windows, start programs etc.
The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one being used
most frequently.
Mouse Actions
Left Click : Used to select an item.
Double Click : Used to start a program or open a file.
Right Click : Usually used to display a set of commands.
Drag and Drop : It allows you to select and move an item from one location to
another. To achieve this place the cursor over an item on the screen, click the left
mouse button and while holding the button down move the cursor to where you want
to place the item, and then release it.
(c) Joystick

The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the stick
is moved. It typically has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed by
the cursor. Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video games,
training simulators and controlling robots
(d)Scanner

Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source document into
the computer system. It converts the document image into digital form so that it can
be fed into the computer. Capturing information like this reduces the possibility of
errors typically experienced during large data entry.
Figure 4: The Scanner
Hand-held scanners are commonly seen in big stores to scan codes and price
information for each of the items. They are also termed the bar code readers.
(e) Bar codes
A bar code is a set of lines of different thicknesses that represent a number. Bar Code
Readers are used to input data from bar codes. Most products in shops have bar codes
on them.Bar code readers work by shining a beam of light on the lines that make up
the bar code and detecting the amount of light that is reflected back
Figure 5: The Bar Code Reader
(f) Light Pen

It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite like the
mouse (in its functionality) but uses a light pen to move the pointer and select any
object on the screen by pointing to the object.
Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications commonly use the light pens to
directly draw on screen.
(g) Touch Screen

It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display screen.
Common examples of touch screen include information kiosks, and bank ATMs.
Output Devices
(a) Monitor
Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and uses a Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT) to display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard
for manual input of characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also
displays the program or application output. Like the television, monitors are also
available in different sizes.
(b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
LCD was introduced in the 1970s and is now applied to display terminals also. Its
advantages like low energy consumption, smaller and lighter have paved its way for
usage in portable computers (laptops).
Figure 8: The LCD
(c) Printer
Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on
the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes
the paper through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character
printers fall under this category.
Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat
or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal
printers fall under this category of printers.
When we talk about printers we refer to two basic qualities associated with printers:
resolution, and speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of number of dots per
inch (dpi). Print speed is measured in terms of number of characters printed in a unit
of time and is represented as characters-per-second (cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or
pages-per -minute (ppm).

(d) Plotter
Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands
and makes line drawings on paper using multicolored automated pens. It is capable of
producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc.
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD (Computer Aided
Design) and CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) are typical usage areas for
plotters.

(e) Audio Output: Sound Cards and Speakers:

The Audio output is the ability of the computer to output sound. Two components are
needed: Sound card – Plays contents of digitized recordings, Speakers – Attached to
sound card.

Booting
Booting is a process in which your computer gets initialized. This process includes
initilizing all your hadware components in your computer and get them to work
together and to load your default operating system which will make your computer
operational.

Booting process
Booting process is bootstrapping process(to pull oneself up by bootstraps) thats starts operating
systems whenever the user turns on or switch on the computer system.

MS-DOS
MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) is a single-user, single-tasking
computer operating system that uses a command line interface. In spite of its
very small size and relative simplicity, it is one of the most successful operating
systems that has been developed to date.

MS-DOS and command line overview

Below is a listing of each of the MS-DOS commands currently listed on
Computer Hope and a brief explanation of what each of the commands
do. The below commands are all MS-DOS commands, which means not all
the below commands will work in your version of MS-DOS and/or Windows
command line. Clicking on the command will open the help page for that
command with full details about it.

Command Description Type

Defines functions that change display graphics, control cursor movement,

ansi.sys File
and reassign keys.

Causes MS-DOS to look in other directories when editing a file or running

append External
a command.

arp Displays, adds, and removes arp information from network devices. External

assign Assign a drive letter to an alternate letter. External

assoc View the file associations. Internal

at Schedule a time to execute commands or programs. External

atmadm Lists connections and addresses seen by Windows ATM call manager. Internal

attrib Display and change file attributes. External

batch Recovery console command that executes a series of commands in a file. Recovery

Recovery console command that allows a user to view, modify, and

bootcfg Recovery
rebuild the boot.ini

break Enable / disable CTRL + C feature. Internal

cacls View and modify file ACL's. External

call Calls a batch file from another batch file. Internal

cd Changes directories. Internal

chcp Supplement the International keyboard and character set information. External

chdir Changes directories. Internal

chdsk Check the hard disk drive running FAT for errors. External

chkntfs Check the hard disk drive running NTFS for errors. External

choice Specify a listing of multiple options within a batch file. External

cls Clears the screen. Internal

cmd Opens the command interpreter.  

Easily change the foreground and background color of the MS-DOS

color Internal
window.

command Opens the command interpreter.  

comp Compares files. External

compact Compresses and uncompress files. External

control Open Control Panel icons from the MS-DOS prompt. External

convert Convert FAT to NTFS. External

copy Copy one or more files to an alternate location. Internal

ctty Change the computers input/output devices. Internal

date View or change the systems date. Internal

debug Debug utility to create assembly programs to modify hardware settings. External

defrag Re-arrange the hard disk drive to help with loading programs. External

del Deletes one or more files. Internal

delete Recovery console command that deletes a file. Internal

deltree Deletes one or more files and/or directories. External

dir List the contents of one or more directory. Internal

Recovery console command that disables Windows system services or

disable Recovery
drivers.

diskcomp Compare a disk with another disk. External

diskcopy Copy the contents of one disk and place them on another disk. External

doskey Command to view and execute commands that have been run in the past. External

dosshell A GUI to help with early MS-DOS users. External

drivparm Enables overwrite of original device drivers. Internal

echo Displays messages and enables and disables echo. Internal

edit View and edit files. External

edlin View and edit files. External

emm386 Load extended Memory Manager. External

ename Recovery console command to enable a disable service or driver. Recovery

Stops the localization of the environment changes enabled by the setlocal

endlocal Internal
command.

erase Erase files from computer. Internal

exit Exit from the command interpreter. Internal

expand Expand a Microsoft Windows file back to it's original format. External

extract Extract files from the Microsoft Windows cabinets. External

fasthelp Displays a listing of MS-DOS commands and information about them. External

fc Compare files. External

fdisk Utility used to create partitions on the hard disk drive. External

find Search for text within a file. External

findstr Searches for a string of text within a file. External

fixboot Writes a new boot sector. Recovery

fixmbr Writes a new boot record to a disk drive. Recovery

for Boolean used in batch files. Internal

format Command to erase and prepare a disk drive. External

ftp Command to connect and operate on a FTP server. External

ftype Displays or modifies file types used in file extension associations. Recovery
goto Moves a batch file to a specific label or location. Internal

graftabl Show extended characters in graphics mode. External

help Display a listing of commands and brief explanation. External

if Allows for batch files to perform conditional processing. Internal

ifshlp.sys 32-bit file manager. External

ipconfig Network command to view network adapter settings and assigned values. External

keyb Change layout of keyboard. External

label Change the label of a disk drive. External

lh Load a device driver in to high memory. Internal

listsvc Recovery console command that displays the services and drivers. Recovery

loadfix Load a program above the first 64k. External

loadhigh Load a device driver in to high memory. Internal

lock Lock the hard disk drive. Internal

logoff Logoff the currently profile using the computer. External

Recovery console command to list installations and enable administrator

logon Recovery
login.

map Displays the device name of a drive. Recovery

md Command to create a new directory. Internal

mem Display memory on system. External

mkdir Command to create a new directory. Internal

mode Modify the port or display settings. External

more Display one page at a time. External

move Move one or more files from one directory to another directory. Internal

msav Early Microsoft Virus scanner. External

msd Diagnostics utility. External

msdex Utility used to load and provide access to the CD-ROM. External

nbtstat Displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP connections using NBT External

net Update, fix, or view the network or network settings External

netsh Configure dynamic and static network information from MS-DOS. External

netstat Display the TCP/IP network protocol statistics and information. External

nlsfunc Load country specific information. External

nslookup Look up an IP address of a domain or host on a network. External

path View and modify the computers path location. Internal

pathping View and locate locations of network latency. External

pause Command used in batch files to stop the processing of a command. Internal

ping Test / send information to another network computer or network device. External

popd Changes to the directory or network path stored by thepushd command. Internal

power Conserve power with computer portables. External

print Prints data to a printer port. External

prompt View and change the MS-DOS prompt. Internal

Stores a directory or network path in memory so it can be returned to at

pushd Internal
any time.
qbasic Open the QBasic. External

rd Removes an empty directory. Internal

ren Renames a file or directory. Internal

rename Renames a file or directory. Internal

rmdir Removes an empty directory. Internal

route View and configure windows network route tables. External

runas Enables a user to run a program as a different user. External

scandisk Run the scandisk utility. External

scanreg Scan registry and recover registry from errors. External

set Change one variable or string to another. Internal

setlocal Enables local environments to be changed without affecting anything else. Internal

setver Change MS-DOS version to trick older MS-DOS programs. External

share Installs support for file sharing and locking capabilities. External

shift Changes the position of replaceable parameters in a batch program. Internal

shutdown Shutdown the computer from the MS-DOS prompt. External

smartdrv Create a disk cache in conventional memory or extended memory. External

sort Sorts the input and displays the output to the screen. External

start Start a separate window in Windows from the MS-DOS prompt. Internal

subst Substitute a folder on your computer for another drive letter. External

switches Remove add functions from MS-DOS. Internal

sys Transfer system files to disk drive. External

telnet Telnet to another computer / device from the prompt. External

time View or modify the system time. Internal

title Change the title of their MS-DOS window. Internal

tracert Visually view a network packets route across a network. External

tree View a visual tree of the hard disk drive. External

type Display the contents of a file. Internal

undelete Undelete a file that has been deleted. External

unformat Unformat a hard disk drive. External

unlock Unlock a disk drive. Internal

ver Display the version information. Internal

Enables or disables the feature to determine if files have been written

verify Internal
properly.

vol Displays the volume information about the designated drive. Internal

Copy multiple files, directories, and/or drives from one location to

xcopy External
another.