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Chapter 4
Compressed Air Distribution (Systems)

Figure 4.1B   Shows Average Power v Percent Capacity with various sizes of primary
receiver.

One solution, sometimes proposed, is to eliminate modulation and have the

compressors operate in a load/unload mode. Certain factors must be recognized
before making such a change. The standard full capacity, full load pressure, often
has the compressor running at around 110% of motor nameplate rating, or using
10% of the available 15% continuous overload service factor. The remaining 5% is
meant to cover tolerances and items such as increased pressure drop through the
air/oil separator before it is required to be changed.
If the discharge pressure is allowed to rise by an additional 10 psi without the
capacity being reduced by inlet valve modulation, the bhp will increase by 5% and
the motor could be overloaded. A reduction in discharge pressure may be necessary
to operate in this mode.

222 Compressed Air & Gas Institute • 1300 Sumner Avenue • Cleveland, OH 44115
Phone: 216/241-7333 • Fax: 216/241-0105 • E-mail: [email protected]
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Compressed Air Distribution (Systems)

Figure 4.1C   Shows Average Power v Percent Capacity with Variable Displacement
Capacity Control (Slide/Spiral/Turn Valve) from 100% to 50% capacity followed by Inlet
Valve Modulation to 40% capacity, then unloading. With this type of control, the inlet pres-
sure to the air end does not change, hence the pressure ratio remains essentially constant.
The effective length of the rotors is reduced.

In each of the above types of capacity control, the compressors are essentially
the same, running at constant speed. Only the method of control changes.
Variable Speed may be achieved by variable frequency AC drive, or by
switched reluctance DC drive. Each of these has its specific electrical characteris-
tics, including inverter and other losses.
Air end displacement is directly proportional to rotor speed but air end effi-
ciency depends upon male rotor tip speed. Most variable speed drive (VSD) pack-
age designs involve full capacity operation above the optimum rotor tip speed, at
reduced air end efficiency and increased input power, when compared with a con-
stant speed compressor of the same capacity, operating at or near its optimum rotor
tip speed. While energy savings can be realized at all reduced capacities, the best
energy savings are realized in applications where the running hours are long, with
a high proportion in the mid to low capacity range.
Some designs stop the compressor when a lower speed of around 20% is
reached, while others may unload at 40-50%, with an unloaded power of 10-15%.
The appropriate amount of storage volume should be considered for each of these
scenarios.

Compressed Air & Gas Institute • 1300 Sumner Avenue • Cleveland, OH 44115 223
Phone: 216/241-7333 • Fax: 216/241-0105 • E-mail: [email protected]
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Chapter 4
Compressed Air Distribution (Systems)

Figure 4.1D   Shows Average Power v Percent Capacity with this type of control.

The control mode chosen should take into account the receiver/system volume
relative to compressor capacity, the range of flow rate normally experienced, and
the mean flow rate during a 24 hour period.
It should be noted that in systems with multiple compressors and sequencing
controls, it is possible to have most of the compressors running fully loaded on base
load with only one compressor on “trim” or part load, providing the most efficient
mode for the system. It also is not necessary to have the air receiver/system
storage capacity based upon the total capacity of all the compressors, provided they
are not all on the same load and unload pressure settings. In such cases only the
capacity of the “trim” compressor needs to be considered, provided it is the same
as, or close to, the capacity of a compressor that may be fully unloaded or stopped
while the “trim” compressor continues to operate.
A primary air receiver allows the compressor(s) to operate in a given discharge
pressure range (usually 10 psi) from load to unload. Multiple compressors also can
be sequenced as needed and with all but one operating in the most efficient, fully
loaded mode. The capacity of the one compressor is modulated to match system
demand.
Another option to minimize the effects of artificial demand, is the use of a
Pressure/Flow Controller. This normally is located downstream of the primary air
receiver and is a sophisticated form of pressure regulator. It is designed to allow
flow at the required rate of demand, to maintain a stable downstream pressure,
often within +/-1 psi. The stable downstream pressure can be set at the lowest
practicable level for satisfactory operation of the pneumatic equipment, reducing
the rate of any leakage from the system and allowing improved quality control from

224 Compressed Air & Gas Institute • 1300 Sumner Avenue • Cleveland, OH 44115
Phone: 216/241-7333 • Fax: 216/241-0105 • E-mail: [email protected]
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Compressed Air Distribution (Systems)

pneumatic processes, tools and devices. While this may reduce the flow rate expe-
rienced, the compressors may still operate at a higher than required discharge pres-
sure. The primary receiver then will provide a certain amount of storage volume
but compressor controls also must be addressed to reduce the compressor discharge
pressure, if optimum energy use is to be achieved.

Selecting the Air Compressor Type(s) and Number

Air compressors vary in design characteristics and, although there is some

overlap, each has its optimum range of capacity and/or pressure. The design and
operational characteristics of each type is discussed in Chapter 2.
Generally, air cooled reciprocating compressors are best suited to a capacity
requirement of 40 acfm (approx. 10 hp) or less, although sizes up through 150 hp
are available. Standard pressure ratings of 100 psig and 175 psig are common. The
175 psig rating is common in automotive repair facilities for tire changers, hoists,
etc., but seldom required for typical industrial applications. Most have cylinder
lubrication but lubricant free and lubricant less designs also are available. Smaller
sizes generally run on a start/stop type of control requiring an air receiver storage
tank with a significant pressure difference between the start and stop settings.
Larger sizes may have continuous running with load/unload controlled by pressure
settings. In some cases, a specific point of use may benefit from one of these com-
pressors dedicated to it rather than drawing from the main distribution system.
Double-acting reciprocating air compressors are efficient in operation but
require relatively large installation space and foundations. These once were the
work horses of plant air systems but have been largely displaced by less costly
packaged rotary air compressors.
Rotary air compressors are available up through 3,000 acfm with pressures up
to 200 psig although most operate around 100-125 psig. These are available both
lubricant injected and lubricant free and have a variety of control types available as
described in the chapter on rotary air compressors.
Centrifugal air compressors are best suited to relatively high volume, base load
conditions and are considered more economical above 1,500 acfm (approx. 300
hp). Although pressures up to 10,000 psig are possible, most industrial centrifugal
air compressors operate in the 100-125 psig range. Capacity control may be by inlet
throttling, inlet guide vanes and/or discharge bypass. These are described in the
chapter on dynamic air compressors.
Depending on the total system requirements, more than one type of compres-
sor may be the best choice. For example, a large volume automotive plant may
benefit from centrifugal compressor(s) capable of handling the base load demand
and rotary or reciprocating air compressor(s) to function as trim compressor(s) for
fluctuating loads. Standby air compressors also would be required to allow for
maintenance and any unscheduled down time. A plant shutdown can be much more
costly than an additional air compressor. Consideration also should be given to
potential plant expansion.

Compressed Air & Gas Institute • 1300 Sumner Avenue • Cleveland, OH 44115 225
Phone: 216/241-7333 • Fax: 216/241-0105 • E-mail: [email protected]
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Chapter 4
Compressed Air Distribution (Systems)

Some plants operate only one shift per day so air demand does not fluctuate as
much as in a plant with three shifts of operation and only one shift at full produc-
tion rate. In plants having three shifts with widely differing requirements, the base
load compressor should be capable of handling the demands of the least loaded
shift and an additional compressor or compressors running only for the other
shift(s). Maintenance needs also must be taken into consideration and a number of
identical air compressors can minimize replacement parts considerations.
A centralized air compressor room can facilitate installation and maintenance
considerations and minimize the number of standby compressors required and, if
required, the number of operators. On the other hand, the distance from the com-
pressor room to the furthest point of use must be considered as extensive lengths
of piping cause increased pressure drop, potential leaks and, when run outside,
potential line freezing problems. The centralized room also must allow room for
maintenance and for future plant expansion and additional air requirements.
Depending on compressor type(s), a centralized compressor room keeps the need
for noise attenuation at one location, away from the work place.
Comparison of standard air compressor performance generally is made at a
discharge pressure of 100 psig. The nameplate hp rating may not correspond with
the total package kW required by the compressor so it is important to have the
actual kW at the specified operating conditions of air flow rate and pressure when
comparing air compressor types and manufacturers. A useful comparison at 100
psig is the total package input kW per 100 acfm of free air delivered. These are at
compressor full load operation. Consideration also must be given to efficiency at
part load and no load operation. Power costs vary widely throughout the United
States and compressor efficiency considerations will be more serious in some
areas. For samples of the data sheets, visit the CAGI website: www.cagi.org.
Lubricant free air may be required for all or for some specific point of use
applications. If only one point of use or a few points require lubricant free air, there
are two ways of dealing with this. One is to draw air from the plant air distribution
system and treat it immediately prior to the point of use with the appropriate filtra-
tion (see the chapter on Air Treatment). The other is to have a separate lubricant
free compressor for the point(s) of use. In general, lubricant free compressors have
a higher initial cost and higher maintenance costs than their lubricated or lubricant
injected counterparts but have the advantage of condensate uncontaminated by
lubricant.
A significantly higher (or lower) pressure may be required for a specific point
or points of use. A higher pressure requirement generally would be better served by
a dedicated higher pressure air compressor or by a booster compressor drawing
from the main air distribution system and boosting it to the pressure required at the
specific point(s) of use. This prevents the total air distribution from operating at a
higher pressure and absorbing more energy. A lower pressure at a specific point of
use with significant air demand may justify a separate air compressor. The alterna-
tive is drawing from the main air distribution system through a pressure regulator,
which will maintain the required lower pressure at the point of use.

226 Compressed Air & Gas Institute • 1300 Sumner Avenue • Cleveland, OH 44115
Phone: 216/241-7333 • Fax: 216/241-0105 • E-mail: [email protected]
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Compressed Air Distribution (Systems)

The location of the compressors chosen must take into account the type of
cooling required. The vast majority of air compressors under 100 hp and about 50%
of air compressors 200 hp and larger are air cooled. This eliminates the need for
cooling water and its drainage considerations, or cooling water systems with
higher than ambient water temperatures and the possible need for water treatment
and associated costs. However, large radiator type coolers located outdoors in
Northern climates also can present problems of lubricant temperature and viscosity
at start-up when the compressor is idle overnight. Heated air from radiator type
coolers located indoors can be used for space heating in plants in winter months
and vented outside when heated air is not required. Adequate ventilation in the
compressor room also must be considered.
Another consideration, often overlooked, is the source of inlet air to the com-
pressor. Drawing air from the compressor room may be using air which has been
air conditioned and either cooled or heated at cost and a higher than outside ambi-
ent temperature also results in a reduced mass flow of air through the compressor.
On the other hand, air drawn from outside should be from a location where
contaminants such as industrial gases will not be a problem. It also should be
remembered that the air intake filter on a standard air compressor package is
designed to protect the air compressor and not necessarily the equipment down-
stream of the compressor.
Available electrical power to the compressor room also must be considered,
including voltage and kW capability.

Air Quality

The applications at the points of use will determine the quality of the air
required at each point. Considerations include the content of particulate matter,
condensate and lubricant. In the chapter on Compressed Air Treatment, reference
is made to Air Quality Classes for these contaminants as published in International
Standard ISO 8573-1. The chapter also describes the equipment available to meet
these classes, including various air dryer types and various filter types. The manu-
facturer of process machinery and other pneumatic devices should be consulted to
determine the air quality required.
When the air intake filter for the compressor(s) is mounted remotely from the
compressor(s), the inlet air piping from the air intake filter to the compressor inlet
must be clean and, being at atmospheric pressure, may be of plastic material. It
should be remembered that the air intake filter is for the protection of the air com-
pressor and does not necessarily protect the compressed air distribution system or
equipment installed downstream. Downstream filtration is recommended as
discussed under Compressed Air Treatment.
The compressed air distribution system itself may contribute to the contami-
nant problem, particularly if standard steel piping and air receivers are used.
Stainless steel or copper piping is essential to some processes but may be consid-
ered too expensive in most industrial plants. Galvanized piping is one alternative

Compressed Air & Gas Institute • 1300 Sumner Avenue • Cleveland, OH 44115 227
Phone: 216/241-7333 • Fax: 216/241-0105 • E-mail: [email protected]