CALCULUS

1. Differentiation

 Differentiation from first principles and functional notation.

The gradient function is often called the derivative or derived function.

Given a general function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with points 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) and 𝑄(𝑥 + ℎ, 𝐹(𝑥 + ℎ)) on the curve. The
gradient of PQ is given by:

Y 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥 𝑥+ℎ

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑀=
ℎ
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
Hence the gradient of the tangent at 𝑃 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

Therefore the derivative function 𝑓(𝑥) is given by

𝒇(𝒙+𝒉)−𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇, (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉
, Assuming the limit exists.
𝒉→𝟎

This is called differentiation from first principles.

EXAMPLE 1. Find , from first principles, the derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .

Solution

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 − 𝑥 2 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2

∴ = = = 2𝑥 + ℎ
ℎ ℎ ℎ

Hence,
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim 2𝑥 + ℎ = 𝟐𝒙
ℎ→0
EXAMPLE 2 Find the gradient of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at (2,4)

Solution

𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥

At 𝑥 = 2, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2 × 2 = 4

Hence the gradient is 4

 Differentiation of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝒏 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑄

If 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝒏 , then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 ∀ 𝑛 ∈ 𝑄

𝒅𝒚
Note that since 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) ↔ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇′ (𝒙)

2 1
EXAMPLE Differentiate (a) 𝑥 3 (b)
√𝑥

Solution
2
(a) Let 𝑦 = ↔ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 −3
𝑥3

𝒅𝒚 −𝟔
↔ = −𝟔𝒙−𝟒 =
𝒅𝒙 𝒙𝟒

𝟏
1
(b)Let 𝑓(𝑥) = = 𝒙−𝟐
√𝑥

𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
↔ 𝒇′ (𝒙) = − 𝟐 𝒙−𝟐 = −
𝟐√𝒙𝟑

 Chain Rule

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒕
= ×
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒙

EXAMPLE Differentiate(3𝑥 + 2)4

Solution

Let 𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 2)4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 3𝑥 + 2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑡 4

𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
= 3, = 4𝑡 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

By the chain rule;

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∴ = 4𝑡 3 × 3 = 𝟏𝟐(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟑
𝑑𝑥
  Products and quotients
 Given that 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛,

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒖
=𝒖 +𝒗
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

This formula must be remembered and its mostly done in words:

‘To differentiate the product of two factors, differentiate the first factor, leaving the second one
alone , then differentiate the second factor, leaving the first one alone’.

Also should one of the factors in the product be a composite function, its derivative must be found
as carefully as the above before insertion in this product formula.

EXAMPLE Differentiate

(a) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)2 (b) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 1)3 (𝑥 3 + 1)2

Solution

(a) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)2

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = (𝑥 2 − 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = (𝑥 + 1)2 ↔ 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
Then, 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥
= 2(𝑥 + 1)

dy dv du
∴ =u +v = (x + 1)2 × 2x + (x 2 − 3) × 2(x + 1)
dx dx dx

= 2(𝑥 + 1){𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + (𝑥 2 − 3)} expanding and simplifying

= 2(𝑥 + 1){2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3} factorising the quadratic

= 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟏)

(b) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 1)3 (𝑥 3 + 1)2

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = (𝑥 2 + 1)3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = (𝑥 3 + 1)2 ↔ 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
Then, = 3(𝑥 2 + 1)2 × 2𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2(𝑥 3 + 1) × 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

dy dv du
∴ =u +v = (𝑥 3 + 1)2 × 6𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)2 + (𝑥 2 + 1)3 × 6𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 + 1)
dx dx dx

= 6𝑥(𝑥 3 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)2 {𝑥 3 + 1) + 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)} expansion and

= 𝟔𝒙(𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)𝟐 (𝟐𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏) simplification.

 𝑢
 IF 𝑦 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑣
𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
𝒅𝒚 𝒗 𝒅𝒙 − 𝒖 𝒅𝒙
=
𝒅𝒙 𝒗𝟐
(𝑥−3)2
EXAMPLE Differentiate (𝑥+2)2

Solution

(𝑥−3)2 𝑢
Let 𝑦 = (𝑥+2)2 and let 𝑢 = (𝑥 − 3)2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = (𝑥 + 2)2 , then y = 𝑣 .

𝑑𝑢 dv
= 2(𝑥 − 3)𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2(x + 2
𝑑𝑥 dx

dy (𝑥 + 2)2 × 2(𝑥 − 3) − (𝑥 − 3)2 × 2(+2)

∴ =
dx ((𝑥 + 2)2 )2

2(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3){(𝑥 + 2) − (𝑥 − 3)}

=
(𝑥 + 2)4

2(𝑥 − 3) × 5
=
(𝑥 + 2)3

𝟏𝟎(𝒙 − 𝟑)
=
(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟑

 Derivatives of 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝑑𝑦
If𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥

EAMPLE Differentiate (a) sin(2𝑥 + 3) (b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

Solution

(a) sin(2𝑥 + 3)

Let 𝑦 = sin(2𝑥 + 3)and 𝑡 = 2𝑥 + 3 then 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
Thus, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥
=2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
But, = × = 2 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

(b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

Let 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 and 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, then 𝑦 = 𝑡 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
Thus, 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
But, = × = 2𝑡 × (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) = −2cosxsinx = −𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝐱
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

2. Integration

The reverse of differentiation

 Indefinite integrals
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐

𝑥 2 + 𝑐 is called the integral of 2𝑥 with respect to 𝑥.

The constant C is called the arbitray constant of integration

We know that when we differentiate a power of 𝑥, the index is reduced by 1,

𝑑𝑦
Since 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1.. In this reverse process of integration we must therefore increase the index
by 1. Thus

𝑑𝑦 𝑥2
If 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 2
+𝑐

𝑑𝑦 𝑥3
And If = 5𝑥 2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 5 × +𝑐
𝑑𝑥 3

In general, for all positive and negative integral values of 𝑛, other than −1,

𝒅𝒚 𝒙𝒏+𝟏
= 𝒙𝒏 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒚 = +𝒄
𝒅𝒙 𝒏+𝟏
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 −1 1
Thus if = =, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = +𝑐 ↔𝑦 =− +𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 −1 𝑥

EXAMPLE Integrate with respect to 𝑥

1
(a) 2 (b) 3𝑥 4 (c) 𝑥3
(d) 𝑥 −4

Solution
𝑑𝑦
(a) 2 ↔ 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = 2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒄

𝑑𝑦 𝟑𝒙𝟓
(b) 3𝑥 4 ↔ 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑥 4 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒚 = 𝟓
+𝒄

1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 −2 1
(c) ↔ 𝑖𝑓 = = 𝑥 −3 , then 𝑦 = +𝑐 =− +𝑐
𝑥3 𝑑𝑥 𝑥3 −2 2𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑥 −3 1
(d) 𝑥 −4 ↔ 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 −4 ↔ 𝑦 = −3
+ 𝑐 = − 3𝑥 3 + 𝑐

 The integral notation

The symbol ∫( ) 𝒅𝒙 denotes integration with respect to x.

EXAMPLE Integrate with respect to 𝑥

(a) ∫(3𝑥 − 4) 𝑑𝑥 (b) ∫(3𝑥 2 + 4) 𝑑𝑥 (c) ∫ 7√𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

𝟑𝒙𝟐
(a) ∫(3𝑥 − 4) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝟐
− 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒄

3𝑥 3
(b) ∫(3𝑥 2 + 4) 𝑑𝑥 = 3
+ 4𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒄

1 8
𝟕
(c) ∫ 7√𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 7 + 𝑐 = √𝒙𝟖 + 𝒄

 Definite integrals

If 𝒇(𝒙) is a continuous function and 𝑭(𝒙) is the function whose derivative is 𝒇(𝒙), i.e 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥),
𝑏
then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)

EXAMPLE Find the following definite integrals.

1 2 1
(a) ∫1 (60𝑡 − 16𝑡 2 ) 𝑑𝑡 (b) ∫12𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥
2

Solution
1
1 60𝑡 2 16𝑡 3 1 16𝑡 3 1 16 1 16×
2) 2
(a) ∫1 (60𝑡 − 16𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [ 2 − 3
]1 = [30𝑡 − 3
]1 = (30 − 3 ) − (30 × − 4 3
)
8
2 2 2

90−16 15 2 74 41 𝟏𝟖𝟗
= 3
−(2 − 3) = 3
+ 6
= 𝟔
= 𝟑𝟏. 𝟓

2 1 2 𝑥 −4 𝑥 −3 2−3 1 1 1 𝟕
(b) ∫12𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 2
𝑑𝑥 = [2×−3] 21 = ( −6 ) − (−6) = − 48 + 6 = 𝟒𝟖

 Integration of 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙

∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝒄

1
EAMPLE Integrate (a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 (b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2

Solution

The method used here is to change cos to sin, or sin to cos, and then to determine the coefficient by
differentiation.

(a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥
𝑑
Since (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
Then, 𝑑𝑥 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
 𝟏
∴ ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒄
𝟐
1
(b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 3 1
(3𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
𝑑𝑦 1 1
∴ (−2 × 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝟏 𝟏
∫ 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 = −𝟔𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝐱 + 𝒄
𝟐 𝟐