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COMPLEX NUMBERS
Definition 1: Complex Number

A complex number is any number of the form z = a + ib where a and b are real numbers and i is the
imaginary unit.

Terminology

The notations a + ib and a + bi are used interchangeably. The real number a in z = a+ ib is called the real
part of z; the real number b is called the imaginary part of z. The real and imaginary parts of a complex
number z are abbreviated Re(z) and Im(z), respectively.

For example, if z = 4 − 9i, then Re(z) = 4 and Im(z) = −9. A real constant multiple of the imaginary unit is
called a pure imaginary number. For example, z = 6i is a pure imaginary number.

Definition 2: Equality of Complex Numbers

Complex numbers z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 are equal, z1 = z2, if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2. Equivalently, we
can say that z1 = z2 if Re(z1) = Re(z2) and Im(z1) = Im(z2).

Remark: The set of complex numbers is usually denoted by the symbol C. Because any real number a can
be written as z = a + 0i, we see that the set R of real numbers is a subset of C.

Definition 3: Addition and Multiplication of Complex Numbers

If z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2, then addition and multiplication of two complex numbers is defined as:

Addition: z1 + z2 = (a1 + ib1) + (a2 + ib2) = (a1 + a2) + i(b1 + b2)

Multiplication: z1・z2 = (a1 + ib1)(a2 + ib2) = a1a2 − b1b2 + i(b1a2 + a1b2)

Zero and Unity

The zero in the complex number system is the number 0 + 0i and the unity is 1 + 0i.The zero and unity are
denoted by 0 and 1, respectively. The zero is the additive identity in the complex number system since, for
any complex number z = a + ib, we have z + 0 = z. To see this, we use the definition of addition:

z + 0 = (a + ib) + (0 + 0i) = a+0+i(b + 0) = a + ib = z.

Similarly, the unity is the multiplicative identity of the system since, for any complex number z, we have
z・1 = z・ (1 + 0i) = z.
Definition 4: Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z is a complex number, the number obtained by changing the sign of its imaginary part is called the
complex conjugate, or simply conjugate, of z and is denoted by the symbol z .In other words, if z = a+ib,
then its conjugate is z  a  bi .

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For example, if z = 6 + 3i, then z  6  3i ; if z = −5 − i, then z  5  i .If z is a real number, say, z = 7, then

z 7.

Q.1. If the complex number lies in the third quadrant then its conjugate lies in the quadrant: (PPSC 2017)
(A) First (B) Second (C) Third (D) None of these

Solution: A complex number in third quadrant is like z   x  iy then z   x  iy which will lie second
quadrant. Therefore, the option (B) is the right choice.

Theorem 1: Properties of Conjugate

Let z and w be the complex numbers, then following properties are true for conjugate:


1. z  z 5.  zw    z  w 
2. z  w  z  w z z
6.   
zz  w w
3. Im  z  
2i zz
7. Re  z  
4. z  w  z  w 2

Definition 5: Modulus of A Complex Number

The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy, is the real number z  x 2  y 2 . Equivalently, we can write

 Re  z     Im  z  
2 2
z  . The modulus z of a complex number z is also called the absolute value of z.

For example, if z = 2 − 3i, then z   2    3   13 . If z = −9i, then z  x 2  y 2

2 2

Theorem 2: Properties of Modulus

Let z and w be the complex numbers, then following properties are true for modulus:

1. zw  z w 4. z  zz
2

z z 5. z n  z where n  1, 2,3,
n
2. 
w w
3. z  z  z  z

6. Re  z   Re  z   z 8. zw  z  w
7. Im  z   Im  z   z

Polar Form of A Complex Number

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Let r and θ be polar coordinates of the point (x, y) that corresponds to a nonzero complex number z = x + iy.
Since x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, the number z can be written in polar form as
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ),

 y
where r  z is a unique positive number and   tan 1   is measured in radian called the argument of and
x
denoted by arg  z  .

Remark: If z = 0, the coordinate θ is undefined; and so it is understood that z  0 whenever polar

coordinates are used.

Consider z  1  i 3 . Then, its polar form is

     
1  i 3  2 cos     i sin     .
  3  3 


Observe that any one of the infinite values     2n , n  Z can be used to denote 1  i 3 . For example
3

  5   5 
1  i 3  2 cos    i sin   ,  n  1 .
  3   3 

This motivates us to define Principal Argument.

Principal Argument

The symbol arg(z) represents a set of values and all its values differ by an integral multiple of 2 , but the
argument θ of a complex number that lies in the interval −π < θ ≤ π is called the principal value of arg(z)
or the principal argument of z. The principal argument of z is unique and is represented by the symbol
Arg(z), that is,

−π < Arg(z) ≤ π.

In general, arg(z) and Arg(z) are related by

arg(z) = Arg(z) + 2nπ, n  0, 1, 2, .

Also, when z is a negative real number, Arg z = π by convention.

3
For example, the complex number −1 − i, which lies in the third quadrant, has principal argument  .
4
3
That is, Arg  1  i    .
4

It must be highlighted that because of the restriction −π <  ≤ π of the principal argument  , it is not true
5
that Arg  1  i   .
4

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3
Accordingly, arg  1  i     2n , n  0, 1, 2,
4

Note that the term Arg (z) on the right-hand side of above equation can be replaced by any particular value
of arg (z) and that one can write, for instance,

5
arg  1  i    2n , n  0, 1, 2,
4

Following table will help us finding the Principal Argument:

 1 y
 tan , x  0,
x

 tan 1 y
, x  0, y  0
 x

 y
Arg  z    tan 1 , x  0, y  0
 x

2 , x  0, y  0

  , x  0, y  0
 2

Example 1: Find the Arg (z) for each of the following complex numbers:

(a) z  1  i (b) z  1  i (c) z  1  i (d) z  1  i

Solution: We will use the above table in determining the Arg (z) in each case:

1 
(a) Since z  1  i lies in Quad-I with x  1, y  1 , so Arg  z   tan 1    tan 1 1  .
1 4

 1  
(b) Since z  1  i lies in Quad-IV with x  1, y  1 , so Arg  z   tan 1     tan 1 1   .
 1  4

(c) Since z  1  i lies in Quad-II with x  1, y  1 , so

 1   3
Arg  z   tan 1       tan 1 1        .
 1  4 4

(d) Since z  1  i lies in Quad-III with x  1, y  1, so

 1   3
Arg  z   tan 1      tan 1 1       
 1  4 4

ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
Definition 1: Limits of a Complex Function

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Suppose that a complex function f is defined in a deleted neighborhood of z0 and suppose that L is a
complex number. The limit of f as z tends to z0 exists and is equal to L, written as lim f  z   L , if for
z  z0

every   0 there exists a   0 such that f  z   L   whenever 0  z  z0   .

Criterion for The Nonexistence Of A Limit

If f approaches two complex numbers L1  L2 for two different curves or paths through z0, then lim f  z 
z  z0

does not exist.

z
Example 1: Show that lim does not exist.
z 0 z

Solution: We show that this limit does not exist by finding two different ways of letting z approach 0 that
z x  iy
yield different values for lim  lim . First, we let z approach 0 along the real axis, then
z 0 z  x , y    0,0  x  iy

x  0i 0  iy
lim  1 . On the other hand, if we let z approach 0 along the imaginary axis, then lim  1 .Since
x  0 x  0i y  0 0  iy

z
the values are not the same for two different paths, we conclude that lim does not exist.
z 0 z

z
Q.2. lim : (PPSC 2015)
z 0 z

1 i
(A) (B) 1 (C) Does not exist (D) 1
1 i
Solution: We show that this limit does not exist by finding two different ways of letting z approach 0 that
z x  iy
yield different values for lim  lim . First, we let z approach 0 along the real axis, then
z 0 z  x , y    0,0  x  iy

x  0i 0  iy
lim  1 , On the other hand, if we let z approach 0 along the imaginary axis, then lim  1 .Since
x  0 x  0i y  0 0  iy

z
the values are not the same for two different paths, we conclude that lim does not exist. The option (C) is
z 0 z

correct.

Theorem 1: Real and Imaginary Parts of a Limit

Suppose that f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), z0 = x0 + iy0, and L = u0 + iv0. Then lim f  z   L if and only if
z  z0

lim u  x, y   u0 and lim v  x, y   v0 .

 x , y    x0 , y0   x , y    x0 , y0 

Theorem 2: Limits at Infinity

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If z0 and w0 are points in the z and w planes, respectively, then

1. lim f  z    if 2. lim f  z   w0 if 3. lim f  z    if

z  z0 z  z 

1
0, 1 1
0.
lim lim f    w0 , lim
z  z0 f  z z 0
z z 0 f 1 z 

Example 2: Observe that

iz  3 z 1
1. lim   since lim  0,
z 1 z  1 z 1 iz  3

2. lim
2z  i
 2 since lim
 2 z   i  lim 2  iz  2 ,
z  z  1 z  0 1 z   1 z 0 1  z

2z3 1
3. lim 2   since lim
 
1 z 1
2

 lim
z  z3
 0.
z  z  1

z 0 2 z3  1

z 0 2  z3

Definition 2: Continuity of a Complex Function

A complex function f is continuous at a point z0 if for every   0 there exists a   0 such that
f  z   f  z0    whenever z  z0   .

Criteria for Continuity at a Point

A complex function f is continuous at a point z0 if each of the following three conditions hold:

1. lim f  z  exists, 2. f is defined at z0 , and 3. lim f  z   f  z0 

z  z0 z  z0

If a complex function f is not continuous at a point z0 then we say that f is discontinuous at z0.

Definition 3: Continuity in a Region

A function f(z) is said to be continuous in a region if it is continuous at all points of the region.

Theorem 2: Real and Imaginary Parts of a Continuous Function

Suppose that f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and z0 = x0 + iy0. Then the complex function f is continuous at the point
z0 if and only if both real functions u and v are continuous at the point (x0, y0).

Theorem 3: Continuity of Polynomial and Rational Functions

1. Polynomial functions are continuous on the entire complex plane C.

2. Rational functions are continuous on their domains.

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Theorem 4: Bounding Property

If a complex function f is continuous on a closed and bounded region R, then f is bounded on R. That is,
there is a real constant M > 0 such that |f(z)| ≤ M for all z in R.

Definition 4: Uniform Continuity

A complex function f is uniformly continuous in a region if for every   0 there exists a   0 such that
f  z1   f  z2    whenever z1  z2   . where z1 and z2 are any two points of the region.

Theorem 5: Uniform Continuity Implies Continuity

If f(z) is uniformly continuous in a domain D, then f(z) is continuous in D.

Theorem 6: Uniform Continuity

Let f(z) be continuous in a closed and bounded region. Then f(z) is uniformly continuous there.

Example 3: Uniform Continuity

1. f  z   z 2 is uniformly continuous in the region z  1 .

1
2. f  z  is not uniformly continuous in the region 0  z  1 .
z
1
3. f  z   is not uniformly continuous in the region z  1 .
1 z
1
4. f  z   2 is not uniformly continuous in the region z  1 but it is uniformly continuous in the region
z
1
 z 1.
2
1
Q.3. f  z  is not uniformly continuous in the region. (PPSC 2011)
z
(A) 0  z  1 (B) 0  z  1 (C) 0  z  1 (D) 0  z  1

Solution: The best possible correct option is (C). (If you can add some information, please feel free to
contact me at 0334-4458227).

Definition 5: Derivative of Complex Function

Suppose the complex function f is defined in a neighborhood of a point z0 . The derivative of f at z0 ,

denoted by f   z0  , is
f  z0  z   f  z0 
f   z0   lim
z  0 z
provided this limit exists.

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Definition 6: Analyticity at a Point

A complex function f is said to be analytic at a point z0 if f is differentiable at z0 and at every point in

some neighborhood of z0 . A function f is analytic in a domain D if it is analytic at every point in D.

Remarks: Analyticity at a point is not the same as differentiability at a point. Analyticity at a point is a
neighborhood property; in other words, analyticity is a property that is defined over an open set.

Definition 7: Entire Function

A function that is analytic at every point z in the complex plane is said to be an entire function.

Theorem 7: Polynomial and Rational Functions

1. A polynomial function p  z   an z n  an 1 z n 1   a0 , where n is a nonnegative integer, is an entire

function.
p z
2. A rational function f  z   , where p and q are polynomial functions, is analytic in any domain D
q z
that contains no point z0 for which q(z0) = 0.
3. If f  z  and g  z  are two analytic function in any domain D, The sum f  z   g  z  , difference
f  z   g  z  , and product f  z  g  z  are analytic. The quotient f  z  g  z  is analytic provided
g  z   0 in D.

Definition 6: Singular Points

A point z at which a complex function w = f(z) fails to be analytic is called a singular point of f.

Remark: We will discuss singular points in greater depth later.

Example 4: Using Theorem 7

Since the rational function f  z   4 z  z 2  2 z  2  is discontinuous at 1+i and 1−i, f fails to be analytic at
these points. Thus by (ii) of Theorem 7, f is not analytic in any domain containing one or both of these
points.

A Necessary Condition for Analyticity

In the following theorem we see that if a function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at a point z, then
the functions u and v must satisfy a pair of equations that relate their first-order partial derivatives.

Theorem 8: Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Suppose f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at a point z = x + iy. Then at z the first-order partial
derivatives of u and v exist and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations

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u v u v
 and  .
x y y x

Remarks: Theorem 8 states that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are necessary conditions for the existence
of the derivative of a function f at a point z , they can often be used to locate points at which f does not
have a derivative. If the Cauchy Riemann equations are not satisfied at a point z, then f cannot be
differentiable at z .

Example 5: Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Determine whether the function f  z   x  4iy is differentiable at any point z or not.

Solution: If we identify u(x, y) = x and v(x, y) = 4y, then

u v u v
 1,  4,  0, and 0.
x y y x
u v
Since 1  4 cannot be simultaneously satisfied at any point z. In other words, f is nowhere
x y
differentiable.

Criterion for Non-Analyticity

If the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied at every point z in a domain D, then the function f(z) =
u(x, y)+iv(x, y) cannot be analytic in D.

Example 6: Using The Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Show that the complex function f(z) = 2x2 + y + i(y2 − x) is not analytic at any point.

Solution We identify u(x, y) = 2x2 + y and v(x, y) = y2 − x. From

u v u v
 4 x,  2 y,  1, and  1
x y y x

u v u v
we see that   but that the equality  is satisfied only on the line y = 2x. However, for any
y x x y
point z on the line, there is no neighborhood or open disk about z in which f is differentiable at every point.
We conclude that f is nowhere analytic.

A Sufficient Condition for Analyticity

The Cauchy-Riemann equations do not ensure differentiability of a function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) at a point
z  x  iy . It is possible for the Cauchy- Riemann equations to be satisfied at z and yet f(z) may not be
differentiable at z. However, when we add the condition of continuity to u and v and to the four partial
derivatives u x , u y , v x and v y , it can be shown that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not
only necessary but also sufficient to guarantee analyticity of f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) at z.

Theorem 9: Criterion for Analyticity

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Suppose the real functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuous and have continuous first-order partial
derivatives in a domain D. If u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations

u v u v
 and 
x y y x

at all points of D, then the complex function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in D.

Example 7: Using Theorem 9

x y x y
For the function f  z   i 2 , the real functions u  x, y   2 and v  x, y    2
x y
2 2
x y 2
x y 2
x  y2

are continuous except at the point where x 2  y 2  0 , that is, at z = 0. Moreover, the first four first-order
partial derivatives

u y2  x2 u 2 xy
 , 
x  x 2  y 2 2 y  x2  y 2 
2

u 2 xy u y2  x2
 , and 
x  x 2  y 2 2 y  x 2  y 2 2

are continuous except at z = 0. Finally, we see from

u y2  x2 v u 2 xy v
  and  
x  x 2  y 2  2
y y  x 2  y 2  x
2

that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied except at z = 0. Thus we conclude from Theorem 3 that f
is analytic in any domain D that does not contain the point z = 0.

Q.4. f  z   z 3  3i is __________. (PPSC 2011)

(A)Analytic everywhere except z  3i (B) Analytic everywhere except z  0
(C) Analytic everywhere except z  3i (D) Analytic everywhere

Solution: Since f  z   z 3  3i is a polynomial and hence it is an entire function. Therefore, the option (D) is
the right choice.

Sufficient Conditions for Differentiability

If the real functions u(x,y) and v(x, y) are continuous and have continuous first-order partial derivatives in
some neighborhood of a point z, and if u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations

u v u v
 and 
x y y x

at z, then the complex function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at z and

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u v v u
f  z  i  i .
x x y y

Example 8: Sufficient Conditions for Differentiability

Determine whether the function f  z   z 2  x 2  y 2  2 xyi is differentiable and if so find f   z  .

Solution: The real functions u  x, y   x 2  y 2 and u  x, y   2 xy , the partial derivatives u x  2 x ,
v y  2 x, u y  2 y and v x  2 y are continuous for all z and the Cauchy-Riemann equations
u x  v y and u y  v x are satisfied so f  z   x 2  y 2  2 xyi is differentiable for all z.
Therefore, we have

u v
f  z   i  2 x  2iy  2  x  iy   2 z .
x x

Note that f  z   z 2  x 2  y 2  2 xyi is an entire function.

Example 9: Using the Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Show that the complex function f(z) = 2x2 + y + i(y2 − x) is differentiable.

Solution The real functions u(x, y) = 2x2 + y and v(x, y) = y2 – x, the partial derivatives

u v u v
 4 x,  2 y,  1, and  1
x y y x

u v u v
are continuous at every point. We see that   but that the equality  is satisfied only on the
y x x y
line y = 2x, it follows that f is differentiable on the line y = 2x.

Theorem 10: Constant Functions

Suppose the function f(z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain D.

1. If f  z  is constant in D, then f(z) is constant in D. (That is, an analytic function with constant modulus
is constant.)
2. If f   z   0 in D, then f(z) = c in D, where c is a constant.

3. If conjugate f  z  = u(x, y) − iv(x, y) is also analytic in a domain D, then f  z  is constant in D.

Definition 7: Harmonic Functions

A real-valued function  of two real variables x and y is said to be harmonic if it has continuous first and
second-order partial derivatives in a domain D and satisfies the partial differential equation

 2  2
 0
x 2 y 2

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known as Laplace’s equation.

 2u
Result: If u  x, y  be a harmonic function, then  0 . This is called the complex form of Laplace
z z
Equation.

Theorem 11: Analytic Functions To Harmonic Functions

Suppose the complex function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain D. Then the functions u(x, y)
and v(x, y) are harmonic in D.

Example 10: Harmonic Functions

The function f  z   x 2  y 2  2 xyi (Example 5) is entire. The functions u(x, y) = x2 − y2 and v(x, y) = 2xy
are necessarily harmonic in any domain D of the complex plane.

Example 11: Harmonic Functions

x y
Since the function f  z   i 2 is analytic at every nonzero point z, therefore
x y
2 2
x  y2

x y
u  x, y   and v  x, y    2
x y
2 2
x  y2

are harmonic throughout any domain in the xy plane that does not contain the origin.

Q.5. U  x, y   e x cos y is ____________. (PPSC 2015)

(A) Harmonic (B) Analytic (C) Not Harmonic (D) None of these

Solution: U  x, y   e x cos y is harmonic because

U  2U U  2U
 e x cos y,  e x
cos y and   e x
sin y ,  e x cos y
x x 2
y y 2

 2U  2U
And hence   e x cos y  e x cos y  0 satisfies the Laplace’s Equation.
x 2
y 2

Harmonic Conjugate Functions

If a function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain D, then its real and imaginary parts u and v are
necessarily harmonic in D. Now suppose u(x, y) is a given real function that is known to be harmonic in D.

If it is possible to find another real harmonic function v(x, y) so that u and v satisfy the Cauchy-
Riemann equations throughout the domain D, then the function v(x, y) is called a harmonic conjugate of
u(x, y). By combining the functions as u(x, y) + iv(x, y) we obtain a function that is analytic in D.

Methods of Constructing An Analytic Function (Milne–Thompson Method)

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The above method is known as Milne–Thompson method.
1. If the real part u(x, y) of function f (z) is given, then
u u
Step I: find and .
x y
u u
Step II: Write f   z   i [using C–R equations]
x y
Step III: Replace ‘x’ by z and ‘y’ by ‘0’.
Step IV: Integrate f ′ (z) with respect to z.
2. If the imaginary part v(x, y) of function f (z) is given, then
v v
Step I: find and .
x y
v v
Step II: Write f   z   i [using C–R equations]
y x
Step III: Replace ‘x’ by z and ‘y’ by ‘0’.
Step IV: Integrate f ′ (z) with respect to z.
3. If the real part u(x, y) of an analytic function f (z) is given, to find the harmonic conjugate, find f (z)
using Milne–Thompson method and then separate the real and imaginary parts by putting z = x + iy.
Then the imaginary part v(x, y) is the harmonic conjugate of u(x, y).

Example 12: Finding Harmonic Conjugate Function

The function u(x, y) = x3−3xy2−5y is harmonic in the entire complex plane. Find the analytic function and
the corresponding harmonic conjugate function of u.

Solution: We will follow the steps as:

u u
Step I:  3 x 2  3 y 2 and  6 xy  5
x y

u u
Step II: f   z   i  3x 2  3 y 2  i  6 xy  5 
x y

Step III: Using Milne–Thompson method, replacing x by z and y by 0, we get

f   z   3z 2  0  i  0  5   3z 2  5i

f  z   z 3  5iz  ic   x  iy   5i  x  iy   ic  x 3  iy 3  3ix 2 y  3xy 2  5ix  5 y  ic

3

f  z   x3  3xy  5 y   3x 2 y 2  y 3  5 x  c  i

Which is the required analytic function and the corresponding harmonic conjugate of u is given by

v  x, y   3 x 2 y 2  y 3  5 x  c

Cauchy-Riemann and Laplace’s Equations In Polar Form

In polar coordinates the Cauchy-Riemann equations become

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u 1 v v 1 u
 ,  .
r r  r r 
In polar coordinates the Laplace’s equation becomes

 2u 1 u 1  2u
   0.
r 2 r r r 2  2

Q.6. Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar form are: (PPSC 2015)

u 1 v v 1 u u 1 v v 1 u
(A)  ,  (B)  , 
r r  r r  r r  r r 
u 1 v v 1 u u 1 v v 1 u
(C)  ,  (D)  , 
r r  r r  r r  r r 
Solution: The option (A) is the correct choice.

PPSC Lecturer Mathematics Preparation Classes

Prof. Sardar Aqib Mahmood, 0334-4458227

ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
Definition 1: Complex Exponential Function

The function e z defined by

e z  e x  cos y  i sin y 

is called the complex exponential function.

Remark: Note that in defining the complex exponential function we have used where Euler’s formula
eiy  cos y  i sin y .

Theorem 1: Algebraic Properties Of ez

If z1 and z2 are complex numbers, then

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1. e0  1 ( e z is never zero)
2. e z1 e z2  e z1  z2
e z1
3. z2  e z1  z2
e
4. e 
z1 n
 enz1 , where n is an integer
5. ez  ex

6. eiz  1
7. e z is periodic with a pure imaginary period 2πi.
8. e z  1 if and only if z is an integral multiple of 2πi.
9. e z1  e z2 if and only if z1  z2  2k i , where k is an integer.

Definition 2: Complex Logarithmic Function

The multiple-valued function log z defined by:

log z  ln z  i arg  z 

is called the complex logarithm function.

Theorem 2: Algebraic Properties Of log z

If z1 and z2 are complex numbers and n is an integer, then

1. log  z1 z2   log z1  log z2

z 
2. log  1   log z1  log z2
 z2 
3. log  z1   n log z1
n

Definition 3: Principal Value of the Complex Logarithm

The complex function Log z defined by:

Log z  ln z  iArg  z 

is called the principal value of the complex logarithm.

Example 1: Principal Value of the Complex Logarithm

Find the principal value of each complex logarithm: ( (a) Log  i  (b) Log  2 

 1  
Solution: (a) Since z  i so z  1 and Arg  z   tan 1     . Therefore, we have
 0  2

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  
Log  i   ln1  i      i .
 2 2

(b) Since z  2 so z  2 and Arg  z    . Therefore, we have

Log  2   ln 2   i .

Q.7. Log 1  i   : (PPSC 2015)

1  1  1 3 1 3
(A) ln 2  i (B) ln 2  i (C) ln 2  i (D) ln 2  i
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
1 
Solution: Since z  1  i so z  2 and Arg  z   tan 1    . Therefore, we have
1 4
 1 
Log 1  i   ln 2  i  ln 2  i .
4 2 4
Thus (A) is the right option.

Definition 4: Complex Powers

If  is a complex number and z  0 , then the complex power z is defined to be:

z  e log z .

Definition 5: Principal Value of A Complex Power

If  is a complex number and z  0 , then the function defined by:

z  e Log z

is called the principal value of the complex power z

Example 2: Principal Value of a Complex Power

Find the principal value of each complex power: (a) i i (b)  i  (c)  1
i i

1 
Solution: (a) Since z  i so z  1 and Arg  z   tan 1    . Therefore, we have
0 2

e
iLog  i  i ln1i  /2  
ii  e  e /2 .

 1  
(b) Since z  i so z  1 and Arg  z   tan 1     . Therefore, we have
 0  2

 e iLog   i   e 
 i ln1 i   /2  
 i 
i
 e  /2 .

(c) Since z  1 so z  1 and Arg  z    . Therefore, we have

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 1  eiLog  1  ei ln1 i   e  .
i

The principal value of  i  is:

i
Q.8. (PPSC 2015)
 

(A) e 2
(B) 1 (C) e 2
(D) e
 1  
Solution: Since z  i so z  1 and Arg  z   tan 1     . Therefore, we have
 0  2

 eiLog   i   e 
i ln1 i   /2  
 i   e /2 .
i

Thus (C) is the right option.

INTEGRATION IN THE COMPLEX PLANE

Definition 1: Parametrization of Curve

Suppose the continuous real-valued functions x = x(t), y = y(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, are parametric equations of a
curve C in the complex plane. We describe the points z on C by means of a complex-valued function of a
real variable t called a parametrization of C:
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z  t   x  t   iy  t  , a  t  b

The point z(a) = x(a) + iy(a) or A = (x(a), y(a)) is called the initial point of C. The point z(b) = x(b)+iy(b) or
B = (x(b), y(b)) is called the terminal point of C.

Example 1: Parametrization of Unit Circle

The parametric equations x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, describe a unit circle centered at the origin. A

parametrization of this circle is z(t) = cos t + i sin t, or z(t) = eit, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Definition 2: Simple Curve

A curve C in the complex plane is said to be a simple if z  t1   z  t2  for t1  t2 , except possibly for t = a and
t = b.

Definition 3: Closed Curve

A curve C in the complex plane is said to be closed if z  a   z  b  .

Definition 4: Simple Closed Curve

A curve C in the complex plane is said to be simple closed if z  t1   z  t2  for t1  t2 and z  a   z  b  .

On a simple closed curve C, the positive direction corresponds to the counterclockwise direction and the
negative direction corresponds to the clockwise direction.

Definition 5: Smooth Curve

A curve C in the complex plane is smooth if z  t   x  t   iy  t  is continuous and never zero in the

interval a ≤ t ≤ b.

Definition 6: Contour or Path or Piecewise Smooth Curve

A curve C in the complex plane is called contour or piecewise smooth if z  t   x  t   iy  t  is continuous

except possibly at some points in the interval a ≤ t ≤ b where the component smooth curves C1, C2, . . . , Cn
are joined together.

Remarks:

1. On a contour C, the positive direction corresponds to increasing values of the parameter t. It is also
said that the curve C has positive orientation.
2. The negative direction on a contour C is the direction opposite the positive direction. If C has an
orientation, the opposite curve, that is, a curve with opposite orientation, is denoted by −C.
3. There is no unique parametrization for a contour C. You should verify that
z  t   eit  cos t  i sin t , 0  t  2

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z  t   e2 it  cos 2 t  i sin 2 t , 0  t  1
t t
z  t   e it /2  cos , 0t 4  i sin
2 2
are all parametrizations, oriented in the positive direction, for the unit circle |z| = 1.

Theorem 1: Evaluation of A Contour Integral

If f is continuous on a smooth curve C given by the parametrization z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, then

f  z  dz   f  z  t   z   t  dt .
b
C a

Example 2: Evaluating a Contour Integral

Evaluate  z dz , where C is given by x = 3t, y = t2, −1 ≤ t ≤ 4.

C

Solution: In this case, z  t   3t  it 2 , z  t   3  2it and f  z  t    3t  it 2  3t  it 2 . Also, z  t   3  2it . So

 3t  it   3  2it  dt    2t  9t  3t 2i dt  195  65i .

4 4
 z dz   2 3
C 1 1

Example 3: Evaluating a Contour Integral

1
Evaluate  dz , where C is given by x  t   cos t , y  t   sin t , 0  t  2 .
C z

Solution: In this case, z  t   cos t  i sin t  eit , z  t   ieit and f  z  t   

1
 e  it . So
z t 

dz    e it ieit dt  i  dt  2 i .
1 2 2
C z 0 0

Definition 7: Simply Connected Domain

A domain D is simply connected if every simple closed contour C lying

entirely in D can be shrunk to a point without leaving D. In other words, if we
draw any simple closed contour C so that it lies entirely within a simply
connected domain, then C encloses only points of the domain D. Expressed yet
another way, a simply connected domain has no “holes” in it. The entire complex plane is an example of a

simply connected domain; the annulus defined by 1  z  2 is not simply connected.

Definition 8: Multiply Connected Domain

A domain that is not simply connected is called a multiply connected domain;

that is, a multiply connected domain has “holes” in it. We call a domain with

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one “hole” doubly connected, a domain with two “holes” triply connected, and so on. The open disk

defined by |z| < 2 is a simply connected domain; the open circular annulus defined by 1  z  2 is a doubly
connected domain.

Theorem 2: Cauchy-Goursat Theorem

Suppose that a function f is analytic in a simply connected domain D. Then for every simple closed contour
C in D,  f  z  dz  0 .
C

Since the interior of a simple closed contour is a simply connected domain, the Cauchy-Goursat
theorem can be stated in the slightly more practical manner:

If f is analytic at all points within and on a simple closed contour C, then  f  z  dz  0 .

C

Example 4: Applying the Cauchy-Goursat Theorem

Since the entire functions are analytic at all points within and on any simple closed contour C, it follows
from Cauchy-Goursat theorem

 C
e z dz  0,  C
sin z dz  0,  C
cos z dz  0,  p  z  dz  0
C

where p  z   an z n  an 1 z n 1   a1 z  a0 , n  0,1, 2, .

Example 5: Applying the Cauchy-Goursat Theorem

dz
 , where the contour C is the ellipse  x  2   14  y  5   1 .
2 2
Evaluate 2
C z

Solution The rational function f  z   1 z 2 is analytic everywhere except at z = 0. But z = 0 is not a point
interior to or on the simple closed elliptical contour C. Thus, it follows from Cauchy-Goursat theorem that

dz
 C z2
 0.

z2  z 1 1
Q.9. Evaluate C z  1 dz , where C is the circle z  2 : (PPSC 2015)

1
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) (D) 0
2
z2  z 1
Solution The rational function f  z   is analytic everywhere except at z = 1. But z = 1 is not a
z 1
point interior to or on the circle C. Thus, it follows from Cauchy-Goursat theorem that

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z2  z 1
 z  1 dz  0 .
C

Thus the option (D) is correct.

Cauchy’s Two Integral Formulas

If f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and z0 is any point in D, the quotient f  z   z  z0  is not
defined at z0 and hence is not analytic in D. Therefore, we cannot conclude that the integral of
f  z   z  z0  around a simple closed contour C that contains z0 is zero by the Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
Indeed, as we shall now see, the integral of f  z   z  z0  around C has the value 2 if  z0  . The first of two
remarkable formulas is known simply as the Cauchy integral formula.

Theorem 3: Cauchy’s Integral Formula

Suppose that f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C is any simple closed contour lying
entirely within D. Then for any point z0 within C,

f  z
 dz  2 if  z0  .
C z  z0

Since we often work problems without a simply connected domain explicitly defined, a more practical
restatement of Theorem is:

If f is analytic at all points within and on a simple closed contour C, and z0 is any point interior to C, then

f  z
 dz  2 if  z0  .
C z  z0

Example 6: Using Cauchy’s Integral Formula

z2  4z  4
Evaluate  C z i
dz , where C is the circle z  2 .

Solution: We see that z0  i is the only point within the closed contour C at which the integrand fails to
be analytic. So we identify z0  i and f  z   z 2  4 z  4 . The function f is analytic at all points within
and on the contour C. Hence, from Cauchy integral formula, we obtain

z2  4z  4
 dz  2 if  i   2 i  3  4i     8  6i  .
C z i

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Example 7: Using Cauchy’s Integral Formula

z
Evaluate  C z 9
2
dz , where C is the circle z  2i  4 .

Solution By factoring the denominator, we can write

z z
 C z 2  9 dz   C  z  3i  z  3i  dz . We see that z0  3i is the only point within
the closed contour C at which the integrand fails to be analytic. Then by
rewriting the integrand as
z z  z  3i 
C z 2  9 dz  C  z  3i  dz

we can identify z0  3i and f  z   z  z  3i  . The function f is analytic at all points within and on the

contour C. Hence, from Cauchy’s integral formula, we have

z z  z  3i  3i
 dz    z  3i  dz  2 if  3i   2 i  i .
C z 9
2 C 6i

Example 8: Using Cauchy’s Integral Formula

cos z
Evaluate  zz
C 2
 9
dz , where C be the positively oriented circle z  1 about the origin.

cos z cos z
Solution By factoring the denominator, we can write  zz
C 2
 9
dz   z  z  3i  z  3i  dz . We see that
C

z0  0 is the only point within the closed contour C at which the integrand fails to be analytic. Then by
rewriting the integrand as
cos z cos z  z 2  9 
 C
z  z 2  9
dz   C z 0
dz

we can identify z0  0 and f  z   cos z  z 2  9  . The function f is analytic at all points within and on the

contour C. Hence, from Cauchy’s integral formula, we have

cos z cos z  z 2  9   1  2 i
 dz   dz  2 if  0   2 i    .
C
z  z 2  9 C z 0 9 9

dz
Q.10. If C is the circle z  3 , then  1 z 2
is equal to: (PPSC 2011)

(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 0 (D) 1

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Solution We see that z0  i, i are the points within the circle C at which the integrand fails to be analytic.
Then by rewriting the integrand as
dz dz 1  1 1  1 dz 1 dz
 1 z 2
   z  i  z  i   2i    z  i    z  i   dz   2i  z  i  2i  z  i
 

we can identify f  z   1for both integral. Hence, from Cauchy’s integral formula, we have

dz 1 dz 1 dz 1 1
 1 z 2

2i  z  i  2i  z  i   2i 2 if  i   2i 2 if  i    1   1  0 .
Thus the option (C) is correct.

Theorem 4: Cauchy’s Integral Formula for Derivatives

Suppose that f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C is any simple closed contour lying
entirely within D. Then for any point z0 within C,

f  z 2 i  n 
 z  z  n 1
dz  f  z0  .
C
0
n!

Example 9: Using Cauchy’s Integral Formula For Derivatives

z 1
Evaluate  C z  2iz 3
4
dz , where C is the circle z  1 .

z 1 z 1
Solution By factoring the denominator, we can write  C z  2iz 3
4
dz   C z  z  2i 
3
dz . We see that z0  0 is

the only point within the closed contour C at which the integrand fails to be analytic. Then by rewriting the
integrand as
z 1  z  1  z  2i 
C z 4  2iz 3 dz  C  z  021 dz

we can identify z0  0, n  2 and f  z    z  1  z  2i  . The function f is analytic at all points within and

on the contour C. Now f   z    2  4i   z  2i  and f   0    2i  1 4i . Hence, from Cauchy’s integral

3

formula for Derivatives, we have

z 1  z  1  z  2i  dz  2 i  2i  1 
f   0    i 
 
 C z  2iz 3
4
dz   C
 z  0
2 1
2!  4i 
  i.
4 2

Example 10: Using Cauchy’s Integral Formula For Derivatives

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exp  2 z 
Evaluate  C z4
dz , where C is the circle z  1 .

Solution We see that z0  0 is the only point within the closed contour C at which the integrand fails to be
analytic. Then by rewriting the integrand as
exp  2 z  exp  2 z 
 C z 4
dz    z  0
C 31
dz

we can identify z0  0, n  3 and f  z   exp  2 z  . The function f is analytic at all points within and on the

contour C. Now f   z   8exp  2 z  and f   0   8 . Hence, from Cauchy’s integral formula for Derivatives,
we have

exp  2 z  exp  2 z  2 i i 8 i
 dz    z  0 31
dz  f   0    8  .
C z4 C 3! 3 3

Theorem 5: Liouville’s Theorem

If a function f is entire and bounded in the complex plane, then f(z) is constant throughout the plane.

Theorem 6: Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

If p(z) is a nonconstant polynomial, then the equation p(z) = 0 has at least one root.

Remarks: The next theorem which gives a sufficient condition for analyticity is often taken to be the
converse of the Cauchy-Goursat theorem.

Theorem 7: Morera’s Theorem

If f is continuous in a simply connected domain D and if  f  z  dz  0 for every closed contour C in D,

C

then f is analytic in D.

PPSC Lecturer Mathematics Preparation Classes

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SERIES RESIDUES

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Definition 1: Series

An infinite series or series of complex numbers

z
k 1
k  z1  z2  z3   zn 

is convergent if the sequence of partial sums {Sn}, where

Sn  z1  z2  z3   zn

converges. If Sn → L as n   , we say that the series converges to L or that the sum of the series is L.

Definition 2: Geometric Series

A geometric series is any series of the form

 az
k 1
k 1
 a  az  az 2   az n 1 

The sum of this infinite geometric series is given by

a
S , for z  1 .
1 z

Theorem 1: A Necessary Condition for Convergence

If  k 1 zk converges, then lim zn  0 .



n 

A Test for Divergence The contrapositive of the proposition in Theorem 1 is the nth term test for
divergence of an infinite series.

Theorem 2: The nth Term Test for Divergence



If lim zn  0 , then z diverges.
k 1 k
n 

Example: The nth Term Test for Divergence

ik  5


Discuss the convergence or divergence of k 1
.
k

ik  5 ik  5


Solution: Since lim  i  0 , therefore by nth Term Test we conclude that k 1
diverges.
n  k k

p-Series Test

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1
In elementary calculus a real series of the form  k 1

is called a p-series and converges for p > 1 and
kp
diverges for p ≤ 1.

Definition: Absolute and Conditional Convergence

 
 
An infinite series z is said to be absolutely convergent if
k 1 k k 1
zk converges. An infinite series

 is said to be conditionally convergent if it converges but 

 
z
k 1 k k 1
zk diverges.

Theorem: Absolute Convergence Implies Convergence

If the series  k 1 zk converges absolutely, then the series converges.



Example: Absolute Convergence

ik
 k 1 k 2 converges absolutely or conditionally.

Discuss whether the series

ik 1
   k 1 2 converges by p-series test with p = 2 > 1, we conclude that
 
Solution: Since the series k 1 2
k k
ik
 k 1 k 2 converges absolutely.

the series

Theorem: Ratio Test



Suppose z is a series of nonzero complex terms such that
k 1 k

zn 1
lim L
n  zn

1. If L  1 , then the series converges absolutely.

2. If L  1 or L   , then the series diverges.
3. If L  1 , the test is inconclusive.

Theorem: Root Test



Suppose z is a series of nonzero complex terms such that
k 1 k

lim n zn  L
n 

1. If L  1 , then the series converges absolutely.

2. If L  1 or L   , then the series diverges.

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3. If L  1 , the test is inconclusive.


nn
Q.11. The series  is (PPSC 2011)
 2i 
n
n 0

(A) Convergent (B) Absolutely convergent (C) Divergent (D) None of these


nn nn n nn
Solution: Since lim n  lim n  lim   , therefore we conclude that the series  diverges
 2i   2i 
n  n n  n n  2 n
2 n 0

by using Root Test.

Definition: Power Series

An infinite series of the form

a z  z   a0  a1  z  z0   a2  z  z0  
k 2
k 0
k 0

where the coefficients ak are complex constants, is called a power series in z  z0 . The power series is said
to be centered at z0; the complex point z0 is referred to as the center of the series.

Circle of Convergence

Every complex power series has a radius of convergence. Analogous to

the concept of an interval of convergence for real power series, a complex
power series has a circle of convergence, which is the circle centered at z0
of largest radius R > 0 for which the power series converges at every point
within the circle z  z0  R . A power series converges absolutely at all
points z within its circle of convergence, that is, for all z satisfying
z  z0  R , and diverges at all points z exterior to the circle, that is, for all
z satisfying | z  z0  R . The radius of convergence can be:

1. R = 0 (in which case the power series converges only at its center z = z0),
2. R a finite positive number (in which case the power series converges at all interior points of the circle
z  z0  R ), or

3. R = ∞ (in which case the power series converges for all z).

4. No general statement concerning convergence at points on the circle z  z0  R can be made

Theorem: Ratio Test

a z  z 
k
Suppose k 0 is a power series then if
k 0

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an 1 1
1. lim  L  0 , the radius of convergence is R  .
n  an L
an 1
2. lim  0 , the radius of convergence is R   .
n  an
an 1
3. lim   , the radius of convergence is R  0 .
n  an

Example: Radius of Convergence

 1
k 1

Find the radius of convergence for   z 1 i 
k
.
k 0 k!

 1
n2

 n  1!  lim
1
 0 , therefore the radius of convergence R   . The power series
Solution: Since lim
 1
n 1
n  n  n 1
n!
with centre z0  1  i converges absolutely for all z , that is, for z  1  i   .

Theorem: Root Test

a z  z 
k
Suppose k 0 is a power series then if
k 0

1
1. lim n an  L  0 , the radius of convergence is R  .
n  L
2. lim n an  0 , the radius of convergence is R   .
n

3. lim n an   , the radius of convergence is R  0 .

n 

Example: Radius of Convergence

 6k  1   k

Find the radius of convergence for     z  2i  .

k

k  0  2k  5 

 6n  1  6n  1
n
1
Solution: Since lim n    lim  3 , therefore the radius of convergence R  . The circle of
n 
 2n  5  n  2n  5 3
1 1
convergence of the series is z  2i  ; the power series converges absolutely for all z  2i  .
3 3

  3  4i  z
n n
Q.12. The radius of convergence of is ____________. (PPSC 2015)

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1
(A) (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 
5
1
Solution: Since lim n  3  4i   lim 3  4i  9  16  5 , there the radius of convergence is
n
. Thus the
n  n  5
option (A) is correct.

Theorem: Continuity


A power series  ak  z  z0  represents a continuous function f within its circle of convergence z  z0  R .
k

k 0

Theorem: Term-by-Term Differentiation


A power series  ak  z  z0  can be differentiated term by term within its circle of convergence z  z0  R .
k

k 0

Corollary: A power series defines an infinitely differentiable function within its circle of convergence and
each differentiated series has the same radius of convergence R as the original power series.

Theorem: Term-by-Term Integration


A power series  ak  z  z0  can be integrated term-by-term within its circle of convergence z  z0  R ,
k

k 0

for every contour C lying entirely within the circle of convergence.

Corollary: A power series and its term by term integration form both have same circle of convergence
z  z0  R .

Theorem: Taylor’s Theorem

Let f be analytic within a domain D and let z0 be a point in D. Then f has the series representation


f  k   z0 
f  z    z  z0 
k

k 0 k!

valid for the largest circle C with center at z0 and radius R that lies entirely within D. This series is called the
Taylor series for f centered at z0.

Theorem: Maclaurin Series

A Taylor series with center z0 = 0,


f k   0
f  z   zk
k 0 k!

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is referred to as a Maclaurin series.

Important Results on Radius of Convergence:

1. The radius of convergence R of a Taylor series is the distance from the center z0 of the series to the
nearest isolated singularity of f .
2. If the function f is entire, then the radius of convergence of a Taylor series centered at any point z0 is
necessarily R = ∞.

Example: Radius of Convergence

3i
Suppose the function f  z   is expanded in a Taylor series with center z0  4  2i . What is its
1 i  z
radius of convergence R?

Solution: Observe that the function is analytic at every point except at z  1  i , which is an isolated
singularity of f. The distance from z  1  i to z0  4  2i is

z  z0  1  i   4  2i   5  3i  25  9  34 .

This last number is the radius of convergence R for the Taylor series centered at z0  4  2i .

Some Important Maclaurin Series


1.
1
  zk  1 z  z2 
1  z k 0
 z  1

zk z z2
2. e z  
k!
 1  
1! 2!
 z  
k 0


z 2 k 1 z3 z5
3. sin z    1
k
 z    z  
k 0  2k  1! 3! 5!

z 2k z2 z4
4. cos z    1
k
 1    z  
k 0  2k  ! 2! 4!

z 2 k 1 z3 z5
5. sinh z    z    z  
k  0  2k  1 ! 3! 5!

z 2k z2 z4
6. cosh z    1    z  
k  0  2k  ! 2! 4!

Q.13. The radius of convergence of sinh z is: (PPSC 2011)

(A) R   (B) R  0 (C) R  1 (D) R  2
Solution: Since sinh z is an entire function, therefore its radius of convergence is R   . Thus, the option
(A) is correct.

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z 2 z3 z3
Q.14. 1  z     converges to: (PPSC 2017)
2! 3! 4!
(B) e z (C)  z e
2
(A) e z (D) None of these

zk z z2
Solution: It is a well-known Maclaurin Series e z    1   . Thus, the option (A) is correct.
k 0 k! 1! 2!

Result: The power series expansion of a function, with center z0, is unique. On a practical level this means
that a power series expansion of an analytic function f centered at z0, irrespective of the method used to
obtain it, is the Taylor series expansion of the function.

Example: Maclaurin Series

1 z3
Find the Maclaurin expansion of (a) f  z   (b) f  z   .
1  z  1  z 
2 2

Solution: (a) Recalling the Maclaurin series


1
  zk  1 z  z2 
1  z k 0
 z  1

If we differentiate both sides of the last result with respect to z, then


1
 0  1  2 z  3z 2    kz k 1  z  1
1  z 
2
k 1

The radius of convergence of the last power series is the same as the original series, R = 1.

(b) Using the result from (a) we get the desired result as


z3
 z 3  2 z 4  3z 5    kz k  2  z  1
1  z 
2
k 1

The radius of convergence of the last series is still R = 1.

Example: Taylor Series

1
Expand f  z   in a Taylor series with centre z0  2i .
1 z

Solution: Consider

1 1 1 1 1
  
1  z 1  z  2i  2i 1  2i   z  2i  1  2i 1  z  2i
1  2i

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
1 1
We write as a power series   zk  1 z  z2  with symbol z replaced by the
z  2i 1  z k 0
1
1  2i
z  2i
expression :
1  2i

1  z  2i  z  2i   z  2i  
2 3
1
 1       
1  z 1  2i  1  2i  1  2i   1  2i  

1 1 1 1 1
2 
  z  2i   3 
z  2i   4 
z  2i  
2 3

1  z 1  2i 1  2i  1  2i  1  2i 
Because the distance from the center z0 = 2i to the nearest singularity z = 1 is

z  z0  1  2i  1  4  5 .

So we conclude that the circle of convergence for the power series is z  2i  5

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