Cuarrer 4 thquake Hazards ) Sections a | 4.1. Ground Shaking % 4.2. Ground Rupture 4 4.3 Liquefaction rt 44. Earthquake-Induced Landslides ‘ 45 Tsunamis ea UT eC CC Celtel Rida elo) (oer gS Ea is too shortcompared with the return periods of disasters like earthquakes. Earthquake Be ee MUA Rua CoC us me URLs aa ted chapter hopes Se SAU Une ter cee ey earthquakes requir UN ee eC a ere CULE Nae eee eee ey ey oe See CU ea Laren el nel ng earthquakes and culled from the wor Bo TT Muna ula com et eat Teo tasked with informing the people about earthquake hazatd-related process and abo Le DUC ue ne aS eth aren Coa ke iat lacenreai aU Lemur met Cee ve ee a ETT Ms eo om oy Pea neta ren ey} CTU UL irra a recognize the natural signs of an im Tee BUD ec Leet te a a interpret different earthquake hazard maps; and POLO ROUACI EU Bee eae eee teyt apply precautionary and safety measures before, CTT ae} CC urn telSECTION 4.1 GROUND SHAKING Have you been startled by the trembling of the ground due to a passing cargo truck? We also feel the ground vibrate when there is a large man-made explosion, perhaps from a nearby quarry. Natural events like volcanic eruptions or landslides can also shake the ground tremendously. For many people who have experienced a very strong earthquake, nothing is perhaps more daunting than being on a tall building that sways as if it is going to be the end of the world. Ground shaking or vibration is what we feel when energy built up by the application of stress to the lithosphere is released by faulting during an earthquake. Can something be done to prevent the shaking of the ground during an earthquake? What then do we need to know and what actions can one take so that one does not experience damage to property and needless threat to lives during intense earthquake vibrations? How Earthquake Vibrations are Generated? Most natural earthquakes are caused by sudden slippage along a fault zone. Slippage along a fault is hindered because there are irregularities on the fault plane. If it were smooth, blocks on opposite sides of a fault will just slide past each other continuously. The elastic rebound theory suggests that elastic strain energy builds up in the deforming rocks on either side of the fault (Figure 4.1- 1) until it overcomes the resistance posed fanthquake Hoss ER Section Objectives: fl, Describe how seismic waves are generated. Differentiate how each type of seismic waves shakes the ground during an earthquake. Analyze the effects of vibration on the ground and man-made structures. List ways to minimize or avoid the damage that ground shaking may cause. by any irregularity on the fault plane. When Figure 4.1-1, Reid’s Elastic Rebound the slippage does occur, energy is released. The elastic energy released is transported by seismic waves that travel throughout the earth. We feel these seismic waves (Figure 4.1- 2) as vibrations. This theory was discovered by making measurements at 2 number of Points across a fault. Prior to an earthquake, it was noted that the rocks adjacent to the fault were bending (Figure 4.1-1). These bends disappeared after an earthquake suggesting that the energy stored in bending the rocks was suddenly released during the earthquake.PERE 0s aster Readiness and Risk Reduction How Do Seismic Waves Shake the Ground? Compressional (P) Wave Propagation ina slinky yoiiaaat Direction of Direction of wave propagation TNO (HH efit! RNa OD) o OREN RELL CLT) oa Wu @ CDN MUU nN CCD CC) Compression Dilation Compression Shear (S) Wave Propagation par Successive Direction of Direction of wave ay particle propagation ation so AD * @ (Hy Simm t Figure 4.1-3. Modelling P and w. using a slinky, Source: http; UPSeis/making,htmt ave motions ‘//wwwsgeo.mtu.edu/ This kind of wave is call slinky travel horizontally aloy similar to the way P-waves ty led a P (for Primary) or ¢ ng its length as parts OF it ci ravel through the earth, i Therearethreemain types of seismic _ waves, each of which shake the ground” differently. P (Primary) and S (Secondary) { waves are called body waves as these travel in the rocks below the surface of the earth. P and S waves radiate out from the rupturing fault. Upon reaching — the earth’s surface, these are converted ; to surface waves that travel outwards from the epicenter. Surface waves tra slower than the other two seismic wi types. To get a clearer picture of these shake the ground while tra one can make waves with a slinky i following activity. Activity 1 Objective: The students will model nature of motion of the seismic waves understand the ways by which the groun shakes during an earthquake. Materials Needed: Two slinkies Flat, smooth surface Notebook and pen Safety goggles Procedure: 1. Make sure to wear before Starting this activity. Stret the slinky on the floor as far a’ can go without Overstretching it its limit. Make waves by ri Several coils at one end and releasing the coils, while maintainil hold of the ends. Describe direction of motion of with respect to the slinky, “Ompressive Wave, The ag ‘ompress or a In back and forth n Parts aEarthquake Hazards ER 2, Move the slinky from side to side (or from left to right or right to left). Observe the direction of wave movement. How does the direction of motion of the waves differ from those in item 1, This kind of wave is called a secondary or shear (5) wave. What does shear means? How appropriate is shear wave as a name for this type of wave? 3. Move one end of the slinky up and down to generate a wave. This shows how the surface waves from earthquakes behave, Can you imagine how a building on the earth’s surface would behave while the ground makes a wave-like motion? Should we be worried with all kinds of seismic wave motion we are faced with during a big earthquake? Explain. If you were an engineer, what kind of ground motion will be your main concern when designing a building resistant to the strongest and most damaging type of earthquake shaking? How Ground Shaking is Measured? The strength of ground shaking (or that of the seismic waves) is measured in terms of velocity, acceleration, frequency content of the shaking, and how long the shaking continues (the “duration”). These terms are also used by scientists and engineers to describe the swaying motion of buildings and other structures as a reaction to the shaking of the ground during an earthquake. Though shaking is measured in many ways, the values of each of these representations may be derived from each other, For example, velocity is simply the product of frequency and amplitude of a seismic wave (Figure 4.1-4).. “yo arnaraarneraaaruaaenre: Noone cane era a)) = npiivge Tau Feary ie of arial of iro eration during an earthquake event varies from place to place, How ines ‘Goud shaking that a site may experience will depend on earthquake magnitude (which toa large degree Is related to fault length), depth of focus, distance from the epicenter, and the duration of shaking. The nature of the ground material or geology also determines the shaking reaction of the ground. As shallower earthquakes release energy from a position closer to the surface, the ground shaking or acceleration will be stronger. The ground acceleration can be calculated from many models relating only the magnitude.Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Vocabulary or Definitions: Frequency - how often a vibration occurs. The unit of measurement is hertz (Hz) or cycles per second. The product of wavelength and frequency is velocity. Natural Frequency - the frequency at which a system naturally vibrates once it has been set into motion. The natural frequency depends on the stiffness and mass of the system. Period - the time (in seconds) it takes for one full cycle to occur. The period is equal to the reciprocal for frequency (1/ frequency). Acceleration - is the rate of change of velocity expressed as a ratio of the acceleration of gravity. between those for rock, medium-soil, and soft-soil foundations? What do they tell us i my p- and S-wave arrival to time interval betwee! z distance from the earthquake Source. Peaj % may be expressed a5 a ratio round acceleration ; ! a asa percentage of g (acceleration of gravity: } 81 m/s? = 981 gals). ‘Ag value of 0.001 is perceptible by people - while 0.1 g is sufficient to produce some damage tion. Most people may have difficulty keeping their balance at g values of 0.7 to 0.2 A figure of 1.0 g may occur along some stretches close to surface ruptures of earthquake. generating faults. This can cause total destruc of buildings. The building code of the Philippi contains guidelines about the required g vali for building design and construction. As mo detailed information about acceleration of the ground becomes available, it is advisable to revis the provisions of the building code to be responsive to local g variations. Figure 4.1-5 shows maps of horizontal ground acceleration for vario types of foundation in the Philippines. The roe ear ha Canione compere the vali See aaa e values of acceleration the seismic wave velocity for each type of foundation? In which type of foundatic indation IsFigure 4.1-5. Peak horizontal ground acceleration of the entire Philippines for a) rock foundation, b) medium soil foundation, and ._ ©) Soft soil foundation. Contour lines connect sites of equal acceleration and were based on the effects of previous earthquakes on a given site from distant sources estimated using an earthquake attenuation (energy dissipation with distance) model. Maps were derived from data on tectonic earthquakes as recorded by seismographs. Source: Thenhaus eta, 194 more advisable to build structures? Why some places in each map have elevated g values? Does the presence of faults affect the value of g in certain places? For greater clarity, the succeeding sections will address these questions. Effects of Ground Shaking The horizontal component of seismic wave motion or shaking is the most destructive to buildings since it is easier to shake than to compress rocks. Both shear (S) waves and Love waves are destructive as both have horizontal components. Shear wave velocity is therefore a good measure of the intensity ground shaking. It can also be estimated from the characteristics of the rocks they pass through. Shear wave velocities of rocks, period, and frequency are often used in detailed assessment of the susceptibility of sites and buildings to ground shaking, The use of shear wave velocities for this purpose is discussed in detail in the next section. aie Ground shaking per se cannot harm you if you are in an open field, It is the failure a building due to Were design, poor construction, or weak foundation that cause people harm or death. The importance of the stability ofa building's contents is often overlooked in preventing injuries and fatalities. Understanding how vibration, due to an earthquake, affects foundations and buildings is critical in designing buildings and other structures to withstand shaking at a given site, Many destructive earthquakes hadbeen documented worldwide. Manyofthe damages and casualties were caused by the collapse of structures due to ground ee shows a record of the world's most destructive cutie Te iiseenpe ye cit: = share of the damaging and fatal effects of a se one Published accounts of the damages due to earthquakes during the Spanishduction z= Disaster Readiness kes a ble 4.1-1, World’s Most Destructive Known Earthqua er (50,000 deaths or more) Comments ian Deaths wag. Date (UTC) pas 0,000 80 Shensi, China 830; January 23,1556 ne 70 January 12,2010 Haiti (ie 00 7:5 ~~ 799/000 injured Tangshan, China 242); ” July 27, 1976 Syria 230,000 August 9, 1138 Aleppo, *y! a 91 December 26, 2004 Sumatra, Indonesia 227, 8! December 22,856 Damghan, tran 200,000 a December 16,1920 Ning-hsia, China 200,000 March 23, 893 Ardabil, ran, 150,000 so -401000 misonaaae September 1, 1923 Kanto, Japan 142,800 Pe enperd October 5, 1948 Ashgabat, 110,000 73 Turkmenistan, USSR. September 27,1290 Chihli, China 100,000 i May 12, 2008 Sichuan, China 87,587 7.9 374,177 injured; 18, missing and pr dead October 8, 2005 Pakistan 86,000 7.6 — more than 69,000 injured November, 1667 Shemakha, Caucasia 80,000 November 18,1727 Tabriz, ran 77,000 December 28,1908 Messina, Italy 72,000 22 May 31, 1970 Chimbote, Peru 70,000-110,000 7.9 150,000 injured; missing and pres dead November 1,1755 Lisbon, Portugal 70,000 87 January 11,1693 Sicily, Italy 60,000 oe 1268 Silicia (Armenian 60,000 Kingdom) June 20, 1990 Western Iran 50,000 74 Mero tha 0,00 February 4,1783 Calabria, Italy 50,000 injured Source: USGS (United States Geological Survey) That list has since been updated to inclu sun ide th happened times. The 1976 Moro Gulf earthquake is by far the ea es the country. More than 5,000 people died i pat in the provi Cotabato id Provinces. Most of the casualties were those hit ty one ~as __ tts separa = along the coastal areas. The most destructive earthquakes to have hit the country in modern times also include the 1968 Casiguran or Ruby Tower II earthquake and the 1990 Luzon earthquake. The collapse of the Ruby Tower in downtown Manila during the 1968 Casiguran earthquake caused death to 268 occupants of the 6-storey apartment building. The 1990 Luzon earthquake caused widespread damage due to ground shaking, liquefaction, and landslides. It also resulted in the death of about 1,600 people. Ground shaking caused the collapse of buildings in Baguio City and surrounding provinces and cities. Among the Baguio City landmarks that collapsed due to the ground-shaking were the Hyatt (Figure 4.1-6), Baguio Park (Figure 4.1-7), and Nevada Hotels. in Cabanatuan City, the intense ground shaking caused the collapse of the poorly constructed Christian Colleges of the Philippines. As the earthquake occurred during school hours, the collapse ofthe 6-storey school building resulted in the death 154 people who were mostly students. Other notable and recent destructive Philippine earthquakes include those that occurred in Negros (February 2012) and Bohol (October 2013), which resulted in magnitude 6.9 and magnitude 7.2 earthquakes, respectively. Baguio Park Hotel (GZ 5 Earthquake Source Characteristics Control Intensity of Vibration How strong an earthquake ground shaking is would depend toa large degree on the nature of the earthquake source, Thus, the intensity and nature of ground shaking largelyi tisk Reduction 7 [as] Disaster Readiness and Ris eae earthquake, and on the OTe bration generally increases with - ture, : end on the size of fault rup! eh ae nce from the earthquake epicenter. The intensity’ foration 9s rthquoke source aneind magnitude but it decreases with Sa Te ane energy dissipates. The decline in intensity as dista SNP siiptical longest direction. Thus, isoseismal lines are rarely circular we of the fault rupture that produces - ; ‘or structural trend. The size ae in the direction of some maj Jation of ground shaking. If the i intensity relatior an earthquake may greatly affect the distance: ily concentrated inanarrow ‘ing is general i tends to the surface, heavy shaki ks a ener elena of the fault and isoseismal lines are highly elongated parallel to i itation the fault trace. Details of the earthquake-generating fe en es oe ieee may tly influence the characteristics of seismic waves. and, Serore earthquake ground motions will be more severe in the ier cf ete propagation (e.g., north, across a south-dipping thrust fault). Strong patches along the cog a source fault may radiate more seismic energy. Vibration Hazard Zoning The intensity of shaking depends not only on earthquake source characteri: but also on the characteristics of the materials the ground is made of. Various t} of foundations respond differently to seismic waves. If we look at geologic maj that show the distribution of different rock units, ground conditions are really m variable. This variability calls for more detailed evaluation of the susceptibility of ground to shaking. Shear wave velocity of different rocks is a good measure of gro shaking potential. Can you recall why this is so instead of P-waves? Unfortunate! ) 's expensive and time-consuming to measure seismic velocities through geophysi velocity and thus, ground shaking. The use of velocity in estimating ground-shaking potential is based on the pri en traveling through different Q ‘| 9 materials at high frequency (high / allow earthquake waves to travel at lower fre ismic wave veloci and fracture spacing. with greater velocity higher i that the fine-grained seine ne sunk Seismic wave am sedi ood a ice ie Ie i lay be similarly related to eae jheking et ‘i sity and i a Sediment, the less will beits shaking responce © Sediment. In genese th ; | the‘Shear Wave Velocity of Rocks and Sediments Vs = (Go/ py" Where V, is the shear wave velocity or density is the total unit weight of the material divided by gravity (981 m/ sec or 32.2 ft/sec?) Go is the shear modulus which is the ratio between the shearing stress (force per unit area) applied to an object and the resulting deformation (shearing strain). Shearing strain is a measure of the deformation that transforms an object like a rectangular prism into a parallelepiped. Shearing stress refers to the force applied parallel to one face while an equal force is applied to the opposite face. The more rigid a material is, the higher is its shear modulus as more force is required to attain deformation. For this reason, shear modulus is sometimes referred to as modulus of rigidity. It is given by: ‘ Go = Shear stress/Shear strain Shear stress = F/A, where F is the force which acts ‘ and Ais the area on which the force act. Shear strain = Ax/I, where Ox is the transverse > _ displacement of a body deformed by shearing aa and lis the initial length of the deforming body. For “bedrock” materials, the effect of the presence of cracks to the velocity of seismic shear waves is nearly the same as that of pores. Cracks in rocks like fractures and contacts between layers, affect seismic velocity by lowering it. Hardness, whichisa measure ofrelative density, also affects the shear wave velocity. Itis a measure of the strength and toughness of different rock types. Objective: To identify from knowledge of the types of rock and their ground shaking relevant characteristics, which areas are shaken more intensely.e7—_—_— #&32~ sk Reduction ns how many times it swings in one | of how often the native broom — BEBE isoster easiness ond Frequency of the stick and clay ball set-U second. Expressed in another WaY, frequency # ks complete one full swing: ; sticl sat Ger at their resonance frequencies, that is, the freuen ot ee of the 4 styrofoam base approaches the frequency of shaking of the ball an stick set-up, objects will oscillate with larger amplitudes (bigger swings) than at other frequencies. In real life, what would the sticks and the shaking of the styrofoam base represent? d to sway? Which buildings : Which buildings would require slower shaking of the groun' p whic require a faster ground shaking frequency to sway? What happens toa building if you shake up meal is a measure the base too fast? Figure 4.1-10. A building resonates with an earthquake that approacl its frequency. Will the use of stiffer sti r sti i stick and clay balll system? ees Section Assessment 1. Recount the stey theory. feel during an earthquake.tonauaie Yar, ER Which type of seismic wave and motion component would be an engineer's foremost concern when designing an earthquake-resistant building? You are a conscientious project manager of a planned multi-storey shopping mall Describe the steps that you will take to ensure the safety of shoppers in case of a large magnitude earthquake that might originate along a nearby earthquake generator. BEFORE reper out jones merely The kay to effective disaster Sv=p crtot prevention is planning: fale Know th ebrhquake bazar re in your area. f ra oe LO Creek ~~ Follow structural design and“ tee oeeieat naa — eae 4 ‘ Bragkabe toms, arnt chemicals ~~ Evoluste the structural sourcness and flammable mataras shodd be ofthe buisings and houses stored roped inthe lone ast strongthen or retoftif necessary secured shebes. DURING Sa nmanog witpossible uleky open the door for wait king hazard, the poster provides Figure 4.1-11. Though designed primarily for earthquake shal a aed after an earthquake. | very useful personal preparedness tips one can adopt before, Source: PHIVOLESHIE Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction SecTion 4.2 GROUND Rupture Earthquake cracks and fissures swallowing houses and similar struct seen or heard these scene’ tures? Onehave probably | section Objectives: 1. _ Explain how, when, and 5 from folktales, fiction books, and movies. Can these things happen ee during an earthquake? What do you think? Many ee ground ruptures of these accounts do not give us an accurate ah picture of what really happens when the ground Describe the characteristics fuptures during an earthquake. Earthquakes of ground ruptures. seeur by the sudden motion along lithospheric | 3 pistinguish ground ruptures breaks called faults. During strong earthquakes, pment acorn oh faulting may reach the earth's surface as ground cement ruptures. surface. How then does the earth’s surface break Analyze the effects of along ground ruptures? Does it open up like a paceintaniresen fissure does? Is deformation limited along the g i man-made and natural narrow fault trace or does it affect a wider zone? These are some of the most basic questions that Sot must be addressed to appreciate the nature of | 5. List ways to minimize or the danger ground ruptures bring. The following avoid the damage ground activity should help us understand the nature of ruptures may cause. movement along each type of ground rupture or surface fault. To observe different types of fault movement ooeeey it on models of the earth's surface Materials (per group): Pencils Crayons Cutter or scissors Ruler Construction or illustration paper Procedure: 1. Form three groups (Group 1 ee P 1,2, and 3) with each group having a set of the mateti” , ; : rock exposures, Draw a line along the conan on aerialEarthquake Hazards Activity 2 sents Figure 4.2-3 shows an apparatus used to te compression. Can you tell the difference betwee after compression? Describe the resulting defor st the strength of rocks and soils under n the cylindrical rock samples before and ‘mation. Lend frame Force measuring device [Atal deformation Top platen Gal gauge Test specimen Bottom platen Figure 4.2-3. A diagram of a simple rock or soil compression apparatus (top photo) and rock samples taken before (lower left photo) and after (lower right photo) the rock or soil test. Source: http://www.cast. 7 ‘com.se/s_soil.html How Ground Ruptures Form The lithosphere breaks when its strength is overcome by the large amount of stress applied. This breaking happens in much the same way a piece of rock does when struckhard enough with a hammer. One can try this but make sure to wear a protective device for the eyes (goggles) and other sensitive parts of your body. Rock failure that involves the slipping of lithosphere blocks past each other is called faulting. An earthquake is generated when a fault moves, as its frictional resistance could not match the large amount of stress related to plate motion (Figure 4.2-4).Gregory M., Gavin Hayes, Michael ge, Harley M. Benz, Antonio Villasenor, and Kevin P. Furlong, “Seismici '12 Philippine Sea plate and vicinity,” USGS Open-File Report: 2010-1083-m (2013) When an earthquake is strong enough, faulting ated at depths may earth’s surface to form a ground rupture, Faulting tends to Occur along zones of we such as old or pre-existing faults, fractures (or Tock breal ks not involving slip), orEarthquake Hazards bedding planes (contacts between sedimentary rock layers and between different types of rock). Stresses acting on broken rock masses need only to overcome frictional resistance along these old planes of weakness. It takes a lot more amount of stress to form new faults (and generate earthquakes) within stronger parts of the lithosphere. Some earthquake fault breaks called blind faults do not even reach the ground surface (Figure 4.2-5). Figure 4.2-6. Current Active Fault Map of the Philippines. The Philippine Fault Zone is relatively well known but details about its current branching, segmentation pattern, and activity are constantly being sought primarily by PHIVOLCS. More detailed trace mapping of other known active faults and investigation of yet unmapped active structures all over the country are also being Pursued aggressively. Source: PHIVOLCSPIRGDD is aster Readiness and Risk Reduction ) Active Faulting Formation of faults that includes precursor structures of ‘ faults has been going on for hundreds of millions of years since the inbospheretas beg subjected to stresses related to the motion of the plates. As ane Pp pens ene ses directions change, younger faults form but many of the older faul ts ace cards len the applied stress is large enough to overcome resistance along fault p| i a SHER y ate called active, as they had been found to have moved under the current si ie lave caused earthquakes during historical times and in the recent geologic past. ‘The most active faults are quite dangerous as large earthquakes originate very often (at short intervals) along them. Many of the faults that had formed, however, are deemed inactive as they have already healed and so are no longer capable of moving te senea earthquakes. Active faults show evidence that they have moved in the recent geologic past. Recency of activity is an indication of a fault’s tendency to give way to pressure under the current stress regime. Active faults are therefore more likely to give way and generate earthquakes in the near future. How recent is recent depends on where the term active fault isused and in some regions, the lower age limit could beas old as 2.5 million years (equivalent to the lower boundary of the Pleistocene epoch). For some, an even older geologic period is used as reference. The choice of a reference age is not entirely arbitrary. In the Philippines where the geologic history is relatively short and where seismicity is known to be relatively dense and frequent, a younger lower age limit is used. The end of the Pleistocene or the start of the Holocene epoch, which is roughly 10,000 years, is locally accepted as the older age limit of active faults. Figure 4.2-6 shows the known active faults in the Philippines. Their activity is related to the ongoing interactions of nearby plate boundaries within and around the Philippine islands. f earthquake-generating Factors Affecting the Character ics of Ground Ruptures ‘There are various factors which control the general nature and character of faulting. Some of these factors are specifically more relevant to the assessment of ground ruptute hazard. These determine how long ground ruptures are, how and by how much the earths surface breaks along ground ruptures, and whether deformation is limited along the narrow fault trace or affects a wider zone. These are th ick | i 7 le Most basic addressed to appreciate the danger which ground ru issuesithat nis deformation zones. Aside from ground rupture, faultin i . 1g caus depending on the type of faulting involved. Itmay cause leroy reer 8 many extension, or compression. Many places along the strike-slip aC ee ae rupture of the 19Earthquake Hazards Luzon earthquake moved almost wholly in a lateral fashion (Figure 4.2-7a). Ground ruptures, however, usually have both horizontal and vertical components, When the horizontal component of displacement is larger than the vertical, faulting is termed as strike-slip When the proportion of vertical component of displacement is larger, faulting is either normal (Figure 4.2-7b) or thrust (Figure 4.2-70). In these types of faulting, extension and compression of the ground across the fault is more pronounced. For large events similar to the magnitude 7.9 Northern Luzon earthquake of 1990, horizontal displacements may be more than five meters and vertical displacement could be in the order of a few meters (Figure 4.2-8). That event was generated by the motion of a segment ofthe Philippine Fault Zone (Digdig Fault), which is a strike-slip fault. The ground rupture length depends on the magnitude of the earthquake. Earthquakes with magnitude 6.5 or greater are generally strong enough to produce large-scale ground ruptures. The ground rupture of the 1990 Luzon earthquake (Figures 42-7 and 4.2; magnitude 7.9) is 120 km long, The 1994 Mindoro.earthquake (magnitude 7.2), on the other Figure 4.2-7. a) Strike-slip faulting along the ground rupture of the 1990 Luzon earthquake in Nueva Vizcaya. The rice paddy dikes (pilapil) were displaced horizontally by a few meters. b) Normal faulting along one segment of the 1994 Mindoro earthquake ground rupture. ‘Thrust faulting along the ground rupture of the 2013 Bohol earthquake. Sources: a) Nakata, T, Tsutsumi, H., Punongbayan, R. S., Rimando, R. E., Daligdig, J. A., Daag, A. S., and Besana, G. M,, 1996; b) PHIVOLCS; and c) Jeremy M, Rimando (UP NIGS)\k Reduction Disaster Readiness and Ris! tt relationship between ground re is no clear-cut ind to have ranges of he! hand, has a mapped length of only 35 km. ger earthquakes a : ke magnitude bu : rupture length and earthquake mag) | longer ground ruptures. i ai Figure 4.2-8, The ground rupture of the dominantly strike-slip Digdig Fault caused both horizontal and vertical displacement of man-made and land features. The formation of more than one meter of scarp and pond resulted from the vertical displacement. A larger amount of lateral movement displaced the road (left part of the photo) in Caranglaan, Nueva Ecija. Source: Nakata, T,, Tsutsumi, H., Punongbayan, R. S., Rimando, R. E., Daligdig, J. A., Daag, A. S., and Besana, G. M., 1996 The width of the deformation along the length of the ground rupture also largely depends on the type of faulting, Strike-slip faults have steeper fault planes than normal and rust faults, The steepness of the fault plane and the nature of movement for each fault | pe determine how wide the zone of deformation is. Deformation consists ye of horizontal and/or vertical displacement along the fault | trace and folding or bending of | the adjacent area (Figure 4.2- 9a). Given the same level of earthquake magnitude, this zone is wider for normal and thrust faults, which could be as wide as a hundred meters or more. As a rule of thumb, the degree of danger to man-made structures is inversely proportional to distance to the ground rupture. Ground ruptures may form more complex surface Can We Predict When an Earthquake Will Occur? Predicting earthquakes is a much more difficult | task than predicting volcanic eruptions. While | it is true that some earthquakes have been | successfully predicted in countries like China, it is also true that far more numerous false have been issued, Also, maj occurred for which He} 2 g =f > :B € x &the narrow main break (Figure 4.2-9 b), The ground rupture of the 2013 Bohol earthquake, for example, formed not one but multiple traces in one place (Figure 4.210). As a guide for land-use and construction practice, those outside the fault zone are exposed to lowest risk those within the broad fault zone but away from the traces of active fauilt slip, to higher risk, and; those on the main fault trace and on minor traces in the zone, to highest risk. Figure 4.2-9. a) Example of a zone of deformation across a thrust ground rupture. Deformation features include the ground rupture with scarp indicating vertical displacement, minor fault strands, and subtle folding of layers of rock and of the ground surface. b) Main trace and branches of an active fault system. vertical displacements. escociated minor tension eracks. Sources: .M, Rimando and J.D. 8. Dianala (UP NIGS)5 and Risk Reduction fo BE att Ruptures Measures to Minimize the Effects of a oa trace of a ground rupture, t trated alo” i Motion along Although displacement is concent he main igure 42-9 b). Motion a area surrounding it may also be subjected to defor Sic of BOS jisplacement Or the main trace involves horiz 1 disp) Top of a fault when it finally moves, happens then to a concrete house standing right on top i ically but wil” Its loors and/or walls and ceilings may be oy break hones et rar : ee | twisting and/or tilting. Ru , thus, a oe 4 serge st tS any residential dwellings and public eee Be ee cf roads railway lines, dams, pipelines, airport runways, water and ie ie ne ‘ nels, Can you add to this list? Nipa huts which are structures made of lig! iE 0 perform better but are not spared from deformation along a ground rupture ‘igure 11). Because of the nature of the damage that a ground rupture does, making a structt sturdier will not be enough to save it from damage or destruction. 4 Sound engineering and construction practice may be adopted to prevent tota destruction. The best measure, however, is avoidance of active fault traces and deformat zones when planning any construction. Figure 4.2-12 shows a school house in China which ‘ontal or vertical Can you think of other ways by which the effects of ground rupturi man-made structures can be minimized? eae was not affected by ground rupturing along an active fault that runs just beside the school! is, thus, very important to find out which active faults are located near your co} 5 government units, other government agencies, business entities, peas al ae ry access available detailed maps of local active faults from PHIVOLCS, 5 hmaail used in formulating local and national legislation measures to ne fects ground ruptures. Can you name coun’ ities wit sie tries or cities with known legislation related to grou Figure 4.2-11. Anipa hut was built where the ground ruptured in in the 1990 Luz0fanhquake Hazards The key is avoidance of the active fault trace and of the high-risk danger zone when planning a construction. Any type of construction that is built right on top of an active fault stands no chance of surviving without damage when it finally moves. ‘The Xuankou Middle School building in Bailuzhen escaped total destruction id rupture (foreground) of the 2008 Wenchuan, Sichuan (China) earthquake. Figure 4.2-12. from the groun Source: http://ewf.nerc.ac.uk Some critical parameters such as steepness of the fault plane and amount of fault displacement during an earthquake are used in estimating setback and in determining hazard zones. In reality, local government units can come up with their own guidelines .e fault is safe from rupturing? Setback refers to the distance lered safe from the effects of ground rupture. a known active fault on the eastern part of da simple 5-meter setback regardless of building type. It is measured from the trace outwards for both sides of the fault. Thus, a 10-meter danger zone that is off-limits to construction activities is centered along the trace of the VFS. Ideally, setback will vary along the fault trace depending on the fault characteristics in a locality obtained from detailed and site-specific fault studies. Activity 3 can help us determine setback more accurately. How far from th from the fault trace that is consid For the Valley Fault System (VFS), Metro Manila, PHIVOLCS assignet 1 for each type of building use. Most critical tbacks may diffe yer setback values. tegarding safe setbacks. Se : 'd schools may be assigned with high facilities such as hospitals antSection 4.3 LIQUEFACTION Gas pressure build-up in a container is always a dangerous thing. Do you recall what happens when opening a bottle of champagne that has just been shaken? The same build-up of pressure happens in a car's fuel tank when the volatile compounds of gasoline vaporize due to too much shaking caused by the motion of a car. This creates not only fire hazard but may also result in bulging of the gas tank and leak in the fuel lines. The formation of sand volcanoes and sand boils during liquefaction is related to the build-up of pressure when the ground shakes during an earthquake. The process of liquefaction turns the ground into a material with quicksand-like consistency, messing up extensive areas including many cities, farmlands, fishponds, and places where roads, bridges, and pipelines run through. Since time immemorial, man has come to like living alongside rivers, deltas or mouths of rivers, and coastal areas. Why not? Bodies of water give us food and livelihood, provide convenient mode of transportation, host great vacation and recreation spots, and for some, ) solve plenty of waste disposal issues. If not managed wisely, the use of many reclaimed areas that host commercial structures, seaports, airp and many other facilities could cause losses, damages, and casualties to their inhabita How Does Liquefaction Occur? When the ground shakes, some areas especially those made of wet fine sand are subjected to liquefaction. This happened in Dagupan during the 1990 Luzon earthquake which, at magnitude 7.9, was strong enough to cause liquefaction (it only takes a Figure 4.3-1. Rearrangement of grains caused by shaking increases water pressure allowing sediment particles to move more readily with respect to each other. With increased Pressure water squeezes out leaving the liquefied zone in a more compact state, Source: htp://ecan.govt.na/ advice/emergencies. and harard/earthquakes/pages/iqu efaction- information aspx Section Objectives: a Demonstrate how sediments are liquefied by an earthquake. Distinguish between each type of liquefaction features, Analyze how liquefaction affects the ground and man-made structures. Explain why certain areas are more prone to liquefaction than others. List ways to minimize or avoid the damage liquefaction may cause.ae was dia Earthquake Hazards magnitude of 5.0 for one to be tri waves, mainly shear or § ‘waves, causes loss of equilibrium or disturbance of the granular structure, Vibration Fearranges sand particles from a loose arrangement of grains into more compact state (Figure 4,3-1), This Once pressure exceeds the weight of overlying materi: Activity 1 Objective: To explore the effects of liquefaction when a damaging earthquake strikes by building a simple model and to explore different ways to reduce liquefaction hazards, Materials (per group of 5); 600 ml beaker Small cup Block of metal (or something heavy to simulate a “building”) Sand (fine and well sorted or of almost equal sizes) water Procedure: |. Each group of five should have all the materials listed above. Fill the beaker with. 3parts of rd as 1 part of water. Be sure to pour the water into the beaker before adding sand. This is to ensure that the bottom part of the sand is wet but the upper part isdry. Place the block of metal on the surface of the sand, Place beaker with contents on top of a table, then shake the beaker by sliding it back and forth on the surface of the table. Be careful not to overdo the shaking, a. What do you expect to happen to the building once your"earthquake” begins? b. Why do you think did the blockof metal sink into the wet sand?What phenomenon is this? What do the metal block and the shaking of the beaker with your hands resemble in real life? fyess and Risk Reduction cilities that can be severely 4 -made structures and io te on oD a Disaster Reat make a list of ma ee © i ed by liquefaction? What would be the aes happened to the sand and water before and after to draw what hap 2. Use the space below the “earthquake: Bef After fore a. _ Inaddition to the sinking of the metal blocks, what other changes have you noticed? What has accumulated on the surface of the sand? How did it reach the surface? b. Can you think of ways to protect buildings, roads, and other types of structure from liquefaction? Can you suggest ways by which the pore water pressure can be reduced? Liquefaction need not be damaging if only man is able to adapt to the kind of disturbance this phenomenon brings. Avoidance of or evacuation from liquefaction-prone areas is an option for some but not for others, Adapting to the dangers of liquefaction (or to other earthquake hazards) may be quite expensive, but for others it may not be an 3. Liquefaction potential may be reduced thro lu ugh densificati ovement drainage. To test the effectiveness of densification, denies the Three Factors Required for Liquefaction . Loose, granular sediment — areas with deposits that are young enough (late Holocene) tobe loose (e.g, old river courses near sea level, coastlines, | marshes, and artificial fills) + Saturation of sand and silt | sediment by ground water + An earthquake strong enoug toliquefy susceptible sediments (After: http://geomaps.wr.usgs.go sfgeo/ liquefaction/factors.html) disposing of the water, whatever water that eos sand, 'at happens to the metal plot yetiAO ES Te Aside from the above measures to reduce liquefaction hazards, what other measures can you suggest? Types of Liquefaction Features Understanding how liquefaction may be destructive led to the development of appropriate remedial measures and development of affordable technologies. Ground failure types that are induced by liquefaction, shown in Figure 4.3-2, are described below: FLOW FAILURE OSCILLATION LOSS OF BEARING STRENGTH Figure 4.3-2. The Different Types of Ground Failure Due to Liquefaction. Source: Youd, T. Leslie. 1992, “Liquefaction, Ground Failure, and Consequent Damage During the 22 April 1991 Costa Rica Earthquake,” in Proceedings of the NSF/UCR U.S- Costa Rica Workshop on the Costa Rica Earthquakes of 1990-1991: Effects on Soils and Structures. Oakland, California: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute. Flow Failures. Considered the most dangerous type of ground failure due to liquefaction, this occurs on liquefiable slope material with steepness greater than 3 degrees. Blocks of overlying material slide down so fast (as much as. 10 kms/hr) that these reach distances tens of kilometers from the source, Lateral Spreads. Blocks or the broken pieces of the flat or very gentle ground (less than 3 degrees) above a liquefied zone move laterally. Ground Oscillation. Due to the flat or nearly flat slope, the ground is unable to spread and instead oscillates like a wave (back and forth and up and down). Water and wet sand are ejected through the fissures that form conical-shaped mounds of sand at the surface (sand blows)PB iat easiness and Risk Reduction Loss of Bearing Strength. Loss of strength of sediments resulting in tilting of houses and floating of buoyant structures (eg, fuel tank) that are anchored on the liquefied zone Settlement. Vertical read- justment or settlement within the liquefied zone as a result of dissipation of pore-water pressure or the ejection of materials’ during the formation of sand boils (fountains of water and sediment coming from the pressurized liquefied zone). Effects of Liquefaction on Buildings and Other Structures Liquefaction causes some of the most striking ground failures and damages to ioe structures (Figure 4.3-3). Damage during liquefaction results from the settle structures into the soil, flow landslides, laterally spreading landslides, and the eje -Induced Subsidence ed Settlement. The eruption of boils leads to localized differential settlements, Flow failure, lateral spreading, and loss of bearing strength can also cause large vertical readjustments when earthquake shaking has subsided. Tectonic Subsidence. Significant subsidence often accompany the ground rupture process. The amount of subsidence will depend on how large the vertical displacement component is. Lake and ponds may form on the downthrown side near the fault where the vertical displacement is usually greatest. The amount of subsidence diminishes with distance away from the fault. Earthquake: Liquefaction-Relat uring he earthqushe foe sand, it and wate tough 1 moves up under pressure ‘rece. Nerves the pressure le rlleved to the sie a the ground moves sideways Into the ree racks and other weak areas to er ote poet 17Earthquake Hazards water and sediment at the surface in the form of sandblows or sandboils, fountains, or even seepage of water that leads to flooding. Figures 4.3-4 and 4.3-5 are examples of damages due to the 1990 Luzon and 2013 Bohol earthquakes. Sinking, spreading, and cracking of the ground due to New Zealand's 2010 and 2011 Canterbury earthquakes also caused buildings to collapse, pipes and tanks to float and break, poles to fall, cables to break, and streets and gardens to be covered with silt coming out to the surface. Here are some notable earthquakes which have caused significant liquefaction: The magnitude 9.2 Alaskan earthquake happened on March 28, 1964 lasted for four minutes, making it the second largest recorded earthquake. Its strength caused liquefaction and avalanches, which caused extensive damage to Alaska and its major cities. Although the death toll (131) was small, structural damage amounted to US$300-400M. The earthquake in Loma Prieta, California was another massive earthquake. Measuring a magnitude 7.1, it caused the ground to shake as much as 0.659 near the epicenter. Because of the wide distribution of weak soil in California, strong ground motions were extensive that caused great damage to airport runways, bridges, and marine stations. The magnitude 6.9 1995 Kobe (Japan) earthquake is known as one of the most destructive earthquakes to have hit Japan. More than 5,500 people were killed and over 26,000 injured in the quake. Kobe is the most highly developed region. in Japan ever hit by an earthquake and it caused about US$200 B in structural damages. Figure 43-4. Liquefaction has also caused the sinking of buildings and vehicles in Dagupan City proper. Source: PHIVOLCSjing i hquake in Figure 4.3-5. Another example of lateral spreading in the 2013 eartha Bohol, Source: J.M. Rimando Areas and Deposits Prone to Liquefaction Maps showing the potential of areas to seismicaly nde ee are indispensable in the crafting of city or municipal ordinances as in the ovo national building code. Such maps may factor in the intensity of seismic shaki ig a pressure the sediments are subjected to, but the information that liquefaction susceptibillt maps alone provide are very useful. Seismically-induced liquefaction ordinarily occurs in areas underlain by layers © loose, well sorted, water-saturated sand and silty sand within 30 meters of sediments 0 considerable thickness where the water table is close to the surface. Soil, sediment, and certain types of volcanic deposits with well-sorted (almost sar sized) particles having the size of fine sand are prone to liquefaction. The ease with a fine sandy sediment is liquefied depends on how loose it the material is, the amout ug and the amount of drainage restriction. A loose st sults in increased pore-water Pressure and decre. ‘ senate In poorly-sorted sediments, the filling of the voids by the small Particles b igger particles tends to Prevent densification and Pore-water pre d deposits containing less than 15% cl poultice ee lay are less likely to liquefy, oF deposits containing more than 15 oooh eee Liquefaction susce 1% clay are not known to liquefy, of overlying sediments, Ptibility generally decreases with dey . ‘pth becau: heavy Water saturation lightens this loa end table (closer to the surfa e ; id. That is wi /, ce), liquefaction susceptibility of sediments ae oaEarthquake Hazards SER number of liquefaction occurrences have taken ace i istower than 20 meters from the sarang ace areas where the groundwater table greater degree of compactness, ¢ ediments at depth are also characterized by e e a ‘mentation, infiling of intergranular voids, and alteration characterize-factors which increase resistance to ingeceechon ’ In general, the younger a sediment deposit, liquefaction. Based on analyses of historical data on lique has been deposited, the greater is its liquefaction potential. Thus Holocene sediments which are no older than 10,000 years are the most sust : ‘ceptible to liquefaction. The Holocene sediments are the most recent deposited sediments x A that include delta, river channel, flood plain, and aeolian deposits. Dense sediments and well-compacted fills are less susceptible to liquefaction. the greater is its susceptibility to iefaction, the more recent a sediment Deposits which had been subjected to liquefaction can liquefy again. Thus, liquefaction hazard zones should also include areas known to have experienced liquefaction during historic earthquakes. The distribution of liquefaction deformation features would also depend on the areal extent of the liquefiable sediment layer, the slope of the surface, and on the distribution buildings and other structures that will add to the load applied on sediments. Figure 4.3-6 shows a regional liquefaction hazard map for the entire Philippines. More detailed maps are prepared by PHIVOLCS. Activity 2 Objective: To identify which sites or areas are prone to liquefaction from historical liquefaction damage data, from knowledge of the geomorphology, and type of sediments. } Dagupan Cityin Pangasinan washeavily damaged by liquefaction dueto the magnitude 7.9 1990 Luzon Earthquake. Its epicenter was in Rizal Town in the neighboring province of Nueva Ecija. Figure 4.3-7 shows maps of liquefaction-damaged buildings, distribution of sandboils, and kinds of landforms related to inactive (old) and active river distributary ofthe Agno River. Imagine that you are being consulted because of your expertise in earthquake hazards by the Dagupan City government. Procedure: it ini fed you with maps (Figure 4.3-7) obtained from PHIVOLCS. ; The cya ee shows the distribution of buildings onal liquefaction and also those that were not damaged. Do bes Nk = pal fer distribution of damaged and undamaged buildings? Is there ai iS pea nts ioe of damaged buildings? Of upc nul Is any of this i tal River? Explain why or why not. 2 ne etic 14,3-7b) shows the location of sand boils: a eaora ; ee eitherea clear correlation between the location lings damaged of by liquefaction and the location of sand cape peur si Spies y lique {fected by sand bol sas al rat eg areconsted influences how much the buildings are damaged on whi by liquefaction.za Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Figure 4.3-6. Liquefaction Hazard Map for the Entire Philippines. Source: PHIVOLCSEarthquake Hazards Figure 4.3-7, Detailed maps of buildings damaged by liquefaction in Dagupan City (a) due to the 1990 Luzon earthquake. The location of sandboils and cracks (b) and of older landforms associated with river processes (c) is superimposed on the same planimetric map shown in (a). Source: A.C. Tores, PHIVOLCS 3. A third map (Figure 4.3-7c) shows the location of landforms formed by fluvial (river) processes including the active river channel (Pantal River) and those which are no longer active. Which landforms are no longer related to the currently active Pantal River? Is there any correlation between the location of old river landforms and those of sand boils or cracks and damaged buildings? How good are old river landforms as indicators of the location of liquefiable materials and damages due to earthquake- induced liquefaction? Recall what other earth processes and environments may deposit liquefiable materials. In Figure 4.3-6 (liquefaction hazard map for the entire Philippines), try to name the type of environment (eg. river or fluvial. environment, beach, or swamp) to which each liquefaction- prone area belongs. How important is proximity to water bodies in the assessment of liquefaction susceptibility? Before going on to the next se the Dagupan City government to mitt during any future earthquake that mi tion, ist down the actions that you would propose to tigate (decrease the probability of) liquefaction hazard ight affect the city. Mitigating Liquefaction Hazard F a é Hazard zone maps are prepared to Identify areas potently Sect ee Local government units and national government SS ay ba i oeeeeaaties maps to regulate the risk through ordinance OF oe spa See Dealt these maps to identify vulnerable structures. Additional engit j ) eee thened or relocat ipes, ildi n new construction or existing buildings cowl Saeed ned to withstand liquefaction. Pipes, and transportation routes can be rerouted or desig!eee —™ and Risk Reduction unrealistic especi proving ially where real estate is precious, building | are the other options o the existing soil BR osetentnes When avoidance se fant stru ems liquefaction-resist tures and im can take. Constructing a liq cture ensures that 2 building has ductil ) and adjustable supports to correct ag; uefaction-resistant stru ductile connections allow (the ability to accommodate large deformations ied utility lines, differential settlements of the soil. For buried util t e 5 deformation and movement of the soil without causing breaks or leaks. It is very imp for a building to have all of the foundation elements tied securely together to ensure that the foundation moves and settles as a whole. Mat foundation also increases a foundatio rigidity (Figure 4.3-7). Buildings can be made to sit on concrete pillars ( les) extending firmer layers below the liquefiable zone. You can try this out by gluing sticks at the base of the metal or wooden cube in the first activity (you can adjust the sand thickness and content). Several options can be considered to improve sites prior to liquefaction events. foundation can be stabilized by removing the liquefiable soils and replacing these with materials that are more firm. The foundation may also be compacted before the constn of new buildings. There had been cases (e.g., California, U.S. and New Zealand) improved sites and facilities experienced no damage while untreated ground adjacent to improved sites experienced spreading, oscillation, or settlement. i ache 4.3-8, Mat foundation tran: 'es to adjacent rigid ground, 'sfers load from liquefied 1. Whatare ther equisitesf ; prone to liquefsctions Utuefaction to occur? Why are many ay reas in the Pt Explain how a liquefaction occurs in hiEarthquake Hazards Section 4.4 EartHquake-Inpucep Lanpsupes Everybody gets excited going to a favorite destination in summer time. Why not? The heat and | Section Objectives: humidity can really take its toll on you that all you | 1. Describe how landslide want to do is escape from it. You are almost there but a Sa a landslide makes the long and winding road impassable. earthquakes Going back so soon spoils all the fun, all because of a Differentiate each type landslide! Do you know why landslides occur? When an of earthquake-induced object is released from one’s grip, it yields to the pull landslide, of gravity and must come down. Slope failure occurs | 3 Analyze how when part of it changes from a stable to an unstable earthquake-induced condition. There are many processes or factors that landslides affect the cause a piece of the mountain slope to fail, Can you ground and man-made name some of these? Do you know the main driving structures force of landslides? Regardless of how a landslide is triggered, gravity is always the primary force that enables any landslide to occur (Figure 4.4-1). Many known devastating landslides had been triggered by earthquakes. List ways to minimize or avoid the damage earthquake-induced landslides may cause. Why Landslides Occur A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors acting together or alone. These factors include: 1, Removal of support at the base of a slope which may be due to erosion at the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves. That is why landslides may occur even ona hot summer day. 2. Groundwater (pore water) pressure during sudden changes in the water level of bodies of water adjacent to a slope also acts to destabilize it. ceesen a ee orca moves mase down te pe - tenilance force (due to tction) hold mass in place: {nase says pu Fr > Fa (ebaow ope) ‘manus slides down if Fr < Fa (steeper slope), sean “Feean be resuce by penis RSisaster Readiness: and Risk Reduction 3, Volcanic eruptions: Bulging of emission may als© contribute to s! fall. Landslides are trigger Oi of volcanic material ejection g slopes and the force Jope instability. ed due to the weakening of the slope 4, Intense raint by water saturation. nown tas in saturating slope material. to have the same effec tability of slopes thro Man contributes to the inst id other facilities), quarrying/mining, ‘of deeply rooting trees and so bute to the problem of slo 5, Snowmeltis also ki 6. Human interventions. .5 (roads, buildings, an construction activities unabated logging and kaingin which lead-to the loss cohesiveness. What other human interventions contr instability? : 7. Earthquakes. Slopes are of the sudden shaking of rainfall cannot do to slope: Jess than a minute. This is in many parts of the mountainous regio! earthquake. during earthquakes b prone to widespread failure What a prolonged period hilly and mountainous areas. .s is accomplished by a strong earthquake that may last: demonstrated, for instance, by the occurrence of land n of northern Luzon during the 1990 Activity 1 Objective: inthis: activity, students will observe the three phases of landslide develop and simulate the effect to slope stability of shaking, varying the steepness o slope, and saturating the slope material with water. y Materials: “ea bt pans with 1-5 cm tall edges, 40-60 cm in length and width Protractors Gravel, pebbles, sand, and silt Cloths or paper towels Newspapers to cover the working surfaces Water pitcher with water iewsaice ns L ‘ings read from sono es 1 Sulate landslide. Amount ofPIRI Disaster Readiness and Risk Reon the same, or higher when the pan is sI ct of earthquakes in altering the condition, an unstable condition? Are the angles of collapse lower, Explain why. Is this analogous to the effe: a slope at a given inclination from a table to using only sand and silt materials. This time saturate the 6. Repeat steps 3 to4 d your results and make observatio with water before tilting the metal pan. Recor ; Sbout the cracking, collapse, downslope travel, and piling of the materials. Rep the same process but this time induce an earthquake at various angles with the wet materials. Record the results of tilting the metal pan. Discuss your results. What effe does water have to pore pressure? Are your results similar to what happens in the world where too much water tends to lower the angle of collapse? .e? To prevent landslides from occ What lessons have we learned from this exercis property, and human, during earthquakes and to minimize its effects to the landscape, what suggestions can you make to stabilize slopes? Types of Landslide Landslides detach, transport, and deposit earth materials such as solid or loose and soil. Aside from earthquakes, landslides may be triggered by a variety of natural and man’s acti ies. i Table 4.4-2 shows the abundance of the type of earthquake-induced land ased on data from 75% worldwide earthquakes occurring until the latter part of 20th century where landslides had been reported. The most abundant types of histo earthquake-induced landslides from steep slopes are rock falls, rock slides, and soil $I involving shallow or thin slope failures. On gentler slopes, earth spreads, earth i oe aes and earth avalanches are the most abundant. More recent data, rom earthquakes in Central Asia (e.g., China, Pakistan, et z ° rh avalanches (complex type), and flows dominate. SN eS The types of landslide based on moveme : ie nt are: i i a translational), spread, flow, and complex slides. The. iene : oe side (ca a considering both the type of movement and the material i Oda ee rs ial involved are shown in Fig Table 4.4-2. Relative Abundance of Earthquake-Induced Landslid andslides Landslide type, Listed in order of decreasing total number rs Very abundant: 100,000 in the 40 historical earthquakes a Rock falls Disrupted soil slides Rock slides Abi : uNdant: 10,000 to 100,000 in the 40 historical earth Soil lateral spreads i Soil slumps Soil block slides Soil avalanches———$$— Moderately common: 1,000 to 10,000 in the 40 historical earthquakes Soil falls Rapid soil flows Rock slumps Uncommon: 100 to 1,000 in the 40 historical earthquakes Subaqueous landslides Slow earth flows Rock block slides Rock avalanches Source: Keefer, D., “Landslides caused by earthquakes,” Geological society of America bulletin, 95 (1984): 406-421, Topples occur suddenly when a massive part of very steep slopes break loose and rotate forward. Rock falls involve chunks of detached rock that fall freely for some distance or bounce and roll down the steep slope. Slides involve large blocks of bedrock that break free and slide down along a planar or curved surface. Lateral spreads are triggered by earthquakes and affect gentle slopes with less than 10 degrees inclination. Slope material loses cohesion through liquefaction caused by the shaking during earthquakes. Flows involve downslope motion of fine grained clay, silt, and fine sand made mobile by water saturation. These flows include mudflows and earthflows and are common during the rainy season. Complex slides are combinations of two or more types of movement. Figure 44-4 ic an example of a complex slide that occurred in Leyte. Figure 4.4-5 shows the early stage ofa slide that might develop into a complex or simpler type of sie. Factors Affecting Occurrence of Landslides For a real-world landslide to occur, the downslope component of the force acting on ‘a rock mass must overcome the shearing strength of the material and cause it to separate from adjoining stationary rock before moving downslope. When a slide occurs, either the force acting on the material increased or the shearing resistance of the material was lowered. Landslides are common during earthquakes because both of these conditions are induced by ground shaking. Depending on the type of slope material, the steepness of the slope and strength-related properties of the materials involved, various types of landslide may occur during an earthquake. The properties of rocks that contribute to total resistance to shearing forces include 1) intact rock strength, 2) mass weathering grade, 3) spacing of joint, 4) orientation of joints, 5) ‘width and continuity of joints, 6) infill, and 7) outflows of groundwater.figure 4-4-3, The various specific types of Janisldes based on movement and. ‘type of material involved, Source vitesse rona/s7a/s 2004 sant a Intactrockstrength, Feferstoaro ck'S reactionto standard, laboratory tests tod \gth. The results of. estimatior n by "simple Means” m;a: Mass weathering grade of soils and rocks is one of the most important properties that the engineering geologist has to consider when dealing with slope stability issues. Weathering of rocks results in physical and chemical changes due to external processes. Physical and chemical weathering lead to the opening of discontinuities and changes in chemical composition of rock minerals, Weathering grade determination relies heavily on visual descriptions and on a number of simple tests. Weathering grade of rocks ranges from the fresh or unweathered state to the completely weathered. Residual weathered state is when a rock is completely transformed into soil and therefore has lost any strength. ‘The spacing of joints is another property to consider. The term joint as used in its engineering sense refers to the different types of discontinuities such as fracture, fault, or bedding plain. Spacing here refers to the distance between joints alongaline. tis important because all cohesive strength is lost along an open joint. The greater the volume of joint in a rock mass, the weaker is that mass. The orientation of joints with respect to the slope becomes increasingly unfavorable for slope instability as the dip out of a rock face becomes steeper. Its most favorable for stability against sliding when the dip is into the slope. Width and continuity of joints influences frictional and cohesive strength as well as water movement in the rock mass. Wide joints have no cohesive strength and frictional strength can only develop at the point of contact of rock on either side of the joint fajoint is limited in the area, it will have little effect on the strength of the rock mass. But if itis. continuous, it provides a ready-made plane along which shearing movements can occur. ied on February 17, 2006 due to a massive rock slide- din Guinsaugon village in the town of Saint Bernard, Souther Leyte, The deadly landslide was triggered by a heavy ran that lasted for ten days and a minor earthquake (magnitude 2.6) source: http//landslides.uses.gov/learn/photos/international/2006_guinsaugon_ village._leyte_island_philippines.fandslide/phillppineb1.jpg (Official U.S. Navy Photo by Photographer's Mate 1st Class Michael D. Kennedy) Figure 4.4-4. 1,126 persons di debris avalanche that occurresne Ve Figure 4.4-5. An incipient landslide in front of a school building in Kore (ifugao) that might develop into a rotational or a complex type of slide. The importance of infill as a factor is highlighted by the presence of materials suchas clay. Fthe whole joints filled with clay, for example, the strength along the joint will be that of the clay and not that of the rack. Water flow in a joint is far more important than water in rock pores. It is the waterin fissures or clefts which influences rock mass strength when we speak of cleft water pressures. High rates of water flow and infilling of fissures with water can cause a buoyancy effect on the rock above a saturated joint. The only way this can be assessed, aside from drilling awell into the rock mass, is by measuring the amount of water flowing out of the rock. i Areas Prone to Landslides During Earthquakes or Landslide Hazard Zoning When maps are drawn showin i e \g landslide s are considered including the stren a the landscape. The triggerin ptibility of areas, gth of materials and topographic ‘induced |, i nger and steey Ta slides. Ear take place on to) per slo high Pes, and at a higherEarthquake Hazards the slope. Steepness of slopes is the most important factor controlling the occurrence of landslides; more landslides tend to occur as the slope become steeper. Rain-induced landslides tend to occur at slopes with lower gradients. Relief is also a significant factor controlling the location of landslides. Earthquake-induced landslides occur at higher parts of the slope closer to the ridge, while rain-induced landslides occur mostly at the lower parts of the slope and closer to the river. Seismic waves are amplified by higher topographic relief. This has been explained by resonance involving a high topographic feature (Boore 1972), just as the shaking of a tall building is amplified by seismic waves with frequencies comparable to that of the building, It has also been explained in terms of the interference of reflected and diffracted seismic waves which tend to be greater in ridge crests resulting in greater shaking on these topographic highs (Bard 1982). The influence of slope angle alone in determining proneness to earthquake-induced landslides is not straightforward. In some cases, especially in rocks, steeper slopes are more prone to instability. In others, especially in soft sediments, gentle slopes produce most of the mass movements, indicating that the combined effect of slope and geology has to be taken into consideration, Steepness of slopes, however, can determine what type of earthquake- induced landslides may be triggered: lateral spreads in flat areas, large landslides on steeper (30° and more) slopes rather than on gentler slopes, or rock falls on steep cliffs. The direction that a slope faces (aspect) also plays a role in where landslides occur during an earthquake. Landslides tend to cluster on slopes where the aspect is facing away from the source of the earthquake. The surface curvature also has an influence on selsmic slope stability; particularly, convex surface morphologies are prone to seismic slope failure. Large landslides tend to occur on vertically convex slopes rather than on concave slopes. The geological factors that determine which part of the landscape are prone to landslides are those that contribute to low strength of rock or soil materials. The low strength may be related to weak cementation, intense weathering, intense shearing of rocks, high rater saturation, and poor compaction. Structural elements of rocks such as bedding, foliation, and sediment-rock contact are akin to spacing of joints. studies of earthquake induced-landslides in many parts of the world also showed that they occur on surfaces with signs of weakened slopes due to the presence of weak, highly- sheared rocks of old fault zones and old landslide scars. Other geologic conditions on slopes thot facilitate land sliding include hard fractured rocks underlain by less resistant rocks or loose accumulationsof fine-grained surface debris (ed clay, silt, and fine sand). As seismic waves propagate away from the source, there will be less of a chance that a landslide will occur in areas farther from the origin of earthquakes. Indeed, it has been observed that seismic landslide ‘occurrence is strongly dependent onthe proximity of fault ruptures. Tectonic influence is shown by the preference of landslides to occur in the hanging jslides were observed in the mountains close to the ground ive faults. Lan wall side of causative faults. ided with the Digdig Fault. Slope failures Tupt Luzon earthquake which coinci were pai e as Abra, La Union, ‘and Aurora provinces but were concentrated on from Dingalan, Aurora through Nuev. a ound re that runs fr ig! a narrow zone along the 9} ures northern end in Kayapa, Nueva Vizcaya (Figure 4.4- Ecija, until he ground rupt Oa eee ground TuPant in areas west and northwest of the ground rupture, ich were mostly of the shallow type, (0.5 to 1.0 my “ie of landslides, whic wre seo si eee that up to 50 % ‘of the slopes close to the ground rupture were laid bare. The eo rains that affected the region before and after the earthquake made theeee duction pisaster Readiness and Risk Re bi J 90% of the affected areas were denuded. The com! ined effect, jItation of rivers a caused heavy siltati nd aie i and of the main and seconda ates ‘As expected, the earthquake-induceg eal to steep parts of the slope, ridge crests ang lley heads and road cuts. may fail by landslides during earth ared by PHIVO| also depend on the amount of shaking. Figure 4.4-7 shows a ae “ srt ie that takes into account the severity of shaking in determining De acecan a be affected. More detailed versions for the various regions are a ; e that up to stu ete. and ranfallinduced lan Gestruction of the highway and artere. ads leading to Cagayan Valley from Pe Tendslides showed preference for the mor upper reaches of slopes, and for stream vi The extent and distribution of slopes that Effects of Earthquake-Induced Landslides Ground shaking is widely considered to be the primary cause oon an loss of lives, and injuries due to earthquakes. A substantial part of the total a of lives, injuries, and damage to structures due to earthquakes may be attributed to burial and debris impact caused by earthquake-induced landslides. There are numerous examples of earthquakes where loss of lives due to earthquake-induced ground failure have been significant (as much as 30% in mountainous regions). The more than 56,000 earthquake- induced landslides due to the M7.9 Wenchuan, China, earthquake on May 12, 2008, for example, caused about one third of the estimated 88,000 total deaths. The landscape | was not spared from the ugly effect of earthquake-induced landslides. One of the worlds 1 strongest earthquakes (M9.2) in May 1960 caused major and minor landslides in South: — Central Chile. The 3 largest individual landslides alone had a total volume of 40 million. | The M 9.2 Alaska earthquake in 1964, on the other hand, affected an area of about 260,000 | km? (land area of the Philippines is ~300,000 km’). Figure 4.4-6. The areas affected by landslides triggered by the main shock and by the cane aftershocks and 'onsoon rains during the 1990 Muon earthquake. Epicenter of '¢ earthquake is indicated by a closed circle along the ground rupture (with line). Most affected a preslic (50-99% and 20- wer ea ae ae le close to the After: Arb als rboleda and Regalado, orm Tl om TT sineFigure 4.4-7. Earthquake-triggered landslide susceptibility map tor the entire Philippines. based on critical acceleration values and earthquake intensities. The least susceptible areas to earthquake-triggered landslides are the low-lying flat terranes. Source: PHIVOLCS Ground failure is less likely to cause spectacular structural collapses, but is frequently the cause of major disruptions, particularly to lifelines, which can lead to prolonged loss of function and income, even for undamaged areas. The destruction of lifelines may delay rescue relief and rehabilitation operations. The destruction of major lifelines such as those damaged during the 1990 Luzon earthquake including the Marcos Highway, Kennon Road, and Dalton pass affected the Philippine economy. Slides can cause disastrous flooding, particularly when landslide dams across streams are breached and flooding may trigger more slides, Sedimentation due to landslides also changes river morphology. Other environmental effects caused by landslides include the alteration of agriculture and changes to natural ecosystems. One of the major impacts to both the natural and built environment is the complete relocation of some human populations and infrastructure to new areas, resulting in the abandonment of towns and other areas that were damaged by the earthquake and landslides.PEIDI isester Readiness and Risk Reduction use flooding. In fact, the ghest wave (2 sunami , (a t: se flooding. In f he high l ened 9 i landslide. It happs 1 uake-induced nappa due to Sean the Fairweather FE oe . ees! f Lituya f the slope above the northeastern on aaah on ae ae f rock. The impact generated a lo ne mili eros and wegettion from elevations as high 25 removed all tree: Not only do landslides ¢ is that has ever been known the night of July 9, 1958 when a sea level. Activity 2 the dangers of landslides during Objective: Identify areas that may be exposed to ‘and existing landstid earthquakes from topographic maps, satellite images, hazard maps. aa ‘h or similar prog Desktop or laptop computers with internet connection and Google Eart! Pencil Crayons or coloring pens Topographic maps are excellent tools for many field-based studies and surveys relief, drainage, vegetation, and man-made structures are critical. These features and ot landscape characteristics shown in topographic maps are important in landslide haz mapping as discussed in the previous sections. In this activity, the landslide susceptibility map of Mati (Davao Oriental) is superimposed ona map with key elements of a topographic map of the area. This area is often hit by rain-induced landslides and is situated in an area known to have been affected by past earthquakes, d Procedure: 1. Each group of at least five students should have a set of tI he materials needed, Examine the landslide suscey Ptibility map of Mati in Davao Oriental (Figure 4. ¢ are contour lines or lines co) 'ecting points of. ‘ a elevation. To visualize more clearly how these contour ines ae the form e an elevation of landscape features, go to Go th usin 5 ogle Earth usit i cap silat > Google Earth usit 'g the internet function of: oul Gentle slopes are represented i ted in each profil d mark where the following ee ana : Mountain crest line or d 2 Rivers or streams 3. Very steep slopes 4. Steep to moderate slopes 5. Flat to gentle slopes 6 Oldlandslide scars rainage divideHAZARD ZONE Moderate Low None Make a list of the criteria used in identifying areas prone to earthquake-induced landslides as discussed earlier. Examine the legend or explanation of the landslide susceptibility map in Figure 4.4-8. What are the criteria used in delineating areas susceptible to landslide as high, moderate, and low? Compare these with those for earthquake-induced landslides. What mapping criteria are common for both earthquake-induced landslides and rainfall-induced landslides? Using the lists in (2) for the criteria used in identifying areas susceptible to rainfall- and earthquake-induced landslides, identify which criteria are unique for earthquake- induced landslides. Using the map in Figure 4.4-8 for rainfall-induced landslides, delineate the areas using these criteria, What color do you wish to assign to these areas? Are any of these areas already part of the highly susceptible areas in. the rainfall- induced landslides hazard map? If so, how do you propose to rephrase the description forthese zones that are also prone to earthquake-induced landslides? Would you rather upgrade the classification of moderately susceptible areas that are also susceptible to earthquake-induced landslides to highly susceptible areas? Why or why not? Each group shall report to the class their results Measures to Mitigate Effects of Landslides What are some of the things that individuals and families can do to prepare for landslides and to prevent landslides from occurring within your community? Recognizing and reporting any sign of slope instability to local authorities and neighbors in your community is an important step. Make a list of whom you should contact if an emergency involving landslides is suspected. Local residents and officials can work together in monitoring and preventing construction and other activities on unstable slopes that can aggravate landslides and endanger people's lives. Atthe community level, provisions should be made for food, water, blankets, medicines, and other supplies needed for possible prolonged isolation due to destruction of roads by future landslides. Communities must also stabilize part of the landscape with incipien Marks before it develops into a full-blown landslide. Biological messes a epee of deeply-rooting trees hold slope material together and reduces the slope's water load Though more costly, engineering remedial measures such as landslide barriers ny drainage structures are effective in preventing landslides. To reduce cost, these farike undertaken by local government units and government agencies community volunteers. with the help of localE neain eae ‘nel '@ Si oa W 40 dew Ayigudaasns amp reumog eryany zaa3He WINaIuO OVAVG z _ ‘RAID LIVIN JO SLUVd VW ALITISLLdaOSNS JGMSANVELocal government units and national government agencies and institutions can also support communities through other various risk reduction measures, including: }. Developing and enforcing ordinances prohibiting construction in landslide-prong sites Creating emergency management programs for landslides and organizing training programs to prepare communities for landslide disasters. 3. Partnership with the private sector and the academe to offer assistance for geological and engineering research on landslides and for creating effective systems of landslide assessment, monitoring, forecasting, and early warning, 4, Establishing hazard maps or identifying areas that are considered vulnerable to landslides as part of the research effort. Teaching people living in communities prone to landslides not only what to do but what not to do before, during, and after a landslide. Section Assessment 1. Explain how ground shaking alters slope condition that triggers a landslide. 2. What factors determine the type of landslide that might occur? What are the possible conditions for a complex type of landslide to develop? 3. Describe how a landslide may cause a destructive flashflood. Cite local examples of flashfloods caused by landslide. 4, Explain how different keeping safe from earthquake-induced landslides is from preparing for rainfall-induced landslides? Secrion 4.5 TSUNAMIS Perhaps you have already heard or witnessed the worst water nightmares that anybody could imagine. | Section Objectives: In 2004 and 2011, hundreds of thousands of lives were .

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