ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K.

Mwangi
EVAPORATION
Is the process by which liquids change to gaseous state at the free surface below boiling point through
transfer of heat energy. It occurs when water molecules are sufficiently energized to break through the
water surface and escape into the atmosphere. The amount of energy expended by a unit mass of water
while passing from liquid to vapour state at constant temperature is called the latent heat of vaporization.
Water can also be lost from soil surface, through transpiration from vegetation covering the soil surface.
The combined loss of water from the soil/water surfaces and vegetation is known as evapotranspiration
(ET). For evaporation to occur, a source of heat (solar energy) and presence of a water vapor concentration
gradient between the evaporating surface and surrounding air are required.

In addition, vapour pressure deficit that is difference between the saturated vapour pressure of water
corresponding to water temperature and actual vapour pressure of air above the free surface is required.
Under given conditions evaporation is proportional to vapour pressure deficit and this was first recognized
by Dalton in the year 1802 and since then known as Dalton’s Law. As evaporation continues, the
surrounding air becomes saturated with moisture slowing down the process unless the saturated air is
removed continuously which depends on wind speed.

Surfaces subject to evaporation include: bare soil, vegetal cover and open water bodies. Where the
evaporating surface is soil surface, degree of shading of crop canopy and amount of water available at the
evaporating surface affect the evaporation process. Evaporation data is useful for assessing water loss in
reservoirs, computing crop water requirements and in design of irrigation systems. It is one of the
components of the water budget and is important in solving water management problems especially in
ASALs. Its importance has increased in the last decade because of increased need for irrigation. Estimating
the exact value of evaporation over an area is difficult due to the unsecure parameters. Many empirical
models have been developed for estimating evaporation the most widely used being the Penman
Equation which uses many parameters and involves many devices for calculating evaporation.

Although evaporation estimates from open water surfaces are important in meteorological, hydrological
and agricultural research, direct measurements are difficult because existing instruments cannot simulate
natural conditions accurately. Evaporation is therefore estimated using equations that take into account
meteorological factors controlling it and which are standard observations. Among these are temperature,
relative humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed and air pressure. These observations provide a
convenient method of comparing measurements from various places and serve as a rough check on
empirical estimates. Evaporation rate is a function of meteorological, environmental and other factors:

Meteorological factors:
Temperature of water and air:
Water surface temperature governs the rate at which water molecules leave the surface and
enter the overlying air. Saturation vapour pressure of water also depends on temperature. An
increase in temperature increases kinetic energy and decreases surface tension, hence
evaporation rate increases with temperature. Although there is a general increase in evaporation
rate with increasing air temperature, no strong correlation exists between evaporation rate and
air temperature and the same mean monthly temperature may have different evaporation rates.

Solar radiation:
Since change of state from liquid to gaseous state requires energy input (latent heat of vaporization), the
process is faster under direct sun’s radiation. Obstructions to solar radiation such as cloud cover that

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
reduce energy input slows down the process. Deep water bodies store more heat than shallow ones hence
they have more evaporation.

Wind speed: As water vaporizes into the atmosphere, the boundary layer between the water body and
air becomes saturated. Some air movement is necessary to stir the air and remove the lower moist layers
in contact with the water surface and mix them with the upper drier layers. This movement in boundary
layer depends on wind speed. However, if wind speed is large enough (critical speed) to remove all
evaporated water vapor, further increase in wind speed will have no effect on evaporation.

Relative humidity: Evaporation rate is proportional to the difference between actual humidity and
saturated humidity at a given temperature. As humidity of air rises, its ability to absorb water vapor
decreases which slows down evaporation. Unless the boundary air is replaced by air drier than the one
being displaced, evaporation will be at a standstill.

Nature of evaporating surface also has an effect on evaporation for example: Colour/ reflective
properties of the surface (albedo), surface cover, exposure and water table depth.

Atmospheric pressure and altitude:

The number of air molecules per unit volume increases with pressure, hence under high pressure chances
are that vapor molecules escaping from the water surface will collide with air molecules and rebound back
into the liquid thus decreasing evaporation. All factors remaining constant, a decrease in pressure as in
high altitudes, increases evaporation.

Water Quality (salinity and dissolved solids):

Evaporation rate is higher for fresh water than for salty water. When a solute dissolves in water, the vapor
pressure of the resultant solution is less than that of pure water which causes a reduction in evaporation
rate roughly corresponding to the increase in specific gravity of the solution. Under similar conditions
evaporation from sea water is 2-3% less than that from fresh water. Turbidity may influence evaporation
but it has less effect.

Estimation of Evaporation

Indirect methods
Evaporation estimation is necessary in the planning and design of many water resources infrastructure.
The unit time is daily read in millimeters (WMO, 2003). Direct measurement of evaporation or evapotran-
spiration from extended natural water or land surfaces is not possible at present. However, several
indirect methods derived from point measurements have been developed and provide reasonable results.

Methods of estimating evaporation:

Empirical equations: Water balance method, Energy balance method, Mass transfer method and the
combined mass transfer and Energy balance methods. The methods provide fast estimates but their
application is limited by data requirements with parameters difficult to measure. Most empirical
equations are based on Dalton’s law with modifications to account for factors that affect evaporation e.g.
wind speed, temperature, atmospheric pressure etc. Empirical formulae for estimating evaporation from
free water bodies include:

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi

Lake Mead’s equation:

E= 0.0331V es  ea 1  0.03Ta  Tw  where Ta and Tw are average temperatures (⁰C) of air and water
surfaces respectively. Although these equations can estimate evaporation quickly they should be used
with caution. Constants in the equations may vary for different areas and watersheds. These equations
are difficult to apply if required data is not available.

Water balance (budget) approach: This is based on continuity of flow and involves drawing a balance
sheet of all water entering and leaving a water body. Evaporation E is estimated as:

E = P + I – O + Ou + ∆S where

P = total precipitation
I = total inflow
O = total outflow
Ou = total underground inflow (+) or outflow (-)
∆S = change in storage (+) for an increase and (-) for a decrease.

Parameters should be in the same units for some convenient time interval (week, month etc.)

Since E is computed as a residual term its accuracy is subject to errors from the other terms. The method
is simple in concept but may be inaccurate due to errors in measured items. Accuracy can be improved by
increasing the time interval for which the equation is applied.

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
Example:
A 2.4 km2 reservoir receives 1270 mm of rainfall during a 12-month period. During the same period mean
stream inflow was 0.15m3/s and mean outflow 0.13m3/s. Increase in storage was 1.2x105m3. Estimate the
evaporation in mm. Ignore seepage losses.

Energy balance (budget) method: Similar to the water balance method. Lists all sources of thermal
energy (net radiation income) and balances it with thermal energy expenditure, leaving E as the only
unknown. Involves measurement of many hydro-meteorological factors that require sophisticated
equipment. Common in specialised studies. Based on the law of conservation of energy in the form of
heat.

Mass transfer method (Aerodynamic approach): is based on the determination of the mass of water
vapor transferred from the water surface to the atmosphere. The approach is based on Dalton’s
aerodynamic law that gives relationship between evaporation and vapour pressure as:

E   (es  ea ) where E- direct evaporation, k a coefficient depending on wind velocity, atmospheric

pressure and other factors, es and ea are saturation vapor pressures corresponding to air temperature
and actual vapour pressure in the air above respectively. The formula can be modified by multiplying by
a function of wind speed f (u) and k, defined as a constant, E  f (u )(es  ea ) .

Penman’s Method: The energy-balance and mass-transfer methods have drawbacks in terms of
practical application. PENMAN combined energy budget and mass transfer methods and derived an
equation to estimate evaporation on the basis of meteorological data routinely collected at
meteorological stations such as:

i. Average daily atmospheric pressure

ii. Average daily temperature
iii. Average daily vapour pressure (humidity)
iv. Actual number of sunshine hours
v. Average daily wind velocity measured at 2m above the water surface.

H E a
PET   Where
   
PET- Daily potential evapotranspiration in mm/day
∆- slope of the curve of saturation vapor pressure versus temperature at mean air temperature, in mm of
Hg per ⁰C.
γ- Psychometric constant whose value can be assumed as 0.49mmHg when temperature is expressed in
⁰
C.
Ea-Parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit
H-Net radiation exchange measured in mm of evaporable water per day (same as used in energy budget
method)
Example:
The following observations were made at a dam site on a day when mean air temperature (T) was 20°C,
average water spread area 2.7km2 and effective net radiation 6.4mm/day.
 0.66
The dimensionless factor  (1  ) 1
 [0.00815T  0.8912]
Factor Ea = 2.8mm/day
Using Penman’s equation, calculate the reservoir evaporation in ha-m.
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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi

Solution

 0.615 , Taking T as 20⁰C, γ = 0.626∆ and substituting in Penman’s expression

E = 0.615(6.4) + 0.626(0.615)2.8 = 5.014 mm/day
Taking reservoir area as 270 ha and evaporation depth as 5.014 x 10-3m, evaporation loss in ha-m is
1.354ha-m

Measurement of evaporation from free water surfaces:

Measurement of evaporation is done by USWB Class A evaporation pan installed as a surface, sunken or
floating pan. Details of class A land pan are shown in figure 2. A floating pan is used to study evaporation
in lakes and reservoirs and is set afloat to simulate the characteristics of a large reservoir with water level
in the pan kept the same as that in the lake. High cost of installation and maintenance and difficulty of
taking measurements are the disadvantages. Measured evaporation closely matches that of the lake. A
sunken pan is buried in the ground such that the water level is just above ground. Radiation and
aerodynamic characteristics closely match those of a reservoir. It is expensive to install and difficult to
detect leaks.

Observation procedure:
In evaporation pans the depth of evaporation during any interval is measured as the drop in water surface
level in the pan in that interval corrected for water added through rainfall or artificially. Water level
variation is measured by adding water / removing water from the pan up to the constant water mark.
Evaporation is determined from the equation:

E = P ± ∆H

Where E = evaporation (mm), P = rainfall depth (mm) and ∆H = depth of water added (+) /
removed (-) from the pan. ∆H is computed using a standard cup (0.5mm depth) of rainfall.

∆H = No. of cups added / removed x 0.5 mm.

If P = 0, then E = ± ∆H or E = 0 when there is no change of water level.

Standard evaporation pan

It is essential for purposes of comparison that evaporation pans be of the same size, shape and exposed
to the same conditions. The following instrument and exposure has been adopted as standard for East
Africa. The pan should be installed near a standard rain gauge, interior painted black to absorb incoming
solar radiation and exterior including the protective mesh grid with aluminium to reduce radiative loss. It
is mounted on 4 lengths of timber 4.5ft long and 4 by 4inches in cross-section to ease air circulation and
detection of leaks. Water filled to a depth of 20cm and level measured daily with a hook gauge in a stilling
well provided with the pan. E is measured as the daily difference in water levels adjusted for rainfall if any.

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi

Figure 1: USWB Class A Evaporation pan

Example 1
Rainfall recorded in a certain month was 183.2mm. In the same month, 250 standard cups of water were
taken out of the pan and 116 cups added. Calculate evaporation for the month.

Solution:
E=183.2 + (116-250) x 0.5 mm

Pan coefficient- Pan Evaporation data cannot be applied to free water surfaces directly but must be
adjusted for differences in physical and climatological factors. For example, a lake is larger and deeper
and may be exposed to different wind speed, as compared to a pan. The small volume of water in the pan
is also greatly affected by temperature fluctuations or by solar radiation in contrast with large water
bodies which have less temperature fluctuations. Pan evaporation data has to be corrected to obtain
actual lake / reservoir evaporation by multiplying with a pan coefficient defined as:

0.67 to 0.82, average of 0.7

Example 2:
During a daily routine observation, 10.8litres of water were added to bring the water level in the pan to
the stipulated level when a nearby rain gauge measured 3.6 mm of rainfall. Determine the daily
evaporation if the ɸ of the pan is 122cm?

Solution:
Pan diameter = 122 cm and area 3.14 *612 = 11689.87 cm2
Volume of water added = 10.8 litres = 10,800 cm3
Depth of water added 10800/11689.87 = 0.924 cm
Rainfall, recorded = 3.6 mm = 0.36 cm
Evaporation E= P±∆H = 0.36 + 0.924 = 1.284 cm (12.84 mm)

Installation requirements for an evaporation pan:

 Level ground free from obstructions such as trees, tall buildings, shrubs etc.
 Natural ground representative of area; no aggregates or other platforms below pan
 Should be installed level
 Be from any obstruction at a least a distance = 4 x height of obstructing measured above the pan.
 Fenced for protection and to prevent animals from drinking the water
 Ground cover around station similar to natural cover for the area

Installed in an evaporation station with a standard rain gauge or as part of MET station. The instruments
are used to establish relationships between pan measurement and other meteorological data so that in

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
the absence of direct measurement, evaporation can be estimated using other approaches. For purposes
of comparison evaporation pans should be of the same size, shape and be exposed similar conditions.

Transpiration:
This is the process by which plants dissipate water in form of vapour from their leaves / body into the
atmosphere during growth. Transpiration, like evaporation, depends on energy supply, vapour pressure
gradient and wind speed. Radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind should therefore be
considered when assessing transpiration. Soil water content and ability of the soil to conduct water to the
roots also determines transpiration rate as do water logging and soil water salinity. Though evaporation
loss is restricted to moisture losses on bare soil and water bodies, natural ground is covered by vegetation
and it is difficult to separate evaporation from transpiration loss.

Evapotranspiration (ET) is the collective term for all processes through which water in liquid/ solid form
becomes atmospheric water vapour. It includes evaporation from bare soil, water and vegetative surfaces
and transpiration which is evaporation from within plant leaves through the stomata. ET is the primary
link in the global hydrologic cycle between land and the atmosphere and plays a key role in runoff, water
availability and agriculture because most of the world’s food supply is grown through irrigation. Efficient
irrigation requires knowledge of ET. Consumptive use is the ET from an area plus the water used directly
in the metabolic process of building plant tissue.

Factors affecting evapotranspiration:

 Climatological factors (solar radiation, air temperature, humidity, wind speed)
 Crop factors (crop type, no. of stomata, depth of active root zone, % growing season)
 Soil factors (Soil physical properties e.g. moisture level)

 Potential evapotranspiration (PET): Is the maximum loss of water under given conditions of
plant cover and climate assuming all the water required by the plant is available It is the upper
limit of ET for a crop in a given climate.
 Actual evapotranspiration (AET): It is the true and observed quantity of ET which decreases in
rate as the soil moisture becomes depleted.

Estimation of PET: Measurement of ET for a given vegetation type can be done through:
 Direct methods – lysimeter or experimental plots
 Soil moisture depletion studies
 Water balance methods
 Estimation from pan evaporation (ET=Eo x k). k is crop factor and Eo is pan evaporation.
 Estimation from empirical equations; Penman Thornthwaite and Blaney-criddle.

Environmental factors that affect the rate of transpiration

Climate Factors
a. Temperature
A high temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from the mesophyll cells. So when the
temperature is high the rate of transpiration will be high. A high temperature also increases the capacity
of the atmosphere for water vapour.

b. Humidity
A high humidity will lead to a low transpiration rate because the surrounding of the plant will already be
saturated with water vapour.

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
c. Wind
When there is wind, the rate of transpiration is high because wind blows away water vapour from around
the leaves creating more room for evaporation. When there is still air then the surroundings of the leaf
will be saturated with water.

d. Light Intensity
Light affects stomatal aperture (opening and closing).

e. Atmospheric Pressure
When the pressure is low, the rate of transpiration is high.

Plant Factors
a. Root - shoot ratio:
If all other conditions are favorable for transpiration, the water absorbing capacity of room surface and
transpiring capacity of the leaf surface regulate the rate of transpiration if transpiration is greater than
absorption, a water deficit results, causing reduction in transpiration rate. In other words a low root/shoot
ratio decreases the rate of transpiration.

b. Leaf area:
The greater the leaf area, the higher will be the water loss due to transpiration.

c. Stomatal frequency:
Stomatal frequency is the total number of stomata per unit leaf area. Stomatal frequency varies with
different species. Greater the frequency of stomata, faster is the rate of transpiration.

d. Structure of leaf:
Presence of thick cuticlc, wax layers and trichomes on the surface of leave reduce the rate of
transpiration.

External or Environmental Factors

a. Light:
There is a close relationship between stomata opening and presence of light. Light affects the rate of
transpiration in two ways. Firstly, light causes stomata to open. As a result of wide opening of stomata,
the saturated interior cells of leaf are exposed to the outer atmosphere. Consequently, the rate of
transpiration is increased in bright sunlight. Secondly, it increases the temperature of leaf and thus affects
the rate of transpiration. In a nut shell, the combined effect of light causes opening of stomata and
increases the rate of vaporization of water.

b. Wind
The increase in the wind velocity increases the rate of transpiration by removing the water vapour of the
atmosphere from the vicinity of transpiring surface and lowering relative humidity. The transpiration is
faster in mild wind. The winds of much higher velocity retard the rate of transpiration.

c. Temperature
Increase in temperature increases the rate of transpiration. This is due to increase in the rate of
evaporation of water from cell surface and decrease in the humidity of the external atmosphere.
However, there is a limit in rise of temperature in relation to loss of water by transpiration. At very high
temperature, (above 35°C) the rate of transpiration gradually falls due to inactivity of the protoplasm.

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
d. Humidity of the air
Relative humidity of the atmosphere affects the rate of transpiration to a great extent because it
influences the DPD gradient between the intercellular spaces and outside atmosphere. The higher the
relative humidity of the outside atmosphere the lower will be the rate of transpiration. Conversely the
lower the relative humidity of the outside atmosphere the higher will be the rate of transpiration.

e. Atmospheric pressure
Reduction of atmospheric pressure reduces the density of external atmosphere which allows more rapid
diffusion of water. Plants growing on hills show higher rate of transpiration because of low atmospheric
pressure and thus they develop xerophytes characters.

f. Water Supply
Deficiency of water in the soil decreases the rate of transpiration. This is due to low absorption of water
from the soil

Factors affecting evapotranspiration:

 Climatological factors (solar radiation, air temperature, humidity, wind speed)
 Crop factors (crop type, no. of stomata, depth of active root zone, % growing season)
 Soil factors (Soil physical properties e.g. moisture level)

 Potential evapotranspiration (PET): Is the maximum loss of water under given conditions of
plant cover and climate assuming all the water required by the plant is available It is the upper
limit of ET for a crop in a given climate.

 Actual evapotranspiration (AET): It is the true and observed quantity of ET which decreases in
rate as the soil moisture becomes depleted.

Estimation of PET: Measurement of ET for a given vegetation type can be done through:
 Direct methods – lysimeter or experimental plots
 Soil moisture depletion studies
 Water balance methods
 Estimation from pan evaporation (ET = Eo x k). k is crop factor and Eo is pan evaporation.
 Estimation from empirical equations; Penman Thornthwaite and Blaney-criddle.

REDUCING EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES

Evaporation reduction is of great economic importance in arid climates since evaporation from storage in
these regions is substantial. Evaporation control is an important way of conserving water because it
requires little new construction and additional water becomes available without construction delays.

Methods of reducing evaporation

 Reducing surface area
Use of Mechanical covers
Suppressions of evaporation by surface films

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
Reducing surface area
The volume of water lost as evaporation is directly proportional to the exposed water spread area
Suggested methods are:
 Constructing reservoirs with minimum ratio of area to storage
 Storing water below the ground
 Storing water in one large reservoir instead of several small reservoirs
 Selecting proper reservoir sites, and
 Straightening stream channels thus reducing meandering of surfaces areas of water.
 Removing aquatic plant life near water surface to reduce transpiration.

i. Mechanical covers
These are ideal for small reservoirs. Suggested covers include:
 Roofs
 Floating rafts
 Wind breaks
 Floating wax block
 Floating light weight concrete blocks

ii. Suppressions of evaporation by surface films

 Chemicals such as polar compounds can act as evaporation suppressor
Applying thin films of these chemicals on the water surface can reduce evaporation
The thin film applied must be:
 Strong and flexible to avoid wave destruction
 Pervious to oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Colorless, odourless and non-toxic

Examples of these chemicals include acetyl alcohol and stearyl alcohol.

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