Content Area: MATHEMATICS

Focus: Probability and Statistics

Prepared by:
LET Competencies:

Counting Techniques

Experiment: any activity that can be done repeatedly (e.g. tossing a coin, rolling a die).

Sample space: the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment.

Example: In rolling a die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Sample point: an element of the sample space.

Example: In rolling a die, there are 6 sample points.

Counting Sample Points

1. Fundamental Principle of Counting (FPC)

If a choice consists of k steps, of which the first can be performed in n 1 ways, for each of these the second
can be performed in n2 ways, for each of these the third can be performed in n3 ways…, and for each of
these the kth can be made in nk ways, then the whole choice can be made in n1n2n3…nk ways.

Example: In how many ways can two dice fall? Ans. : 6 · 6 = 36 ways

2. Permutation

Permutation is an arrangement of objects wherein the order is important.

a. Linear Permutation
If n objects are to be arranged r objects at a time, then the number of distinct arrangements is given by

nPr = .

Example: In how many ways can the first, second and third winners may be chosen with 10 contestants?

10P3 =

b. Circular Permutation

If n objects are to be arranged in a circular manner, then the number of distinct arrangements is (n - 1)!

Example: In how many ways can 6 people be arranged around a circular table?
Answer: (6 - 1)! = 5!

c. Permutation with Repetitions

The number of permutations of n things of which n1 are one of a kind, n2 second of a kind, …, nk of a kth kind is
n!
n1!n2 !...nk !
Example: How many different permutations are there in the word WAGAYWAY if all letters are to be taken?

8!
Answer:
2 !3 !2 !

3. Combination

Combination is the arrangement of objects regardless of order. In other words, the order of arranging the objects
is not important. If n objects are to be arranged r at a time, the number of distinct combinations is given by:

1
 n Cr = .

Example: In how many ways can a committee of 3 be chosen from 7 persons?

7!
Answer:
3! 4 !

Probability

Probability: the likelihood of occurrence of an event.

If E is any event, then the probability of an event denoted by P(E) has a value between 0 and 1, inclusive.
In symbols,
0 ≤ P (E) ≤ 1
If P(E) = 1, then E is sure to happen.
If P(E) = 0, then E is impossible to happen.
Moreover, if the probability that E will not happen is P(E’), then P (E) + P (E’) = 1.

Theoretical Probability
Theoretically, the probability of an event E, denoted by P(E), is defined as

n( E )
P(E) =
n( S )

where n(E) = number of favorable outcomes

n(S) = number of possible outcomes

Exercises

1. A coin is flipped once.

a. How many possible outcomes are there?

b. What are these outcomes?
c. How many of these outcomes consist of a face facing up?
d. What is the probability that a tail faces up?
2. A spinner can land on any of the numbers 1 through 12 with equal likelihood. What is the probability that the
spinner lands on a/an
a. odd number? b. number greater than 12?
c. prime number? d. number divisible by 3 or 4?
e. number divisible by 3 and 4? f. number between 3 and 9?

3. A box contains cards printed with the letters of the word “PHILIPPINES,” so that “P” is one 3 cards, “H” is on
one card, and so on. A card is drawn from the box.
a. How many possible outcomes are there?
b. What are these outcomes?
c. Are these outcomes equally likely?
d. What is the probability that the card drawn is
i. a “P” ii. a “H”
ii. a “I” iv. not a “P”

STATISTICS

Statistics is the branch of mathematics used to summarize quantities of data and help investigators draw
sound conclusions. Its two main branches are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

A sample is a specified set of measurements or data, which is drawn from a much larger body of
measurements or data called the population.

Kinds of Sampling

1. Random sampling techniques are used to ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of
being included in the sample. A random sample is said to be representative of the entire population. The two
methods of random sampling are lottery method and the use of the table of random numbers.
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2. Systematic sampling is a technique which selects every nth element of the population for the sample, with the
starting point determined at random from the first n elements.

3. Stratified random sampling is a technique of selecting simple random samples from mutually exclusive
groupings or strata of the population.

Graphical Representations of Data

Graphs are used in mathematics to show relationships between sets of numbers. Graphs are
useful in the field of statistics because they can show the relationships in a set of data.

1. Histogram - a graphical picture of a frequency distribution consisting of a series of vertical columns or

rectangles, each drawn with a base equal to the class interval and a height corresponding to the class frequency.
The bars of a histogram are joined together, that is, there are no spaces between bars.

2. Bar Chart- uses rectangles or bars to represent discrete classes of data. The length of each bar corresponds to
the frequency or percentage of the given class or category. The categories are in turn placed in either horizontal

3. Frequency Polygon- a special type of line graph, where each class frequency is plotted directly above the
midpoint or class mark of its class interval and lines are then drawn to connect the points.

4. Pie Chart- an effective way of presenting categorized (qualitative) distributions, where a circle is divided into
sectors - pie-shaped pieces - which are proportional in size to the corresponding frequencies or percentages.

5. Pictogram- known as picture graph where picture symbols are used to represent values.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

A measure of central tendency is a single, central value that summarizes a set of numerical data. It
describes a set of data by locating the middle region of the set.
Measures Definition How to find Advantages Disadvantages
of Central
Tendency
Mean The sum of the data Ungrouped data: A single, unique Not appropriate for
divided by the number value that is skewed
of data = representative of distribution as it is
all the scores affected by
extreme scores or
Grouped Data: Stable from group outliers
to group
=
May be used in
further
computations
Median The middle number of Ungrouped data: More stable from Not necessarily
the set when the data group to group representative of
are arranged in The middle for the than the mode all scores
numerical order
Appropriate for Unstable from
skewed group to group
Grouped Data: distribution
Cannot be used in
Mdn = L + further analyses

Mode The number that occurs Ungrouped data: Easy to obtain Not necessarily
most frequently in the The most frequent representative of
data score all scores

Grouped Data: Cannot be used in

The class mark of the further analyses
class interval with the
highest frequency
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Example: The scores for five students on a quiz are 40, 20, 30, 25, and 15. To find the mean score for this group
of students, we first find the sum of the scores:

40+20+30+25+15=130

We then divide the sum by 5, the number of scores:

130
 26 .
5

Example: Determine the median for the set of scores

82, 81, 80, 87, 20

Solution: We arrange the scores in Example 1 in order fro lowest to highest:

20, 80, 81, 82, 87

The middle number in this arrangement is 81 and it is the median.

Exercises

1. The mean score on a set of 10 scores is 71. What is the sum of the 10 test scores?

2. The mean score on a set of 13 score is 77. What is the sum of the 13 test scores?

3. The mean score on four of a set of five scores is 75. The fifth score is 90. What is the sum of the five
scores? What is the mean of the five scores?

4. Two sets of data are given. The first set of data has 10 scores with a mean of 70, and the second set of
data has 20 scores with a mean of 80. what is the mean for both sets of data combined?

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

A measure of variation or variability describes how large the differences between the individual scores.
The common measures of variability are range and standard deviation.

Measures Definition How to find Advantages Disadvantages

of
Variation

Range The difference between the Ungrouped data: Easy to compute Unstable
highest score and the R = HS - LS
lowest score Gives a unique Not representative
Grouped Data: value of the set of data

R = Upper Limit Easy to understand

of the Highest Not used in further
Class Interval - computations
Lower Limit of the
Lowest Class
Interval
Standard The square root of the Ungrouped data: Most stable Affected by
deviation variance of the set of data extreme scores
Gives a unique
S= value More difficult to
Grouped Data: compute and
Most understand
representative
S=
Used in further
computations

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Exercises

1. On a quiz, the following scores were made in a class of 10 students: 72, 83, 86, 97, 90, 70, 65, 71, 80, 86. For
this set of scores, give the
a. mean b. median
c. mode d. range
e. midrange f. standard deviation

2. Jao, Dhei, Nelfe, Dada and Ched are all in the same statistics class. Their scores for the first two exams in the
class are listed in the accompanying table. The first exam had a mean of 84 and a standard deviation of 6, whereas
the second exam had a mean of 78 and a standard deviation of 4.
__________________________________
Exam 1 Exam 2
__________________________________
Jao 84 78
Dhei 90 74
Nelfe 66 78
Dada 78 70
Ched 84 78
__________________________________

a. Who improved on the second exam?

b. Who improved the most on the second exam?
c. Who did not improve on the second exam?
d. Considering both exams, who did the poorest?
e. Who performed the same on both exams?

PRACTICE EXERCISES

1. In a political science survey, voters are classified into six income categories and five education categories. In
how many different ways can a voter be classified?
A. 11 B. 25 C. 30 D. 45

2. The number of permutations of the word “probabilities” is

A. 13 B. 2!3! C. 13! D. 13!/(2!3!)

3. The number of ways seven visitors can be seated on a round table is

A. 6! B. 7! C. 6!7! D. 6!/2

4. In a certain town, 40% of the people have brown hair, 25% have brown eyes, and 15% have both brown hair
and brown eyes. A person is selected at random from the town. If he has brown eyes, what is the probability that
he does not have brown hair?
A. 3/8 B. 2/5 C. ½ D. none of these

5. A die is tossed. If the number is odd, what is the probability that it is prime?
2 3 2 1
A. B. C. D.
3 4 5 3

6. An accounting professor can assign grades of A, B, C, D, or F to student’s examinations. In how many ways
can the professor assign grades to three different student examinations?
A. 120 ways B.125 ways C. 25 ways D. 50 ways

7. A bag contains 15 red beads, 30 white beads, 20 blue beads, and 7 black beads. If one of the beads as drawn at
random, what is the probability that it will be white or blue?
25 15 13 17
A. B. C. D.
36 42 40 52

8. A whole number is chosen at random from the whole numbers from 1 to 50. What is the probability that it is an
even square?
A. 0.07 B. 0.06 C. 0.02 D. 0.09

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9. A pair of dice is tossed. If the numbers appearing are different, find the probability that the sum is even.

1 2 2
A. B. C. D. none of these
2 3 5

10. If repetitions are not permitted, how many 3 digits number less than 400 can be formed from the digits 2, 3, 5,
6, 7 and 9?
A.30 B.126 C.40 D. 162

11. In how many different ways can a true-false test be answered if there are five items, assuming that the student
give an answer for each item.
A.5! B.2! C. 52 D. 25

12. There are five musical numbers in a program. The number of ways these numbers can be presented is
A. 5 B.5! C. 25 D. 5!/ 3!2!

13. The numbers of permutations of the word “probabilities” is

A.13 B. 13! C.2! 3! D. 13!/ 2!3!

14. The number of ways seven students can be seated on a round table is
A. 6! B.6! 7! C.7! D. 6! /2

15. How many different signals, each consisting of 6 flags hung in a vertical line, can be formed from 4 identical
red flags and 2 identical blue flags?
A. 6! B. 6  4! C.4! 2! D. 6! 4!2!

16. The probability of getting a black heart is

A.0 B. 1 4 C.1 D. 1 52

17. In a certain town, 40% of the people have brown hair, 25% have brown eyes, and 15% have both brown hair
and brown eyes. A person is selected at random from the town. I he has brown eyes, what is the probability that
he does not have brown hair?
A. 3 8 B. 1 2 C. 2 5 D. None of these

For items 18-20: The scores of 10 students in a Math quiz are as follows:

Student A B C D E F G H I J
Score 18 32 10 15 27 18 23 28 29 30

18. What is the median score?

A. 18 B. 20 C. 23 D. 25

19. What is the mode of the scores?

A. 18 B. 20 C. 23 D. 25

20. What is the range of scores?

A. 18 B. 22 C. 23 D. 25

21. Jojo aims to get an average of 90 in 5 unit tests. The results of the first four unit tests are as follows: 89, 92,
86, and 91. What should his grade in the fifth unit be for his average to be at least 90?
A. 91 B. 92 C. 93 D. 94