A.

Definition of Communication

Communication is a vital element in varied disciplines because of its richness in

scope and extent of the application. It is in this context that numerous definitions of
communication will be illustrated to grasp further the concept as viewed by experts.

Schramm states communication is “a tool that makes societies possible and

distinguishes human from other societies.”

Berelson and Steiner explain communication as the transmission of information,

ideas, and emotions, skills through the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures, and
graph. Roger states that “Communication is the process of transmitting ideas,
information, and attitudes from the source to a receiver for the purpose of
influencing with intent.”

Kar visions communication as “all those planned or unplanned processes through

which one person influences the behavior of others.”

The following definitions when put together comprehensively suggest that

communication can be defined as: “ a process of transmitting ideas, information,
attitudes by the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures from the source(who is the
originator of the message) to a receiver, for the purpose of influencing with intent”.
Therefore, communication is considered as a process through which senders and
receivers of messages interact in a given social context.

The Four Basic Components of the Concept of

Communication
Communication Components

A sender transmits a message to receivers depending on the previous definitions; it

can be resolved that communication is a process used for timely and proper
exchange of information between a sender and a receiver to achieve the desired
objective.
 Factors in the Definitions

Process

It advocates that the components of interaction are dynamic in nature which simply
means that no single aspect of communication can be meaningfully understood
apart from the other elements.

Interaction

It is the process of relating between senders and receivers of the message because
communication is an attempt to bridge the gap between two individuals through
production and reception of messages which is central to the understanding of the
concept of process in communication.

Social Context

Human communication is influenced to a great extent by the social context in which

it occur where it consists of a set of rules which govern the origin, flow, and effect of
the messages.

B. Communication Process
It is the partaking of significant information between two or more people where the
objective of the receiver understanding the sender’s intended message.

Thus, it is evident that communication process is the set of some sequential steps
involved in conveying the message as well as feedback. The process requires a
sender who transmits a message through a channel to the receiver where the
receiver decodes the message and sends back some signal or feedback.
 Steps or Elements of Communication Process

The communication process refers to the steps through which communication takes
place between the sender and the receiver. This process starts with conceptualizing an idea
or message by the sender and ends with the feed backing from the receiver. In details,
communication process consists of the following eight steps:

Developing Idea by the sender

The first step, the communicator develops or conceptualizes an idea to be sent. It is

also known as the planning stage since in this stage the communicator plans the subject
matter of communication.

Encoding

Means are converting or translating the idea into a perceivable form that can be
communicated to others.

Developing the message

After encoding, the sender gets a message that can be transmitted to the receiver.
The message can be oral, written, symbolic or nonverbal. For example, when people talk,
speech is the message; when people write a letter, the words and sentences are the
messages; when people cry, the crying is the message.

Selecting the medium

Medium is the channel or means of transmitting the message to the receiver. Once
the sender has encoded the message, the next step is to select a suitable medium for
transmitting it to the receiver. The medium of communication can be speaking, writing,
signalling, and gesturing.
Transmission of message

In this step, the sender transmits the message through the chosen medium. In the
communication cycle, the tasks of the sender end with the transmission of the message.

Receiving the message

This stage simply involves the reception of sender's message by the receiver. The
message can be received in the form of hearing, seeing, and feeling.

Decoding

Decoding is the receiver's interpretation of the sender's message. Here the receiver
converts the message into thoughts and tries to analyze and understand it. Effective
communication can occur only when both the sender and the receiver assign the same or
similar meanings to the message.

Feedback

The final step of communication process is feedback. Feedback means the receiver’s
response to sender’s message. It increases the effectiveness of communication. It ensures
that the receiver has correctly understood the message. Feedback is the essence of two-
way communication.

Examples and Observations

Sender and Receiver

“In the basic interpersonal communication model, the sender, also known as the
source, is the person who initiates the communication process. . . In a dyadic, or two-
person, communication situation, the receiver is the other person involved. In a public
speaking or public communication situation, the audience is made up of receivers. The
number can vary from a few to a few hundred. In mass communication, there could be
hundreds, millions, or even billions of receivers while in dyadic communication or public
speaking, the channel, or a means of sending or receiving information, is both verbal
communication (spoken word) and nonverbal communication.
Interaction of Senders and Receivers

“Communication is an interaction where participants take turns ‘sending’ and

‘receiving.’ This turn--taking is even true for mass-mediated communication, for instance,
the process whereby an entertainment program is created, programmed, and aired, for an
audience’s enjoyment. If the audience watches and enjoys the program, it is likely to
continue to be aired. If the audience is not amused, the program is prone to be cancelled.
Interaction means that both parties—persons or entities—can affect the other, in this way,
both parties are senders and receivers. They are also co-persuaders in that they may take
turns trying to affect one another by sharing symbols.”

Context

“It refers to the idea that every act of communication must happen in some
surroundings or the physical context—which is to do with the occasion involved and the
people in it. It could be a group of friends in a club or a family meal or a group of mourners
at a funeral. On the other hand is the cultural context which refers to an even broader set of
circumstances and beliefs, which till may affect how we talk. For example, it would matter if
the funeral was in a Hindu or an Anglican context. It is particularly important to see that
the media are part of the cultural context in which we operate. How we talk, what we talk
about, what music we listen to, has a lot to do with the influence of the cultural context of
the media.”

(Richard Dimbleby and Graeme Burton, More Than Words: An Introduction to

Communication, 3rd ed. Routledge, 1998)

Noise in the Communication Process

“Noise is anything that interrupts or interferes with the communication process

which can be physical or psychological which can disrupt the communication process at
any point, and which can be associated with any element in the system.”

(Sandra D. Collins, Interpersonal Communication: Listening and Responding, 2 nd ed.

South-Western, 2009)
Feedback in the Communication Process

“Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After receiving
a message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The
signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written message, a smile or
some other action. Even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form of response. Without
feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message
correctly. Feedback is a key component in the communication process because it allows the
sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message to take corrective action to clarify a
misunderstood message.”

(Sathya Swaroop Debasish and Bhagaban Das, Business Communication. PHI L earning,
2009)

Co-orientation in the Communication Process

“An interesting manifestation of the attention paid to the receiver in the study of the
communication process is the concept of ‘co-orientation,’ which has become popular in the
United States recently. The idea behind this concept is that two persons can have similar
perceptions and interpretations of the same object, and the greater the similarity (co-
orientation), the more efficient will be the flow of communication between the persons.
Conversely, an intense flow of communication may increase co-orientation.”

(Juan Diaz Bordenave, “Communication Theory and Rural Development.” Communication

for Social Change Anthology, ed. By Alfonso Gumuel Dagron and Thomas Tufte, CFSC
Consortium, 2006)
Communication Model

Functions

A closer look at the different communication models will lead:

 To illuminate the scope of human interaction showing it to be a circular, complex,

continuous dynamic, or a coding process.
 To opine in conditions to analyze different responses.
 To demonstrate the variables in human communication.
 To utilize as a framework for researchers.

Aristotle expressed that a researcher has to look for three communication

ingredients:

 The person who speaks

 The speech that he produces
 The person who listens

The contemporary models were developed in 1949 by Claude Shannon, a

mathematician and explained by the non-mathematician, Warren Weaver. They were not
talking about human communication but electronic communication

Shannon- Weaver model

 It is consistent with Aristotle’s position.

  The two added ingredients: a transmitter which sends out the source’s
message and a receiver, which catches the message from the destination.

Basic elements of communication model

Source/ Encoder

 All form of human communication have source.

 The source has ideas, needs, intentions, information and a purpose of
communication
 It is translated into code, a language and performed by the encoder
 As source encoder, the communication skill levels determine the
communication n fidelity in two ways:
A. It affects the ability to examine our purpose and intents, the ability to express
thing in communication.
B. It affects the ability to encode messages which express what we intend.
Four kinds of factors
 Communication skills
 Attitude
 Knowledge level
 Socio-cultural system

Receiver / Decoder

- The most vital yoke in the communication process.

- The target of communication to solicit a positive response.
- The receiver always has to be considered when the source makes decisions
concerning different communication variables.
 The rapport between the source and the receiver may include:
Stimulus - Response
Sender - Receiver
Encoder - Decoder
Source - Destination
Actor - Audience
Communicator - Communicate

Messages

 It is the transformation of ideas into purpose and intents into a code and a
systematic set of symbols
 Berlo articulates that there are three factors that should be taken into
account considering the message:
A. Message code: the way in which symbols are structured.
B. Content: the selection of material to express the purpose.
C. Treatment: The way in which the message is presented,
frequency and emphasis.

Frame of Reference/ FIlter

 It is the degree by which the sender and receiver overlap in various frames of
communication.
 Through which the audience receives the message which includes meanings
that can heighten or cripple the effect
 Meanings are in references conveyed in symbols.
 The communicator, who is addressing different personalities at the same
time, cannot adjust an appeal to meet their individual reaction.
 An approach that convinces one part of the audience may not agree with
another part.
 The receiver filters the messages regarding frame of reference
 Each person has warehoused experience, concerning beliefs and values
related to himself and his group.

Dimension of Message:

1. Elements: The concepts that are comprised in the message.

2. Structure: The organization of the message.

3. Production: The length and employment of the message.

Characteristics of Message
 THE AMOUNT OF COMMUNICATION
- It includes the total volume of information as well as content covered. Too little
information may not be sufficient to answer all questions of the receiver and
may result in a rejection of the message. Information surplus may not be
efficiently integrated and may confuse the receiver. In general, people tend to
forget details of communication, and this is the reason sender needs to level the
message and needs to sharpen to underscore a limited number of details.
 THE FREQUENCY OF COMMUNICATION
- Repeated exposure to varied communication messages reinforces the tendency
of the act in those receivers. Repetition may irritate the audience but varying the
content of the message serves the purpose of reminding the receiver of the
general ideas that are being discussed.
 COMMUNICATION CHANNEL
- It is the medium utilized to transport a message; it is means by which a message
travels between the senders to the communication receiver.
 CHANNEL DIMENSION
- Channels, Networks, Forms, and Dimensions of Communication.

The channel of communication refers to the way through which a message flows
from the sender to the recipient. An organization should have a well-ordered
network of channels along which communication flows.

Most of the information flow of communication are downward and follows the
formal lines of organization.

Communication channels are divided into two clusters:

1. Formal channel of communication
2. Informal channel of communication

Formal channel of communication

Formal channels are those who transmit the official message in organization.
Most businesshas major well-established channels of information flow, like the
network of arteries and veins in the body.

A formal channel of communication is one of the means controlled by

managers or people occupying similar positions where formal information flow
includes the movements of the information through reports, e-mails, records,
sales, presentations, advertising, and publicity of organization.
 Advantages of Formal channel:
 Effective communication of an organization depends upon the formal
channel of communication.
 It empowers an organization to pass on information to its various
branches smoothly.
 It strengthen the organization and satisfy the people in managerial
position.

Disadvantages of Formal channel:

 Deters free flow of information at times.
 Consumes more time compares to other forms.
 Luxurious
FORMAL VS. NON-FORMAL COMMUNICATION

BASIS FOR COMPARISON FORMAL INFORMAL

COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION
Meaning A type of verbal A type of verbal
communication in which communication in which
the interchange of the interchange of
information is done through information does not follow
the pre-defined channels is any channels (i.e. the
known as formal communication stretches in
communication. all directions.).
Another Name Official Communication Grapevine Communication
Reliability More Comparatively less
Speed Slow Very Fast
Evidence As the communication is No documentary evidence.
written, documentary
evidence is present.
Time Consuming Yes No
Advantage Effective due to the timely Efficient because employees
and systematic flow of can discuss work-related
information. problems, this saves time
and cost of organization.
Disadvantage Distortion due to a long Spread of rumors.
chain of communication.
Secrecy Full secrecy is maintained. It is difficult to maintain the
secrecy.
Flow of Information Only through pre-defined Can move freely.
channels.

These dimensions allow the communicator to gauge the effectiveness of different

communication channels through:
 CHANNEL CREDIBILITY
- Is the skillfulness and dependability of a channel as perceived by the receivers.
Channel credibility id directly connected to communicator and audience
characteristics. However, print media are perceived by members of upper socio-
economic groups as being sounder, while television is perceived as more
credible by lower socio-economic groups.
 CHANNEL FEEDBACK
- Is identified as the opening to provide for the receiver to respond immediately
and to affect the source of the message in the communication process. Face-to-
face communication tends to enable feedback while mass communication tends
to control it.
 CHANNEL INVOLVEMENT
- (Or participation) is the effort required by all senses to receive information from
a communication channel, face-to-face communication offers the greatest
possibility for the involvement where print media offer the least possibility of
involvement.
 CHANNEL AVAILABILITY
- Is the frequency and extent to which a channel may be used to reach a given
audience. In some geographic areas, some channels may not be available such as
a television in mountainous areas or print media in highly uniformed areas.
 CHANNEL PERMANENCY
- (Or ability to preserve a message) is the ability of a communication channel over
time to carry the message. Print media have this dimension but contrast radio
does not.
 CHANNEL MULTIPLICATIVE POWER
- Is the channel ability to cover areas with speed and timeliness. The mass media
can multiply a message and make it available to large numbers of people while
face-to-face communication is low in this dimension.
 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

1) ONE TO ONE

ADVANTAGES:
 time for the individual
 the individual can voice clear opinions without the influence of others

DISADVANTAGES:

 the manager is likely to have more of a voice

 open to manipulation
 only the leader gets the overall picture
 time consuming

2) CASCADE

ADVANTAGES:
 can reach more staff
 makes middle managers feel involved

DISADVANTAGES:

 the message becomes diluted, incorrect or forgotten

 some people will not hear the message at all

3) ONE TO ONE ENDORSEMENT WITHIN A GROUP

ADVANTAGES:
 the team has more control over the content of the decision and can,
therefore, ensure that the rationale remains intact
 there are fewer hidden agendas to second guess and negotiate
 it is easier to achieve individual commitment and with each endorsement, to
build a sense of a collective bandwagon beginning to roll

DISADVANTAGES:

 People respond in a private capacity. Is this enough if the going gets rough?
Will they change their mind?
 The evidence itself is subject to rather less discussion than it would receive
in a larger group
4) ROUND TABLE MANAGEMENT LED CONSENSUS
 ADVANTAGES:
 Ensures that the message is heard the same by everyone
 Everyone hears the opinions of others
 Open communication channels

DISADVANTAGES:

 might not be candid about the obstacles and opportunities

 less likely to feel the need to defend their own corner
 professionals often feel obliged to disagree then then come up with
consensus
 difficulty in getting everyone together at the same time

5) ROUND TABLE CONSENSUS FOR A GROUP DECISION

ADVANTAGES:
 Ensures that the message is heard the same by everyone
 Everyone hears the opinions of others
 Open communication channel

DISADVANTAGES:

 no leader to keep the communication focused

 no control over the group's activities
 potentially no outcomes

EFFECTS

Communication effects represent the changes in the receiver behavior that occur as a result
of the transmission of the message.

Propositions about communication effects:

 There are many levels of effect.

 Much of the effect and its mechanism are hidden in our cognitive structure.
 The complex behavior usually has complex causes.
FEEDBACK

It is a return flow from the message; a response from the receiver to the source’s message.
In human communication, a speaker hears words at the same time, or approximately at the
same time, that the other party hears them.

TWO KINDS OF FEEDBACK:

a) Positive Feedback
b) Negative Feedback

Communication Noise

It can be identified as the loss of meaning during the transmission.

Two major types of noise:

a) Channel Noise

It includes any disturbance which interferes with the physical transmission of the
message.

b) Semantic Noise

This type of noise results in the wrong elucidation of messages, even though the
message is received exactly but the words are grim, subject too tough for a receiver
to comprehend and the presence of words with multiple meanings which could have
different interpretations.
 Communication

Verbal
Non-verbal

Verbal communication-

Oral communication (phone calls, conversation)

Visual communication- (maps, traffic signals)

Written communication- (memos, letters)

Electronic communication- (telephone fax, E-mail)

Non-verbal-

Facial gestures

Voice inflections

Movement of body parts

Clothing

Body posture

Eye contact
Classification of Forms of Communication

1. Interpersonal Communication

- communication transaction that takes place within an individual

- made possible because man becomes an object to himself.

-fill more time in our every communication

2. Interpersonal Communication

-face-to-face interaction

-such as group meetings, interviews, conversations among individuals

Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication

- Perceptual engagement on the part of two or more people in physical proximity.

- Perceptual engagement allows focused interaction between a single focus of

cognitive and visual interaction.

- In this focused interaction, there will be an exchange of messages

- In this exchange, the participants represent to each other cues they think the other
will interpret as intended.

- The interaction is face to face. Therefore, all senses may be utilized, and
participants confront each other totally.

- The interpersonal setting is unstructured; few rules govern form or content of

interpersonal messages.
Interpersonal communication is very effective in influencing attitudes and behavior

- people contacts are casual, difficult to evade

- people are likely to put their trust in the judgment and viewpoint of persons whom
they know, like and respect.

- personal communication influence people through what is said and by the personal
control in which the source is as important as the content itself.

- There is great flexibility in the content of interpersonal communication

- in face-to-face communication a person can ask questions, help direct the

communication and make some control over it.

- in a face-to-face situation, there is a chance for quick exchange of information.

- It is possible to stimulate all the senses. It is also possible to communicate more for
complete information.

-High percentage of the available information is non-verbal.

Medio Communication

- between interpersonal communication and mass communication.

Intermediate level of communication

Derived from Latino, meaning middle.

- Distinguished by the presence of technical instrument.

Mass Communication

- process which communication is directed simultaneously (immediately) to a large,

heterogenous (different) and anonymous (unknown) audience on a massive scale.
Messages are transmitted publicly and are transient in nature. The communicator
works in a complex organization.

The mass media includes the following:

Print media (newspapers, magazines and books)

Electronic media (radio programs, audio recordings, T.V. programs)

The mass media advent required two developments:

A. A relatively advent technology to produce the necessary instruments.

B. An accompanying level of literacy among large numbers of people to utilize the

disseminated information.

The mass media may also be compared on the following dimensions:

The medium fidelity (objectivity) in presenting the following dimensions of an

original event:

A. Verbal symbols

B. Picture symbols

C. Color

D. Sound

E. Emotions.
 The medium delivery’s speed, the length of time between an event and when
the medium can inform people about it.
 The medium’s portability, the ease with which the medium can be moved to
the environment, both to cover news stories and to reach its audiences.
 The extensiveness of the medium’s coverage of the environment, the extent of
information of interest the media transmits to its receivers.
 The medium’s access to feedback.
 The possibility of having a message repeated to satisfy receivers needs.
Non- Verbal Communication

-It is a fundamental human interaction where speech alone is unable to deal with it. It is a
communication that can occur without words at all.

The sender has, at least, four main sets of physical non-verbal cues: face, eyes, body,
and voice.

 The facial expression includes frowning, smiling, and grimacing.

 The eyes can signal by direction of gaze.
 The body offers posture positions of arms and legs and distancing.
 Voice includes tone and speech rhythm.

The receiver has five primary senses- vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. There
are five functional categories of non-verbal communication.

 Emblems movements that are substituted for words.

 Illustrator’s movements that accompany speech and accent.
 Regulators movements that maintain or signal a change in speaking and listening
roles.
 Adaptors movements related to individual need or emotional rate.
 Effect particularly the facial expressions showing emotions.

Categories of Non- Verbal Language

 Language of facial expression

o A smile, a scowl or a frown has a universal meaning.
 Language of eye contact
o There are some messages communicated by glances such as involvement,
hostility, command, appreciation and others.
 Language of posture
o The more the person leans towards towards the individual he is talking to,
the more positively he feels about the person and vice versa.
 Language of voice
o Voice variations may convey anger, fear, joy and grief.
 Language of apparel
 o Persona dressing style communicates something about us from wearing of
uniform selecting work clothes, play clothes, formal dress. The choices of
apparel reflect our respect for those who we visit, or go out with, and it is
assumed that young people who wear glasses tend to be judged as more
seniors and intelligent.

 Language of color
o Warm colors- such as yellow, orange, and red- stimulate creativity and make
people feel outgoing and responsive to others. Cool colors encourage
meditation and also may discourage conversation.
 Language of odor
o Odors have a profound ability to recall memories out of one’s past. Food
smells remind one of his mother’s cooking, and flowers of springtime.
 Language of time
o People have a unique culture clock. In Egypt, you can be half an hour late for
a party or business appointment but in Europe, you can’t be late for neither
of them.
 Language of space
o Every individual seems to develop a distance at which he prefers to interact
with others Latin Americans like to talk with each other closely while North
Americans maintain a considerable distance.

Organizational Communication

 It is a form of interpersonal communication that takes place within definite

boundaries. It is concerned with the achievement of the goals of that organization. It
has the characteristics of interpersonal. Each member of the organization is obliged
to communicate in certain ways.

Different organizations share similar characteristics

 They all have members interacting with each other occupying various social
positions and playing social roles.
 Norms of appropriate behaviour with standards of appropriate methods of
communication some patterns are rewarded and reinforced others are disapproved.
 Communication through organizations becomes predicted because of the direction,
frequency form and content of messages exchanges.
 Organizational communication act remains dyadic or a two-person interaction. The
messages exchanged are transmitted from one person to another then from that
person to another and so on.
 Major transmission in organizational communication is oral, yet it also include print
in form of memos and cards.
 The official routes of organizational communication are formal channels of
communication. It is concerned with the dissemination of information to the
members of the group.