ASSIGNMENT

METAL FABRICATION
& It’s Techniques

SUBMITTED TO: MISS SOBIA ANWAR

SUBMITTED BY: UZAIR KHAN
(2018-CH-01)
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METAL FABRICATION
& It’s techniques
Metal fabrication is the creation of metal structures by cutting, bending and assembling
processes. Fabrication techniques are normally preceded by refining, alloying, and often heat-
treating processes that produce alloys with the desired characteristics. It is a value-added process
involving the creation of machines, parts, and structures from various raw materials. Factors
upon which metal fabrication techniques depend are as follow:

• Metal properties
• Size & shape of finished piece/product
• Cost

CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FABRICATION TECHNIQUES

Forming Operations Casting Miscellaneous

Forging, Rolling, Sand, Die, Investment, Powder metallurgy,

Lost foam, Continuous Welding
Extrusion, Drawing

1. Forming Operations:
Forming operations make use of suitable stresses like compression, tension, shear or combined
stresses to cause plastic deformation of the materials to produce required shapes. In forming, no
material is removed i.e. they are deformed, where Deformation is the change in the shape of
metal when a certain load is applied to it. And the magnitude of this load must exceed the yield
point of this material. Metals are said to be worked when these are processed (squeezed or
stretched or beaten) for deformation into desired shapes. There are further two types of it which
are as follow:

• Hot Working
• Cold Working

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Hot Working:
Hot working process metals are plastically deformed above their recrystallization temperature.
Being above the recrystallization temperature allows the material to recrystallize during
deformation. This is important because recrystallization keeps the materials from strain
hardening, which ultimately keeps the yield strength and hardness low and ductility high.
Where recrystallization means a process by which deformed grains are replaced by a new set of
defect-free grains that nucleate and grow until the original grains have been entirely consumed.
For hot-working operations, large deformations are possible, which may be successively repeated
because the metal remains soft and ductile. Also, deformation energy requirements are less than
for cold working. However, most metals experience some surface oxidation, which results in
material loss and a poor final surface finish. Hot rolling, hot forging, hot spinning, hot extrusion,
hot drawing etc. are some of the examples of Hot working.

Cold Working:
Cold working is the plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature. In
most cases, such cold forming is done at room temperature. The major cold-working operations
can be classified basically as squeezing, bending, shearing and drawing. Cold working produces
an increase in strength with the attendant decrease in ductility, since the metal strain hardens.
Advantages over hot working include a higher quality surface finish, better mechanical properties
and closer dimensional control of the finished piece. On occasion, the total deformation is
accomplished in a series of steps in which the piece is successively cold worked a small amount
and then process annealed; however, this is an expensive and inconvenient procedure.
Examples of Cold Working process are pressing out car body panels, Cold-drawing rods, Wires
and tubes, Cold rolling strip and Sheet metals etc.

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Types of Forming Operations

• FORGING:
Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a normally hot metal; this may be
accomplished by the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing. Forged articles
have outstanding grain structures and the best combination of mechanical properties. Wrenches,
and automotive crankshafts and piston connecting rods are typical articles formed using this
technique. Forgings are further classified as Open Die or Closed Die.
OPEN DIE FORGING:
Open die forging is the process of deforming a piece of metal between multiple dies that do not
completely enclose the material. The metal is altered as the die “hammer” or “stamp” the
material through a series of movements until the desired shape is achieved. For open die, two
dies having simple geometric shapes (e.g., parallel flat, semicircular) are employed, normally on
large workpieces.

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CLOSED DIE FORGING:

Closed die forging (also known as impression die forging) is a metal forming process that
compress a piece of metal under high pressure to fill an enclosed die impression. For some special
shapes, second forging operation is required to reach final shapes and dimensions. The type of
material, tightness of tolerances, and need for heat treatment can determine the cost of a closed

• ROLLING:
Rolling is the most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a piece of metal between
two rolls. A reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses exerted by the rolls. Cold
rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil with high quality surface finish.
Circular shapes as well as I-beams and railroad rails are fabricated using grooved rolls.

• EXTRUSION:
For extrusion, a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force that is applied
to a ram; the extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a reduced cross-sectional
area. Extrusion products include rods and tubing that have rather complicated cross-sectional
geometries; seamless tubing may also be extruded. Extrusion is further classified as Direct
extrusion, indirect extrusion and hydrostatic extrusion according to their direction of flow such
as represented in figures give below.

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Advantages:

• High extrusion ratio (It is the ratio of billet cross section area to extruded part cross section
area).
• It can easily create complex cross section.
• This working can be done with both brittle and ductile materials.
• High mechanical properties can be achieved by cold extrusion.
Disadvantages:

• High initial or setup cost.

• High compressive force required.
Application:
1. Extrusion is widely used in production of tubes and hollow pipes.
2. Aluminum extrusion is used in structure work in many industries.
3. This process is used to produce frames, doors, window etc. in automotive industries.
4. Extrusion is widely used to produce plastic objects.

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• DRAWING:
Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by means of a tensile
force that is applied on the exit side. A reduction in cross section results, with a corresponding
increase in length. The total drawing operation may consist of a number of dies in a series
sequence. Rod, wire, and tubing products are commonly fabricated in this way.

2. CASTING:
Casting manufacturing is a process in
which liquefied material, such as molten
metal, is poured into the cavity of a
specially designed mold and allowed to
harden. After solidification, the workpiece
is removed from the mold to undergo
various finishing treatments or for use as a
final product. Casting methods are
typically used to create intricate solid and
hollow shapes, and cast products are found in a wide range of applications, including automotive
components, aerospace parts, etc.
Casting techniques are employed when

• the finished shape is so large or complicated such that any other method would be
impractical
• a particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold working would be
difficult
• in comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical

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TYPES OF CASTING
• SAND CASTING:
Sand casting typically relies on silica-based materials, such as synthetic or naturally-bonded sand.
Casting sand generally consists of finely ground, spherical grains that can be tightly packed
together into a smooth molding surface. The casting is designed to reduce the potential for
tearing, cracking, or other flaws by allowing a moderate degree of flexibility and shrinkage during
the cooling phase of the process. The sand can also be strengthened with the addition of clay,
which helps the particles bond more closely. Sand casting involves several steps, including
patternmaking, molding, melting and pouring, and cleaning. The pattern is the form around
which the sand is packed, usually in two parts, the cope and the drag. After the sand is compacted
enough to replicate the pattern, the cope is removed and the pattern extracted. Then, any
additional inserts called core boxes are installed and the cope is replaced. After the metal has
been poured and solidified, the casting is removed, trimmed of the risers and gates that were
used in the pouring process, and cleaned of any adhered sand and scale.
ADVANTAGES
Sand casting's main advantages as a casting process include:

• Relatively inexpensive production costs, especially in low-volume runs.

• The ability to fabricate large components.
• A capacity for casting both ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
• A low cost for post-casting tooling.

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• DIE CASTING:
In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a relatively high
velocity, and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained. A two-piece permanent steel mold
or die is employed; when clamped together, the two pieces form the desired shape. When
complete solidification has been achieved, the die pieces are opened and the cast piece is
ejected. Rapid casting rates are possible, making this an inexpensive method; furthermore, a
single set of dies may be used for thousands of castings. However, this technique lends itself only
to relatively small pieces and to alloys of zinc, aluminum, and magnesium, which have low melting
temperatures.

• INVESTMENT CASTING:
For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is made from a wax or plastic
that has a low melting temperature. Around the pattern is poured a fluid slurry, which sets up to
form a solid mold or investment; Plaster of Paris is usually used. The mold is then heated, such
that the pattern melts and is burned out, leaving behind a mold cavity having the desired shape.
This technique is employed when

• high dimensional accuracy,

• reproduction of fine detail, and
• an excellent finish is required—for
example, in jewelry and dental
crowns and inlays.
Also, blades for gas turbines and jet engine
impellers are investment cast.

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• LOST CASTING:
A variation of investment casting is lost foam (or expendable pattern) casting. Here the
expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed by compressing polystyrene beads into the
desired shape and then bonding them together by heating. Alternatively, pattern shapes can be
cut from sheets and assembled with glue. Sand is then packed around the pattern to form the
mold. As the molten metal is poured into the mold, it replaces the pattern which vaporizes. The
compacted sand remains in place, and, upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the
mold. With lost foam casting, complex geometries and tight tolerances are possible.
ADVANTAGES:

• In comparison to sand casting, lost foam is a simpler and quicker

• less expensive process
• there are fewer environmental wastes.
Metal alloys that most commonly use this technique are cast irons and aluminum alloys.
APPLICATIONS: include automobile engine blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts, marine engine
blocks, and electric motor frames.

3. MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES
POWDER METALLURGY:
Powder metallurgy is a fabrication technique that involves three major processing stages:

• production of metal powder

• compaction and shaping of the powder
• consolidation and fusing of the powder into a solid metal component under high
temperature and pressure
Powder metallurgy makes it possible to produce a virtually nonporous piece having properties
almost equivalent to the fully dense parent material. Diffusional processes during the heat
treatment are central to the development of these properties.

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This method is especially suitable for metals having low ductility, since only small plastic
deformation of the powder particles need occur. Metals having high melting temperatures are
difficult to melt and cast, and fabrication is expedited using P/M. Furthermore, parts that require
very close dimensional tolerances (e.g., bushings and gears) may be economically produced using
this technique.

WELDING PROCESS:
In welding, two or more metal parts are joined to form a single piece when one-part fabrication
is expensive or inconvenient. Both similar and dissimilar metals may be welded. The joining bond
is metallurgical (involving some diffusion) rather than just mechanical, as with riveting and
bolting. A variety of welding methods exist, including arc and gas welding, as well as brazing and
soldering.
A relatively modern joining technique is that of laser beam welding, wherein a highly focused and
intense laser beam is used as the heat source. The laser beam melts the parent metal, and, upon
solidification, a fusion joint is produced; often a filler material need not be used.
ADVANTAGES:
Some of the advantages of laser beam welding technique are as follows:

• It is a noncontact process, which eliminates mechanical distortion of the workpieces

• It can be rapid and highly automated
• Energy input to the workpiece is low, and therefore the heat-affected zone size is minimal
• Welds may be small in size and very precise
• A large variety of metals and alloys may be joined using this technique
• Porosity-free welds with strengths equal to or in excess of the base metal are possible.

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Laser beam welding is used extensively in the automotive and electronic industries where high
quality and rapid welding rates are required.

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