SPECIAL SURVEY INSTRUMENTS

Electronic Theodolite
 Theodolites or transits are used to measure horizontal angles. These have evolved as follows:
o Vernier theodolite (open face and Vernier equipped instruments)
o Optical theodolite (enclosed with optical readouts with direct digital readouts or micrometer equipped
readouts)
o Electronic theodolites (enclosed with electronic readouts)
 Electronic theodolites operate like any optical theodolite with one major difference that these instruments have
only one motion (upper) and hence have only one horizontal clamp and slow motion screws.

 
Characteristics of electronic theodolites
 Angle least count can be 1" with precision ranging from 0.5" to 20"
 Digital readouts eliminate the personal error associated with reading and interpolation of scale and micrometer
settings.
 Display window/unit for horizontal and vertical angles available at either one or both ends.
 Some digital theodolites have modular arrangement where they can be upgraded to be a total station or have an
EDMI attached for distance measurements.
 Vertical circles can be set to zero for horizon or zenith along with the status of battery shown in the display
window.
 Typical specifications for digital theodolites are generally given as follows:
o Magnification: 26X to 30X
o Field of view (FOV) 1.50.
o Shortest viewing distance 1.0 m
o Angle readouts, direct 5" to 20"
o Level sensitivity: plate level vial 40"/2 mm, circular level vial 10"/2 mm

Figure.1 shows a Sokkia electronic theodolite

Figure.1 Sokkia Electronic theodolite

The following description provides specifications for Nikon electronic theodolite (NE-202/203):

 Digital angle display is user-switchable from 5"/10" to 1"/5"

 Built-in vertical axis compensator automatically compensates for instrument inclination within ± 3' (NE-203)
  Accuracy is 5" in 5" display mode.
 Large, dot-matrix dual-line LCD screen displays both vertical and horizontal angles simultaneously.
 LCD screen and keyboard are placed on both sides of the alidade for easier operation
 Telescope magnification of 30X with a 45 mm objective aperture diameter.
 Employs a unique linear focusing mechanism to simplify focusing at both short and long distances. Minimum
focusing distance of 0.7 m.
 Repeat horizontal angle measurement possible up to ±1999°59'55"
 Continuous operation for up to 48 hours with fresh alkaline-manganese batteries (NE-202)

Total Station (TS)

 These instruments can record horizontal and vertical angles together with slope distance and can be considered as
combined EDM plus electronic theodolite. The microprocessor in TS can perform various mathematical operations
such as averaging, multiple angle and distance measurements, horizontal and vertical distances, X, Y, Z
coordinates, distance between observed points and corrections for atmospheric and instrumental corrections.
 Due to the versatility and the lower cost of electronic components, future field instruments will be more like total
stations that measure angle and distance simultaneously having:
o all capabilities of theodolites
o electronic recording of horizontal and vertical angles
o storage capabilities of all relevant measurements (spatial and non-spatial attribute data) for manipulation
with computer.
 Nowadays surveying systems are available which can be use in an integrated manner with Global Positioning
System (GPS). Hence, future theodolites/total stations may have integrated GPS receivers as part of the
measurement unit.
 Generally following types of total stations are available in the market:
o Mechanical/manual
o Motorized
o Autolock
o Robotic/automatic
 Mechanical/manual TS: The conventional multipurpose manual TS are used for routine works with powerful
built-in applications program and are cheaper than the other types TS.
 Motorized TS: The motorized TS are equipped with servo to allow for fast, smooth and accurate aiming. This
increases the productivity by about 30%. The servo technology enables automated measurement. For example,
during angle measurement one can simply aim the instrument at each point. The instrument can then repeat the
measurements automatically as may times as required. Servo equipped TS act as base for auto lock and robotic
surveying.
 Auto lock TS: Auto lock TS allow for a semi-automatic measurement where measuring and recoding takes place
at the TS. In this case the instrument searches for an active remote positioning target (RMT), locks to it and
follows the target as it moves to different points. Auto lock technology eliminates the need for time-consuming
error prone focusing and allows you to work effectively even in poor and low visibility environment. It improves
the time efficiency by up to 50%.
 Automatic/Robotic TS: This is a true one person surveying TS and is ideal for surveying and stakeout operations.
In these TS, the control unit can be taken to the prism to record measurements and collect other data. Generally a
radio communication is used between TS and the prism. The control unit, battery, antenna and radio modem are
integrated to allow full control over instrument and its operation. The prism used may be Omni-directional (usually
 for short distance up to 500 m) which is always aligned to the instrument or directional for longer distances.
During stakeout, the control unit is used to move to point of interest. It improves the time efficiency by up to 80%.

Principle of EDM

The basic principle of EDM instrument is the determination of time required for electro-magnetic waves to travel between
two stations. Here the velocity of electro-magnetic wave is the basis for computations of the distance.

An Electro - optical EDM instrument, set up on one station, emits a continuous-wave carrier beam of light. It is generated in
the transmitter and modulated by an electronic shutter before entering the aiming optics. The modulator chops the beam into
wavelengths that are proportional to the modulating frequency, where the wavelength is given by

V
λ=
f

in which λ = wavelength;

V= velocity of light through the atmosphere, m/s;

f = Modulating frequency, Hz (cycles per second).

The modulated light is transmitted to the reflector, placed at the other end of the line. The reflector, acting as a mirror,
reflects the light beam back to the receiver, where the incoming light is converted to an electrical signal. A phase comparison
is made between the projected and reflected pulses. Then the amount by which the transmitted and received signals are out
of phase get measured electronically and registered in a meter by getting converted to an equivalent distance.

In using an Electro - optical EDM, a clear line of sight is required and thus required inter-visibility between the stations.

In order to measure the distance between stations A and B (Figure 10.3) , let an EDM be placed at A and a reflector be at B.
The modulated beam transmitted from A travels to B and returns back. Let the received signal is out of phase from the

transmitted signal by ∆φ, as measured by a phase meter. The equivalent linear distance, d is d= ( 360∆ φ° )∗λ

Thus, the distance (D) between the stations is

 Where n is the integral number of wavelength, l in the double path.

The ambiguity of n is resolved commonly in EDM instruments by employing multiple-frequency technique based on decade
modulation. It is usually built into the EDM device, permitting automatic determination of n and thus a direct readout of the
distance.
Uses of Total Station
The total station instrument is mounted on a tripod and is levelled by operating levelling screws. Within a small range
instrument is capable of adjusting itself to the level position. Then vertical and horizontal reference directions are indexed
using onboard keys.

It is possible to set required units for distance, temperature and pressure (FPS or SI). Surveyor can select measurement mode
like fine, coarse, single or repeated.

When target is sighted, horizontal and vertical angles as well as sloping distances are measured and by pressing appropriate
keys they are recorded along with point number. Heights of instrument and targets can be keyed in after measuring them
with tapes. Then processor computes various information about the point and displays on screen.

This information is also stored in the electronic notebook. At the end of the day or whenever electronic note book is full, the
information stored is downloaded to computers.

The point data downloaded to the computer can be used for further processing. There are software like auto civil and auto
plotter clubbed with AutoCad which can be used for plotting contours at any specified interval and for plotting cross-section
along any specified line.

Advantages of Using Total Stations

The following are some of the major advantages of using total station over the conventional surveying instruments:
1. Field work is carried out very fast.

2. Accuracy of measurement is high.

3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.

4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for temperature and pressure are
automatically made.

5. Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-sections. Contour intervals and scales
can be changed in no time.

However, surveyor  should check the working condition of the instruments before using. For this standard points may be
located near survey office and before taking out instrument for field work, its working is checked by observing those
standard points from the specified instrument station.
 Applications of Total Station

There are many other facilities available, the total station can be used for the following purposes.
 Detail survey i.e., data collection.
 Control Survey (Traverse).
 Height measurement (Remove elevation measurement- REM).
 Fixing of missing pillars (or) Setting out (or) Stake out.
 Resection.
 Area calculations, etc.
 Remote distance measurement (RDM) or Missing line measurement (MLM).
1. Data Collection Option
Measurements can be stored “on board” with all the total stations.  The two options that are available are
 Data can be stored directly in the memory of the microcomputer, and later downloaded to an external storage
device via a RS – 232 connections.
 The second option is the removable memory card.  When one card is full, it can be removed and another card can
be quickly installed.
2. Detail Survey
Given two points whose coordinates are known, a total station can be used to get the coordinates of various other points
based upon those two co-ordinates.  Care should be taken that the new points survey are carefully coded. The Map of the
area can be obtained after downloading and processing.
3. Control survey / Traverse:
It is similar to any type of EDM Traverse.
Definition of Traverse: –
Traverse is the method of control survey in providing horizontal and vertical controls along a pre-defined route by means of
establishing a series of connected lines joining the traverse stations.
4.  Traverse:
 In traverse a number of connected survey lines form a framework of survey.
 The direction and length of survey lines are measured with the help of an angular measuring device (Theodolite)
and distance measuring device (Tape, chain, EDM, GPS etc.).

Site Square
Site Square is an instrument which is used to set two points exactly at right angle. Site square has similar working as of
cross-staff, but give more accuracy and simplicity.

Fig. Site Square

Penta Graph

A device used in surveying composed of four flat, straight brass rules, two of which are long and are connected by a double
pivot at the end to create a "V" shape, and two of which are short and joined by a double pivot to create another "V" shape
pointed away from the first, with the other ends of the short rules connected at the halfway mark of the long rules, so that the
entire figure creates a parallelogram.

Fig. Penta Graph

Auto-set Level

Auto-set Level is the advance form of dumpy level. It gives a high magnification and more clear visibility than dumpy level.

Fig. Auto-set Level

Transit Level

A transit level is an optical instrument, or a telescope, complete with a built-in spirit level that is mounted on a tripod.
Transit levels are used mainly for surveying and building, but they can be used to determine the relative position of lines and
objects as well. Transit levels are very precise. They are used to establish a reference line, but they are also used to provide
readings of angles in precise measurements.
 PARTS OF A TRANSIT
LEVEL
 PART  DESCRIPTION
Telescope & Locking
Holds lenses magnifying objects in sight
Levers
Detachable Sunshade Used to block sunlight from affecting objects being sighted
Graduated Leveling
Used to level the telescope on its base
Vial
Horizontal Vernier Moves around main scale determining horizontal angular readings too small
Scale to read on main scale
Graduated Horizontal
Marked by degrees, used for setting and reading horizontal angles
Circle
Horizontal Clamp
Holds the instrument in horizontal position when tightened
Screw
Horizontal Tangent Can be adjusted to make the instrument move left or right on the horizontal
Screw plane
Graduated Vertical
Marked by degrees, used for setting and reading vertical angles
Circle 
Moves around main scale determining vertical angular readings too small to
Vertical Vernier Scale
read on main scale
Allows adjustments to be made to ensure the instrument is level in all
Leveling Screws 
positions
Base-Graduated The area level attaches to tripod - has spirit level ensuring base is level when
Leveling Vial attaching transit level
Focusing Knob Can be turned to make objects appear crisp and clear
Located at the viewing end of the telescope, it can be turned to bring the
Eyepiece
crosshairs into focus
Entire upper part of level, including telescope and supports, leveling vials,
Alidade
spindle and circle-reading device

Special Compasses
Magnetic compass: The most common type of compass is the magnetic compass, which is used to determine the direction
of magnetic north. A magnetic compass is made by placing a bit of magnetized iron or steel which is set in a low friction so
that it is allowed to move freely. In most compasses, the north end of the metal piece is marked with red paint so that all
directions may be determined.

Gyro compass: It is a special type of compass developed in 19th century which determines the true north. A gyro compass
is basically a very fast spinning wheel or ball which uses the law of conservation of angular momentum and the spinning of
earth’s axis to point towards the true north. The gyro compass is commonly used in large ships and in other circumstances
where the accurate prediction of true north is needed.

Astrocompass: This is another type of compass which can predict true north rather than magnetic north. This compass relies
on the direction of celestial bodies to find true north, which is used in many circumstances, mainly in the far north and south
poles where magnetic compass would become erratic and gyro compass stops working. The use of astro compass in
determining the exact direction of true north requires the accurate information of time, date, longitudinal and latitudinal
location.

Solid state compass: In this modern digital world, solid state compass are becoming more popular. These use many of the
electronic magnetic sensors which would calculate the accurate direction the compass is pointing.
GPS compass: GPS compasses are rapidly replacing the use of other traditional compasses. However, most military and
ships use the gyro compass or magnetic compass if GPS compass could not pick up enough satellite. GPS compasses make
use of satellites in a geo synchronous orbit over the earth to distinguish the bearer’s exact location and direction they are
heading. Many hikers and drivers like this compass due to its relative reliability.

Base plate compass: It is the most affordable compass. The liquid filled compass rise on the rectangular base made of clear
plastic. This compass includes a magnifying lens for map reading, luminous components for low light conditions and
different scales for world wide use. This compass is fine for plotting purposes.

Card compass: Card compass or marine compass is commonly used in ships and boats. It uses a fixed needle, depending on
the moving compass card for directional readings since the moving card absorbs much of the motion of the boat.

Thumb compass: This compass attaches to the user’s thumb allowing the user to hold both the map and the compass in one
hand while travelling at speed by bike or by canoe. It is also known as competition compass.

Prismatic compass: It is a sophisticated device designed for highly accurate navigation. The prism sighting arrangement
allows the user to read the compass bearings while seeing distant objects.

Brunton Universal Pocket Transit

The pocket transit was developed and patented by David Brunton in 1894. Brunton, a noted mining engineer working in
Colorado, recognized the need for a small, accurate, multi-purpose instrument suited for field exploration and
mineral mapping. In his original patent application Brunton noted that the instrument can be easily carried in a vest pocket,
hence the name ‘pocket transit’.

What makes the pocket transit so useful is the integration of a number of different instruments into a single, easy to carry
package. The Brunton pocket transit incorporates a highly accurate mirror compass, level and clinometer that reads in both
degrees and percent of slope. The pocket transit also incorporates a sight vane that improves the accuracy of handheld
readings and forms a longer sight baseline when the instrument is mounted on a tripod for more accuracy. This makes for an
incredibly versatile instrument.

Fig. Brunton Pocket Transit