SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

12
General Physics1
Quarter 1 – Module 1:
Title: Units of Measurements

Department of Education Filamer Christian University

i
Science – Grade 12- General Physics 1 Alternative Delivery Mode Quarter 1 – Module 1:
Units of Measurements, First Edition, 2020

Filamer Christian University

Senior High School

Prepared: ARLEIGH D. ALALAY

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 What I Can Do

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for
guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to
process the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in
the module.

This part includes an activity that aims to

check what you already know about the
What I Know lesson to take. If you get all the answers
correct (100%), you may decide to skip this
module.

What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link

the current lesson with the previous one.

What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be

introduced to you in various ways such as a
story, a song, a poem, a problem opener, an
activity or a situation.

What is It This section provides a brief discussion of

the lesson. This aims to help you discover
and understand new concepts and skills.

This comprises activities for independent

practice to solidify your understanding and
What’s More skills of the topic. You may check the
answers to the exercises using the Answer
Key at the end of the module.

What I Have Learned This includes questions or blank

sentence/paragraph to be filled in to process
what you learned from the lesson.

This section provides an activity which will

help you transfer your new knowledge or
skill into real life situations or concerns.

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 Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your
level of mastery in achieving the learning
competency.

In this portion, another activity will be given

to you to enrich your knowledge or skill of
Additional Activities the lesson learned. This also tends retention
of learned concepts.

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the

module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in

developing this module.

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Lesson
Units of Measurement
1

What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master
the Units and Measurements. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level
of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course.
But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook
you are now using.

The module has one lesson with subtopics, namely:

● Lesson 1 – Units of Measurements
✔ Physical Quantities
✔ Conversion of Units
✔ Scientific Notation
✔ Random error vs Systematic error
✔ Significant figure

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. define physical quantity;
2. differentiate fundamental and derive quantity;
3. differentiate metric and British system of measurement;
4. convert units of measurement;
5. write numbers (small and large) using scientific notation; and
6. solve measurement problems involving conversion of units and expression in
scientific notation
7. define accuracy and precision;
8. differentiate accuracy and precision; and
9. illustrate an example of accuracy and precision

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10. define random and systematic error;
11. differentiate random and systematic error; and
12. illustrate an example of random and systematic error
13. determine the number of significant figures
14. identify significant figures
15. making meaningful measurements with the use of significant digits

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 Physical Quantities, Conversion of Units and Scientific Notation

What I Know

Direction: convert the unit of measure. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. 106 um to cm
a. 200 cm c. 10 cm
b. 1000 cm d. 100 cm
2. 2.4 x 10-3 km to mm
a. 240 c. 2400
b. 24000 d. 24
3. 3 days to minutes
a. 259,200 c. 25,920
b. 2,592,000 d. 2,592
4. 1200mg to kg
a. 120 c. 1.2x10-3
b. 1.2x10-2 d. 1.2x10-4
5. 45o C to o F
a. 86.00 c. 110
b. 113 d. 102
6. 40 min to s
a. 2400 c. 144,000
b. 3,456,000 d. 3600
7. 20 kg/km to mg/um
a. 0.2 mg/um c. 2.0 mg/um
b. 20000 mg/um d. 2000 mg/um
8. 980 cm/s to um/s
a. 9.8 x105 c. 9.8 x107
b. 9.8x104 d. 9.8x106
9. 100 km/hr to m/s
a. 27.78 c. 277.8
b. 2.778 d. 2778
10. 2.79 g/cm3 to kg/m3
a. 2790 c. 2.790
b. 27.90 d. 79.02

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 What’s In

Write your answer in the space provided.

How many units do we have for 1 foot or 12 inches ruler?

How many millimeters (mm), centimeters (cm), inches (in), foot (ft)?

Classify the given quantities as Metric System or British System of measurement:

5 yards of cloth, 10 kg of banana, 8 hours watching TV, 8 inches shoes, 30 miles
walking and 70 km/h speed of Typhoon Hanna.

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 What is It

Physical Quantities
All physical quantities in the International System of Units (SI) are expressed in
terms of combinations of seven fundamental physical units, which are units for: length,
mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of a substance, and luminous
intensity.

SI Units: Fundamental and Derived Units

There are two major systems of units used in the world: SI units (acronym for the
French Le Système International d’Unités, also known as the metric system),
and English units (also known as the imperial system). English units were historically
used in nations once ruled by the British Empire. Today, the United States is the only
country that still uses English units extensively. Virtually every other country in the world
now uses the metric system, which is the standard system agreed upon by scientists
and mathematicians.
Some physical quantities are more fundamental than others. In physics, there are
seven fundamental physical quantities that are measured in base or physical
fundamental units: length, mass, time, electric current temperature, amount of
substance, and luminous intensity. Units for other physical quantities (such as force,
speed, and electric charge) described by mathematically combining these seven base
units. In this course, we will mainly use five of these: length, mass, time, electric current
and temperature. The units in which they are measured are the meter, kilogram,
second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela. All other units are made by mathematically
combining the fundamental units. These are called derived units.

Table 1. SI Base Units

Quantity Name Symbol

Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K

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 Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Metric Prefixes
Physical objects or phenomena may vary widely. For example, the size of objects varies
from something very small (like an atom) to something very large (like a star). Yet the
standard metric unit of length is the meter. So, the metric system includes many
prefixes that can be attached to a unit. Each prefix is based on factors of 10 (10, 100,
1,000, etc., as well as 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, etc.). 

Table 2 Metric Prefixes and symbols used to denote the different various factors of 10
in the metric system
Example Example Example Example
Prefix Symbol Value
Name Symbol Value Description

Distance
18 18
Exa E 10 Exameter Em 10  m light travels
in a century

30 million
Peta P 1015 Petasecond Ps 1015 s
years

Powerful
Tera T 1012 Terawatt TW 1012 W
laser output

A
9 9
Giga G 10 Gigahertz GHz 10  Hz microwave
frequency

High
Mega M 106 Megacurie MCi 106 Ci
radioactivity

About 6/10
Kilo K 103 Kilometer Km 103 m
mile

hecto
H 102 Hectoliter hL 102 L 26 gallons
r

Deka Da 101 Dekagram Dag 101 g Teaspoon of

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 butter

____ ____ 100 (=1)

Less than
Deci D 10–1 Deciliter dL 10–1 L
half a soda

Fingertip
Centi C 10–2 Centimeter Cm 10–2 m
thickness

Flea at its
Mili M 10–3 Millimeter Mm 10–3 m
shoulder

Detail in
Micro µ 10–6 Micrometer µm 10–6 m
microscope

Small speck
Nano N 10–9 Nanogram Ng 10–9 g
of dust

Small
–12 –12
Pico P 10 Picofarad pF 10  F capacitor in
radio

Size of a
Femto F 10–15 Femtometer Fm 10–15 m
proton

Time light
takes to
Atto A 10–18 Attosecond As 10–18 s
cross an
atom

The metric system is convenient because conversions between metric units can be
done simply by moving the decimal place of a number. This is because the metric
prefixes are sequential powers of 10. There are 100 centimeters in a meter, 1000
meters in a kilometer, and so on. In nonmetric systems, such as U.S. customary units,
the relationships are less simple—there are 12 inches in a foot, 5,280 feet in a mile, 4
quarts in a gallon, and so on. Another advantage of the metric system is that the same
unit can be used over extremely large ranges of values simply by switching to the most-
appropriate metric prefix. For example, distances in meters are suitable for building
construction, but kilometers are used to describe road construction. Therefore, with the
metric system, there is no need to invent new units when measuring very small or very
large objects—you just have to move the decimal point (and use the appropriate prefix).

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The three common temperature scales are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. Each scale
has its uses, so it's likely you'll encounter them and need to convert between them.
Fortunately, the conversion formulas are simple:
Celsius to ° F = 9/5 ( ° C) + 32
Fahrenheit
Kelvin to Fahrenheit ° F = 9/5 (K - 273) + 32
Fahrenheit to ° C = 5/9 (° F - 32)
Celsius
Celsius to Kelvin K = ° C + 273
Kelvin to Celsius ° C = K - 273
Fahrenheit to Kelvin K = 5/9 (° F - 32) + 273

Unit Conversion and Dimensional Analysis

A conversion factor relating meters to kilometers. A conversion factor is a ratio
expressing how many of one unit are equal to another unit. A conversion factor is simply
a fraction which equals 1. You can multiply any number by 1 and get the same value.
When you multiply a number by a conversion factor, you are simply multiplying it by
one. For example, the following are conversion factors:
1 foot/12 inches = 1 to convert inches to feet, 1 meter/100 centimeters
= 1 to convert centimeters to meters,
1 minute/60 seconds = 1 to convert seconds to minutes
In this case, we know that there are 1,000 meters in 1 kilometer.
Now we can set up our unit conversion. We will write the units that we have and then
multiply them by the conversion factor (1 km/1,000m) = 1, so we are simply multiplying
80m by 1:

Using Scientific Notation with Physical Measurements

Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers that are too large or small to be
conveniently written as a decimal. For example, consider the number
840,000,000,000,000. It’s a rather large number to write out. The scientific notation for
this number is 8.40 × 1014. Scientific notation follows this general format

x   ×   10y

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In this format x is the value of the measurement with all placeholder zeros removed. In
the example above, x is 8.4. The x is multiplied by a factor, 10y, which indicates the
number of placeholder zeros in the measurement. Placeholder zeros are those at the
end of a number that is 10 or greater, and at the beginning of a decimal number that is
less than 1. In the example above, the factor is 10 14. This tells you that you should move
the decimal point 14 positions to the right, filling in placeholder zeros as you go. In this
case, moving the decimal point 14 places creates only 13 placeholder zeros, indicating
that the actual measurement value is 840,000,000,000,000.
Numbers that are fractions can be indicated by scientific notation as well. Consider the
number 0.0000045. Its scientific notation is 4.5 × 10–6. Its scientific notation has the
same format

x   ×   10y

Here, x is 4.5. However, the value of y in the 10y factor is negative, which indicates that
the measurement is a fraction of 1. Therefore, we move the decimal place to the left, for
a negative y. In our example of 4.5 × 10–6, the decimal point would be moved to the left
six times to yield the original number, which would be 0.0000045.

What’s More

Convert to the indicated unit of measure. Write your answer in the space
provided.

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Activity 1.1 Conversion of Units
1. 6.281 x 10-5 Gm to hm

2. 5.08 x 10-3 km to mm

3. 500 cm to dam

4. 450 K to 0C

5. 4.6 ms to s

Activity 1.2 Scientific Notation

Express the following numbers in scientific notation.

1. 490 000 000

2. 1 230 000 000
3. 50 500 000
4. 0.000000097
5. 0.0000212
6. 450 000
7. 580 002 000
8. 0.0045
9. 70 222
10. 0.00000542

Activity 1.3 Change the scientific notation to standard notation.

1. 3.5 × 105
2. 2.89 × 10-6
3. 9.8 × 10-2
4. 1.36 × 107
5. 3.01 × 108
6. 1.36 × 107 
7. 4.6055 × 10-7

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 8. 2.1x 1012
9. 1.333 x 10-23
10. 1.5001 x 10-11

What I Have Learned

1. Physical quantities are unit that describes the size of the quantity.
There are number that gives us the count of times the unit is contained
in the quantity being measured.

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 2. Physical Quantities are classified as fundamental and derived quantities.
Fundamental Quantities are the simplest form. Derived Quantities are
combination of fundamental Quantities.
3. Systems of measurement are Metric System of System International (SI) and
English System or British System of measurement.
4. Conversion of unit common method used is the factor-label method.
5. Scientific Notation is a convenient way of writing very small or very large
numbers. To write in scientific notation, follow the form N x 10 a, where N is a
number between 1 and 10, but not 10 itself, a is an integer (positive or
negative number)

What I Can Do

Read the instruction below and write your answer in the space provided below.
1. Measure and calculate your mass in gram, kilogram and lb.
2. Measure and calculate the length of your notebook in mm, cm, inches, foot
and km.
3. Calculate your temperature in 0C, 0F and K.
4. Show the conversion of units and express your answer in scientific notation.

1. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
4. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________

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 Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Encircle the letter of the correct
answer.
1. Which of the following numbers is greatest?
a. 0.42 c. 4.2 x 10-5
b. 0.0420 d. 4.20 x 10-2
2. What is the scientific notation of 0.00234?
a. 2.34 x 105 c. 2.34 x 10-5
b. 2.34 x 10-3 d. 2.34 x 10-4

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 3. What is the equivalent value of 1.20 x 107 in standard form?
a. 120 000 c. 120 000 000
b. 12 000 000 d. 1 200 000
4. Arleigh wants to measure the size of the bathroom. The tiles are 12 inches by
10 inches. What are the length and width of the bathroom in cm?
a. 28.24 cm by 25.4 cm c. 30.48 cm by 25.4 cm
b. 35.4 cm by 12.32 cm d. 25.4 cm by 20.32 cm
12
5. How many km are there in 10 m?
a. 1 x 108 c. 1 x 1010
b. 1 x 107 d. 1 x 109
6. Convert 6 721 kilometers to meters.
a. 6.721 c. 672 100
b. 67.21 d. 6 721 000
0 0
7. Convert 30 C to F.
a. -1.11 c. 271.89
b. 86 d. 359
8. How many cubic centimeters are there in cubic meter?
b. 0.1 c. 102
c. 1 d. 10-6
9. How many inches are there in 9 foot?
a. 96 ft c. 102 ft
b. 108 ft d. 72 ft
-4
10. Solve 10
10-2
a. 10-6 c. 102
b. 10-2 d. 106

Lesson
Units of Measurement
1
Accuracy and Precision
Science is based on experimentation that requires good measurements. The validity of
a measurement can be described in terms of its accuracy and its precision.

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 What I Know

Read the question carefully and encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. It is described as the degree of how close the measurements are to the true
value.
a. accuracy c. reliability
b. precision d. validity
2. It refers to the degree to which successive measurements agree with each other.
a. accuracy c. reliability
b. precision d. validity
3. Precision pertains to all the following except one.
a. Reproducibility of measurement
b. Agreement among the numerical values
c. Sameness of measurement
d. Closeness of a measurement to an accepted value.
4. Poor precision in scientific measurement may arise from
a. Standard being too strict
b. Human error
c. Limitation of the measuring instrument
d. Both human error and the limitation of the measuring instrument
5. Five darts strike near the center of the target. Whoever threw the dart is.
a. Accurate c. precise
b. Both accurate and precise d. neither accurate nor precise
6. The accepted value is 15.63. which correctly describes this student s
experimental data? Trial 1: measurement 12:84; Trial 2: Measurement 13:02;
Trial 3: Measurement 12:96.
a. Accurate but not precise c. Precise but not accurate
b. Both accurate and precise d. neither accurate nr precise
7. The accepted value is 29.35. which correctly describes this students
experimental data? Trial 1: Measurement 29.48, Trial 2: Measurement 28.97,
Trial 3: Measurement 29.27.
a. Accurate but not precise c. Precise but not accurate
b. Both accurate and precise d. neither accurate nr precise
8. Which group of measurements is most precise?
a. 0.005 g, 0.0049 g, 0.0051 g

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 b. 1.23 cm3, 2.21 cm3, 9.92 cm3
c. 23.4 mm, 12.4 mm, 50.2 mm
d. 2.3 x 10-2 kg, 2.31 x 102 kg, 2.29 x 1012 kg
9. The volume of a liquid is 20.5 ml. Which of the following sets of measurement the
value with good accuracy?
a. 18.6 ml, 17.6 ml, 19.6 ml, 17.2 ml
b. 18.8 ml, 19.0 ml, 19.2 ml, 18.8 ml.
c. 19.3 ml, 19.2 ml, 18.6 ml, 18.7 ml
d. 20.2 ml, 20.5 ml, 20.3 ml 20.1 ml

10. Looking at the above rifle target, how would you describe the shooting of this
contestant?
a. accurate and imprecise c. inaccurate and precise
b. accurate and precise d. inaccurate and imprecise

What’s In

Answer the following question. Write your answer on the space provided.

How to be accurate and precise in conversion of units and in expressing numbers in

scientific notation?

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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

A student measures a test tube, she reported 15 g in mass, but the actual mass of the
test tube was 32 g. Is the data accurate?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

A student measures the following temperature 40.30C, 410C and 400C. Is the data
given precise?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________

What’s New

Accuracy vs Precision

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Based on the picture above how can you differentiate accuracy from precision?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__

What is It

Accuracy 
It is how close a measurement is to the correct value for that
measurement. For example, let us say that you are measuring the length of a
standard piece of bond paper. The packaging in which you purchased the
paper states that it is 11 inches long, and suppose this stated value is correct.
You measure the length of the paper three times and obtain the following

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measurements: 11.1 inches, 11.2 inches, and 10.9 inches. These
measurements are quite accurate because they are very close to the correct
value of 11.0 inches. In contrast, if you had obtained a measurement of 12
inches, your measurement would not be very accurate. This is why measuring
instruments are calibrated based on a known measurement. If the instrument
consistently returns the correct value of the known measurement, it is safe for
use in finding unknown values.

Precision 
It states how well repeated measurements of something generate the
same or similar results. Therefore, the precision of measurements refers to how
close together the measurements are when you measure the same thing several
times. One way to analyze the precision of measurements would be to
determine the range, or difference between the lowest and the highest
measured values. In the case of the printer paper measurements, the lowest
value was 10.9 inches and the highest value was 11.2 inches. Thus, the
measured values deviated from each other by, at most, 0.3 inches. These
measurements were reasonably precise because they varied by only a fraction
of an inch. However, if the measured values had been 10.9 inches, 11.1 inches,
and 11.9 inches, then the measurements would not be very precise because
there is a lot of variation from one measurement to another.
The measurements in the paper example are both accurate and precise, but in
some cases, measurements are accurate but not precise, or they are precise
but not accurate. Let us consider a GPS system that is attempting to locate the
position of a restaurant in a city. Think of the restaurant location as existing at
the center of a bull’s-eye target. Then think of each GPS attempt to locate the
restaurant as a black dot on the bull’s eye.

xxiii
 What’s More

Read the instruction carefully and answer the activity.

Activity 1.1 Accuracy vs Precision

1. Measure the length, width and height of your 60 leaves notebook to determine the
volume of it using a ruler in centimeter (cm).

2. Determine the true value of the volume of the notebook.

3. Make 3 trials of the said measurement.

4. Record your data table.

True value of Volume of Notebook: __________________________

Notebook Length Width Height Volume

Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average

xxiv
5. What is the accurate measured volume?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

6. What is the precise measure volume?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

1. Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard value or known

value.
2. Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other.

What I Can Do

xxv
 Answer the following questions briefly!
Do you experience accurateness and preciseness of data or information in your
daily living?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
Do you have encountered some news in particular to the use of social media?
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
How accuracy and precision applicable to this situation.
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Cite some ways or techniques to be utilized to get accurate and precise
information.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Encircle the letter of the correct
answer.
1. It is described as the degree of how close the measurements are to the true
value.
a. accuracy c. reliability

xxvi
 b. precision d. validity

2. It refers to the degree to which successive measurements agree with each

other.
a. accuracy c. reliability
b. precision d. validity

3. Which group of measurements is most precise?

a. 0.005 g, 0.0049 g, 0.0051 g
b. 1.23 cm3, 2.21 cm3, 9.92 cm3
c. 23.4 mm, 12.4 mm, 50.2 mm
d. 2.3 x 10-2 kg, 2.31 x 102 kg, 2.29 x 1012 kg

4. The volume of a liquid is 20.5 ml. Which of the following sets of

measurement the value with good accuracy?
a. 18.6 ml, 17.6 ml, 19.6 ml, 17.2 ml
b. 18.8 ml, 19.0 ml, 19.2 ml, 18.8 ml.
c. 19.3 ml, 19.2 ml, 18.6 ml, 18.7 ml
d. 20.2 ml, 20.5 ml, 20.3 ml 20.1 ml

5. The mass of unknown substance is 2.86 g. Which of the following sets of

measurement represents the value with both accuracy and precision?
a. 1.78 g, 1.80 g, 1.76 g, 1.81 g
b. 1.95 g, 2.02 g, 1.96 g, 2.01 g
c. 2.81 g, 1.98 g, 2.40 g, 2.78 g
d. 2.85 g, 2.86 g, 2.84 g, 2.81 g

6. The mass of a sample of a copper nitrate is 3.82 g. A student measures the

mass and finds it to be 3.81 g, 3.82 g, 3.79 g and 3.80 g in the first, second,
third and fourth trial, respectively. Which of the following statements is true
for his measurements?
a. They have good accuracy but poor precision.
b. They have poor accuracy but good precision.
c. They are neither precise nor accurate.
d. They have good accuracy and precision.

Mass Data Sample

xxvii
 TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3 TRIAL 4
Student A 1.43 g 1.52 g 1.47 g 1.42 g
Student B 1.43 g 1.40 g 1.46 g 1.44 g
Student C 1.54 g 1.56 g 1.58 g 1.50 g
Student D 0.86 g 1.24 g 1.52 g 1.42 g

7. Four students each measured the mass of one 1.43 g sample four times.
The results in the data above indicate that the data collected reflect the
greatest accuracy and precision.
a. Student A b. Student B c. Student C d. Student D

8. The accepted value is 1.43. Which correctly describes this student’s

experimental data?

Trial Measurement
1 1.29
2 1.93
3 0.88

a. Accurate but not precise c. Precise but not accurate

b. Both accurate and precise d. Neither accurate nor precise
9. What is meant by the term accuracy?
a. The extent to which the value approaches its true value.
b. The level of detail at which data is stored.
c. The lack of bias in the data.
d. The overall quality of data.
10. What is meant by the term precision?
a. The extent to which the value approaches its true value.
b. The level of detail at which data is stored.
c. The lack of bias in the data.
d. The overall quality of data.
11. The volume of a liquid is 25.5 ml. A student measures the volume and
finds it to be 25.2 mL, 25.1 mL, 24.9 mL, and 25.3 mL in the first, second,

xxviii
third, and fourth trial, respectively. Which of the following statements is true
for his measurements?
a. They have poor precision.
b. They have poor accuracy.
c. They are neither precise nor accurate.
d. They have good precision.
12. The mass of an unknown substance is 2.86 g. Which of the following sets
of measurement represents the value with both accuracy and precision?
a. 1.78 g, 1.80 g, 1.76 g, 1.81 g
b. 1.98 g, 2.02 g, 1.96 g, 2.01 g
c. 2.85 g, 2.86 g, 2.84 g, 2.81 g
d. 2.81 g, 1.98 g, 2.40 g, 2.78 g
13. The volume of a sample of concentrated hydrochloric acid is 10.5 ml. A
student measures the volume and finds it to be 8.6 mL, 8.8 mL, 8.2 mL, and
8.6 mL in the first, second, third, and fourth trial, respectively. Which of the
following statements is true for his measurements?
a. They have poor precision.
b. They have poor accuracy.
c. They are neither precise nor accurate.
d. They have good precision.

14. Looking at the above rifle target, how would you describe the shooting of
this contestant?
a. accurate and imprecise c. inaccurate and precise
b. accurate and precise d. inaccurate and imprecise
15. Which of the following will allow measurement of a liquid's volume with the
greatest precision?
a. 50 ml cylinder graduated in 1ml increments
b. 100 ml cylinder graduated in 0.5 ml increments
c. 100 ml cylinder graduated in 1 ml increments
d. 200 ml cylinder graduated in 5 ml increments

xxix
 Additional Activities

A grocery store sells 5-lb bags of mangoes. You purchase four bags over the course of
a month and weigh the mangoes each time. You obtain the following measurements:

Week 1 weight: 4.8  lb

Week 2 weight: 5.3  lb

Week 3 weight: 4.9  lb

Week 4 weight: 5.4  lb

Is the measurement accurate or precise? Explain your answer.

xxx
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________.

Lesson
Measurement
1
Random error vs Systematic error

All experimental uncertainty is due to either random errors or systematic errors.

Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data
due to the precision limitations of the measurement device.

What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

xxxi
1. In a zoology class, Pedro measured the length of an earthworm using a ruler for
three times as part of the data gathering procedure of his experiment. What type
of measurement error might he commit?
a. calibration error c. random error
b. human error d. systematic error

2. April forgot to calibrate her analytical balance before she measured the mass of her
reactants in a chemistry experiment. She committed 78% percentage error in her
measurement. What type of measurement error did she commit?
a. human error c. random error
b. parallax error d. systematic error
3. The observation error of a measured quantity
a. corresponds to the random error in the measurement
b. the difference between the measured and true values and is inevitably
present
c. the result of a mistake or blunder but can be reduced by taking several
measurements and averaging them
4. A group of measurements for which there is insignificant random error but significant
systematic error is
a. imprecise and biased c. precise and biased
b. imprecise and unbiased d. precise and unbiased
5. Compared to the precision of individual measurements, the arithmetic mean of 150
measurements subject to random error can be written using
a. one additional significant digit
b. one fewer significant digit
c. two additional significant digits
6. Which of these is not true for systematic errors?
a. They arise due to errors in the measuring instrument used.
b. They are reproducible that are consistently in the same direction.
c. Repeating the observations or increasing the sample size can eliminate them.
d. They arise from the design of the study.
7. Which of these is not true for random errors?
a. They are difficult to detect.
b. They are less likely for small sizes.
c. They do not arise from the design of the study.
8. Systematic errors lead to a lack of:
a. accuracy in measurement
b. gradation of measuring instrument

xxxii
 c. precision in measurement
d. significant digits in measurement
9. Random error lead to a lack of:
a. accuracy in measurement
b. gradation of measuring instrument
c. precision in measurement
d. significant digits in measurement
10. Repeated measurement of quantity can reduce the effects of
a. both random and systematic errors
b. neither random errors nor systematic errors
c. random errors
d. systematic errors
11. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT regarding systematic error?
a. It is the same as random error
b. it can be minimized by increasing the study samples.
c. it can be increased by increasing the study samples.
d. it occurs as a result of “the luck of the draw” an inaccurate estimate resulting
from the sample that was not representative of the population.
12. Which of the following statements is true regarding systematic error?
a. It is the same as random error
b. it can be minimized by increasing the study samples.
c. it can be increased by increasing the study samples.
d. it occurs as a result of “the luck of the draw” an inaccurate estimate resulting
from the sample that was not representative of the population.
13. In measuring the diameter circular object like coins using Vernier caliper may
reduce what kind of error?
a. neither random nor systematic error
b. random error
c. random and systematic error
d. systematic error
14. To check the exact mass of set of weights 1kg you use the triple beam balance you
need to calibrate this measuring device, what kind of error did you try to minimize?
a. neither random nor systematic error
b. random error
c. random and systematic error

xxxiii
 d. systematic error
15. In using the multimeter to measure the resistance value of the ohmic material you
need to calibrate the device, what kind of error do you want to decrease the value?
a. neither random nor systematic error
b. random error
c. random and systematic error
d. systematic error

What’s In

Differentiate the following terms:

1. fundamental and derived quantities

2. Metric and British System of Measurement

3. accuracy and precision

1. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___

xxxiv
 2. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________.
3. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________.

What is It

Definition of Error
We are aware that no matter how careful we are in doing our measurements, we do
commit or encounter some errors. What are these errors? Error is the technical term for
uncertainty in reading the measurement. Making an error carries with it an implication of
mistake or a blunder. An error in measurement means an uncertainty between the
measured value and the standard value. Error may be grouped into two classes:
random error and systematic error.
Definition of Random Error

The uncertain disturbances occurring in the experiment is known as the random errors.
Such types of errors remain in the experiment even after the removal of the systematic
error. The magnitude of error varies from one reading to another. The random errors are
inconsistent and occur in both the directions.

xxxv
The presence of random errors is determined only when the different readings are
obtained for the measurement of the same quantity under the same condition.

Examples causes of random errors are electronic noise from an electrical device, slight
variation of the temperature when the volume of gas is being measured, uncontrollable
presence of wind when determining the period of a simple pendulum.
Random errors It usually results from the experimenter’s inability to take the same
measurement in exactly the same way to get exactly the same number.

Definition of Systematic Error

The constant error occurs in the experiment because of the imperfection of the
mechanical structure of the apparatus is known as the systematic error. The systematic
errors arise because of the incorrect calibration of the device.

The error is mainly categorized into three types.

● Instrumental Error
● Environmental Error
● Observational Error

xxxvi
 Instrumental Error – The instrumental error occurs because of three reasons.

1.Misuse of the apparatus.

2.Imperfection in the mechanical structure of the apparatus.
3.The error occurs because of the loading effect.

Environmental Error- errors that are caused by an external condition like temperature,
humidity, wind, and vibration.

Observational error (or measurement error)- is the difference between

a measured value of a quantity and its true value. In statistics, an error is not a
"mistake". Variability is an inherent part of the results of measurements and of the
measurement process.

Systematic errors There are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same
direction. Systematic errors are often due to a problem which persists throughout the
entire experiment. Note that systematic and random errors refer to problems associated
with making measurements. Mistakes made in the calculations or in reading the
instrument are not considered in error analysis. It is assumed that the experimenters are
careful and competent!

What I Have Learned

Random errors It usually results from the experimenter’s inability to take the same
measurement in exactly the same way to get exactly the same number.

Systematic Error it is the constant error occurs in the experiment because of the
imperfection of the mechanical structure of the apparatus is known as the systematic
error. The systematic errors arise because of the incorrect calibration of the device.

The error is mainly categorized into three types.

xxxvii
 ● Instrumental Error
● Environmental Error
● Observational Error

What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. In a zoology class, Pedro measured the length of an earthworm using a ruler for
three times as part of the data gathering procedure of his experiment. What type
of measurement error might he commit?

a. calibration error c. random error

b. human error d. systematic error

2. April forgot to calibrate her analytical balance before she measured the mass of her
reactants in a chemistry experiment. She committed 78% percentage error in her
measurement. What type of measurement error did she commit?
a. human error c. random error
b. parallax error d. systematic error

3. The observation error of a measured quantity

d. corresponds to the random error in the measurement
e. the difference between the measured and true values and is inevitably
present
f. the result of a mistake or blunder but can be reduced by taking several
measurements and averaging them
4. A group of measurements for which there is insignificant random error but significant
systematic error is
c. imprecise and biased c. precise and biased
d. imprecise and unbiased d. precise and unbiased

xxxviii
5. Compared to the precision of individual measurements, the arithmetic mean of 150
measurements subject to random error can be written using
d. one additional significant digit
e. one fewer significant digit
f. two additional significant digits

6. Which of these is not true for systematic errors?

a. They arise due to errors in the measuring instrument used.
b. They are reproducible that are consistently in the same direction.
c. Repeating the observations or increasing the sample size can eliminate them.
d. They arise from the design of the study.
7. Which of these is not true for random errors?
a. They are difficult to detect.
b. They are less likely for small sizes.
c. They do not arise from the design of the study.
8. Systematic errors lead to a lack of:
a. accuracy in measurement
b. gradation of measuring instrument
c. precision in measurement
d. significant digits in measurement
9. Random error lead to a lack of:
a. accuracy in measurement
b. gradation of measuring instrument
c. precision in measurement
d. significant digits in measurement
10. Repeated measurement of quantity can reduce the effects of
a. both random and systematic errors
b. neither random errors nor systematic errors
c. random errors
d. systematic errors
11. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT regarding systematic error?
a. It is the same as random error
b. it can be minimized by increasing the study samples.
c. it can be increased by increasing the study samples.
d. it occurs as a result of “the luck of the draw” an inaccurate estimate resulting
from the sample that was not representative of the population.

xxxix
12. Which of the following statements is true regarding systematic error?
a. It is the same as random error
b. it can be minimized by increasing the study samples.
c. it can be increased by increasing the study samples.
d. it occurs as a result of “the luck of the draw” an inaccurate estimate resulting
from the sample that was not representative of the population.
13. In measuring the diameter circular object like coins using Vernier caliper may
reduce what kind of error?
a. neither random nor systematic error
b. random error
c. random and systematic error
d. systematic error
14. To check the exact mass of set of weights 1kg you use the triple beam balance you
need to calibrate this measuring device, what kind of error did you try to minimize?
a. neither random nor systematic error
b. random error
c. random and systematic error
d. systematic error
15. In using the multimeter to measure the resistance value of the ohmic material you
need to calibrate the device, what kind of error do you want to decrease the value?
a. neither random nor systematic error
b. random error
c. random and systematic error
d. systematic error

xl
 Additional Activities

A grocery store sells 5-lb bags of mangoes. You purchase four bags over the course of
a month and weigh the mangoes each time. You obtain the following measurements:

Week 1 weight: 4.8  lb

Week 2 weight: 5.3  lb

Week 3 weight: 4.9  lb

Week 4 weight: 5.4  lb

Does the measurement have random error?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________

Does the measurement have systematic error?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________

xli
 Lesson

1 Measurement

Significant Figures
It is important to be honest when reporting a measurement, so that it does not appear
to be more accurate than the equipment used to make the measurement allows. We
can achieve this by controlling the number of digits, or significant figures, used to
report the measurement.

Measurement values are only as accurate as the measurement equipment used to

collect them. For example, measuring meters with a meter stick is rather accurate;
measuring millimeters (1/1,000 of a meter) with a meter stick is inaccurate. Using
significant figures helps prevent the reporting of measured values that the
measurement equipment is not capable of determining. A significant figure is
comprised of the fewest digits capable of expressing a measured value without losing
accuracy. As the sensitivity of the measurement equipment increases, so does the
number of significant figures. Knowing the rules for working with significant figures
can help your students. “Rounding” numbers is the usual method of achieving
significant figures. Once the appropriate number of significant figures for any
measurement, calculation, or equation is determined, students can practice rounding
their answers appropriately.

What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Considering the correct number of significant figures, evaluate the following operation,
3.73 x 5.7 = _____.
a. 21 c. 21.26
b. 21.00 d. 21.261

2. Compute 3.24 m + 0.532 m to the correct number of significant figures.

a. 3.77 c. 3.8
b. 3.772 d. 4.00

xlii
 3. The sum of 1.04 + 2.1135 + 3.1 + 3.403 is_____
a. 9.6565 c. 9.66
b. 9.6 d. 9.70

4. Solve: 7.45 x 108 + 4.97 x 10-2 – 6.67 x 105 is equal to___

a. 7443.33 x 105 c. 7.44333 x 10-2
b. 7.44 x 108 d. 7443.330000497

5. Which of the following examples illustrates a number that is correctly rounded to three
significant figures?
a. 0.03954 g to 4.040 g c. 20.0332 g to 20.0 g
b. 4.05438 g to 4.054 g d. 103.692 g to 103.7 g
6. Which of the following numbers contains the designated CORRECT number of
significant figures?
a. 0.00302 2 significant figures
b. 0.04300 5 significant figures
c. 1.04 2 significant figures
d. 3.0560 4 significant figures
e. 156 000 3 significant figures

7. A calculator answer of 423.6059 must be rounded off to three significant figures. What
answer is reported?
a. 420 b. 423 c. 423.6 d. 423.7 e. 424

8. Which of the following is CORRECT?

a. 2.450 x 107 rounded to two significant digits 2.4 x 107
b. 3.56 rounded to two significant digits is 3.6
c. 77.889 x 106 rounded to three significant digits is 77.8 x 106
d. 122.5 rounded to two significant digits is 120

9. The following observations have been made: 64.52, 3.0, 11.081. the correctly written
sum is
a. 78.6
b. 78.60
c. 78.6010
d. 79
10. The quantity 0.245 x 36.74 / 200.0 = 0.045007, computed from measured values,
should be written in an engineering report as
a. 0.04500 c. 4.50 x 10-2
b. 4.5 x 10-2 d. 5 x 10-2

xliii
11. The mass of a watch glass was measured four times. The masses were 99.997
g, 100.008 g, 100.001 g, 100.005 g. What is the average mass of the watch glass?
a. 100.00 g c. 100.005 g
b. 100.01 g d. 100.00525 g

12. When performing the calculation 34.530 g + 12.1 g + 1 + 222.34 g, the final
answer must have
a. only one decimal place c. five significant figures
b. three decimal places d. unit of g3

13. How many significant figures are in the measurement of 102 400 meters?
a. three b. four c. five d. six

14. 923 g is divided by 20 312 cm3

a. 0.045 g/cm3 c. 0.0454 g/cm3
b. 4.00 x 10-2 g/cm3 d. 0.04 g/cm3
15. Complete the following problem: A piece of stone has a mass of 24.595 grams
and a volume of 5.34 cm 3. What is the density of the stone? (remember that density
= m/v)
a. 0.22 cm3/g
b. 4.606 g/cm3
c. 4.61 g/cm3
d. 0.217 cm3/g

xliv
 What’s In

Compare and contrast accuracy and precision; random and systematic error.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____

What is It

Rules for Significant Figure

1. All non-zero numbers ARE significant. The number 33.2 has THREE significant
figures because all of the digits present are non-zero.
2. Zeros between two non-zero digits ARE significant. 2051 has FOUR significant
figures. The zero is between a 2 and a 5.
3. Leading zeros are NOT significant. They're nothing more than "place holders." The
number 0.54 has only TWO significant figures. 0.0032 also has TWO significant
figures. All of the zeros are leading.
4. Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal ARE significant. There are FOUR
significant figures in 92.00.
92.00 is different from 92: a scientist who measures 92.00 milliliters knows his value
to the nearest 1/100th milliliter; meanwhile his colleague who measured 92 milliliters
only knows his value to the nearest 1 milliliter. It's important to understand that

xlv
"zero" does not mean "nothing." Zero denotes actual information, just like any other
number. You cannot tag on zeros that aren't certain to belong there.
5. Trailing zeros in a whole number with the decimal shown ARE
significant. Placing a decimal at the end of a number is usually not done. By
convention, however, this decimal indicates a significant zero. For example, "540."
indicates that the trailing zero IS significant; there are THREE significant figures in
this value.
6. Trailing zeros in a whole number with no decimal shown are NOT
significant. Writing just "540" indicates that the zero is NOT significant, and there are
only TWO significant figures in this value.
7. Exact numbers have an INFINITE number of significant figures. This rule
applies to numbers that are definitions. For example, 1 meter = 1.00 meters = 1.0000
meters = 1.0000000000000000000 meters, etc.

So now back to the example posed in the Rounding Tutorial: Round 1000.3 to four

significant figures. 1000.3 has five significant figures (the zeros are between non-zero
digits 1 and 3, so by rule 2 above, they are significant.) We need to drop the final 3,
and since 3 < 5, we leave the last zero alone. so 1000. is our four-significant-figure
answer. (from rules 5 and 6, we see that in order for the trailing zeros to "count" as
significant, they must be followed by a decimal. Writing just "1000" would give us only
one significant figure.)
8. For a number in scientific notation: N x 10 x, all digits comprising N ARE
significant by the first 6 rules; "10" and "x" are NOT significant. 5.02 x 104 has
THREE significant figures: "5.02." "10 and "4" are not significant.
Rule 8 provides the opportunity to change the number of significant figures in a value
by manipulating its form. For example, let's try writing 1100 with THREE significant
figures. By rule 6, 1100 has TWO significant figures; its two trailing zeros are not
significant. If we add a decimal to the end, we have 1100., with FOUR significant
figures (by rule 5.) But by writing it in scientific notation: 1.10 x 103, we create a
THREE-significant-figure value.

xlvi
To determine the number of significant figures in a number use
the following 3 rules:
1. Non-zero digits are always significant
2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant
3. A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are significant
Example:  .500 or .632000 the zeros are significant
                 .006  or .000968 the zeros are NOT significant
 

For addition and subtraction use the following rules:

1. Count the number of significant figures in the decimal portion ONLY of each
number in the problem
2. Add or subtract in the normal fashion
3. Your final answer may have no more significant figures to the right of the
decimal than the LEAST number of significant figures in any number in the
problem.
 

For multiplication and division use the following rule:

1. The LEAST number of significant figures in any number of the problem
determines the number of significant figures in the answer. (You are now
looking at the entire number, not just the decimal portion)
*This means you have to be able to recognize significant figures in order to use this
rule*
      Example: 5.26 has 3 significant figures
                      6.1 has 2 significant figures

xlvii
 What’s More

A. How many significant figures are there in each of the following numbers?
Write your answer beside the given data.

1. 1.234
2. 1.2340
3. 1.234 x 10-3
4. 1.2340 x 10-3
5. 1234
6. 12340
7. 0.012340
8. 12.34
9. 123.4
10. 1.23400 x 10-5
B. Perform the indicated operation. Express your answer to the correct
number of significant figures. Assume that the last digit is significant.

1. (1.735) (1.75)

2. 1234 + 450.00 + 1600.4 + 80.2 + 320

3. 624.8/7.2

xlviii
 What I Have Learned

1. Significant figures of a measured or calculated quantity are the meaningful digits in

it.
2. Any digit that is not zero is significant.
3. Zeros between non-zeros digits are significant.
4. Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
5. For numbers with decimal points, zeros to the right of a non-zero digit are
significant.

What I Can Do

What are the significant things do you have in your possession?

Who are the significant people surrounds you?
Cite rules to consider significant people and things that you have.

xlix
 Assessment

Solve and encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Considering the correct number of significant figures, evaluate the operation,
3.73 x 5.7 = _____.
a. 21 c. 21.26
b. 21.00 d. 21.261

2. Compute 3.24 m + 0.532 m to the correct number of significant figures.

a. 3.77 c. 3.8
b. 3.772 d. 4.00

3. The sum of 1.04 + 2.1135 + 3.1 + 3.403 is_____

a. 9.6565 c. 9.66
b. 9.6 d. 9.70

4. Solve: 7.45 x 108 + 4.97 x 10-2 – 6.67 x 105 is equal to___

a. 7443.33 x 105 c. 7.44333 x 10-2
b. 7.44 x 108 d. 7443.330000497

5. Which of the following examples illustrates a number that is correctly rounded to

three significant figures?
a. 0.03954 g to 4.040 g c. 20.0332 g to 20.0 g
b. 4.05438 g to 4.054 g d. 103.692 g to 103.7 g
6. Which of the following numbers contains the designated CORRECT number of
significant figures?
f. 0.00302 2 significant figures
g. 0.04300 5 significant figures
h. 1.04 2 significant figures
i. 3.0560 4 significant figures
j. 156 000 3 significant figures

7. A calculated answer of 423.6059 must be rounded off to three significant figures.

What answer is reported?
b. 420 b. 423 c. 423.6 d. 423.7 e. 424

l
 8. Which of the following is CORRECT?
e. 2.450 x 107 rounded to two significant digits 2.4 x 107
f. 3.56 rounded to two significant digits is 3.6
g. 77.889 x 106 rounded to three significant digits is 77.8 x 10 6
h. 122.5 rounded to two significant digits is 120

9. The following observations have been made: 64.52, 3.0, 11.081. the correctly
written sum is
e. 78.6
f. 78.60
g. 78.6010
h. 79
10. The quantity 0.245 x 36.74 / 200.0 = 0.045007, computed from measured values,
should be written in an engineering report as
a. 0.04500 c. 4.50 x 10-2
b. 4.5 x 10-2 d. 5 x 10-2
11. The mass of a watch glass was measured four times. The masses were 99.997
g, 100.008 g, 100.001 g, 100.005 g. What is the average mass of the watch glass?
a. 100.00 g c. 100.005 g
b. 100.01 g d. 100.00525 g
12. When performing the calculation 34.530 g + 12.1 g + 1 222.34 g, the final
answer must have
a. only one decimal place c. three significant figures
b. three decimal places d. unit of g3
13. How many significant figures are in the measurement of 102 400 meters?
a. three b. four c. five d. six
3
14. 923 g is divided by 20 312 cm
a. 0.045 g/cm3 c. 0.0454 g/cm3
b. 4.00 x 10-2 g/cm3 d. 0.04 g/cm3
15. Complete the following problem: A piece of stone has a mass of 24.595 grams
and a volume of 5.34 cm 3. What is the density of the stone? (remember that density
= m/v)
a. 0.22 cm3/g
b. 4.606 g/cm3
c. 4.61 g/cm3
d. 0.217 cm3/g

li
References

 Physics for Laboratory Manual Physics for the Life Science I. Spring 2018
 Sio, Janina Andrea et.al. Experiments: Errors, Uncertainties and
Measurements Laboratory Report. Manila, Philippines.
 Tabujara Jr., Geronimo D. K-12 Compliant Worktext for Senior High School
General Physics 1. Manila, Philippines: JFS Publishing Services.
 The Language of Physics: Physical Quantities and Units . Austin, Texas: Texas
Education Agency.

References

 Physics for Laboratory Manual Physics for the Life Science I. Spring 2018
 Sio, Janina Andrea et.al. Experiments: Errors, Uncertainties and Measurements
Laboratory Report. Manila, Philippines.
 Tabujara Jr., Geronimo D. K-12 Compliant Worktext for Senior High School
General Physics 1. Manila, Philippines: JFS Publishing Services.
 The Language of Physics: Physical Quantities and Units . Austin, Texas: Texas
Education Agency.
 https://www.objectivequiz.com/objective-questions/general-science/accuracy-
and-precision
 Deped Module R-4A

References

 Chhetri, Khadka Bahadur. Computation of Errors and their Analysis on

Physics Experiments. Tribhuvan University, Nepal.
 Giancoli. Physics 215: Experiment 1 Measurement, Random Error, Error
Analysis.

lii
  Sio, Janina Andrea et.al. Experiments: Errors, Uncertainties and
Measurements Laboratory Report. Manila, Philippines.
 Tabujara Jr., Geronimo D. K-12 Compliant Worktext for Senior High School
General Physics 1. Manila, Philippines: JFS Publishing Services

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_error

References

 Chhetri, Khadka Bahadur. Computation of Errors and their Analysis on

Physics Experiments. Tribhuvan University, Nepal.

 Giancoli. Physics 215: Experiment 1 Measurement, Random Error, Error

Analysis.
 Sio, Janina Andrea et.al. Experiments: Errors, Uncertainties and
Measurements Laboratory Report. Manila, Philippines.
 Tabujara Jr., Geronimo D. K-12 Compliant Worktext for Senior High School
General Physics 1. Manila, Philippines: JFS Publishing Services

liii