University of Rhode Island

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Classical Dynamics Physics Course Materials

2015

09. Central Force Motion II

Gerhard Müller
University of Rhode Island, [email protected]

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Abstract
Part nine of course materials for Classical Dynamics (Physics 520), taught by Gerhard Müller at the
University of Rhode Island. Entries listed in the table of contents, but not shown in the document,
exist only in handwritten form. Documents will be updated periodically as more entries become
presentable.

Recommended Citation
Müller, Gerhard, "09. Central Force Motion II" (2015). Classical Dynamics. Paper 13.
http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/classical_dynamics/13

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Contents of this Document [mtc9]

9. Central Force Motion II

• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion [msl22]

• Orbits of Kepler problem [msl23]
• Motion in time on elliptic orbit [mln19]
• Cometary motion on parabolic orbit [mex44]
• Cometary motion on hyperbolic orbit [mex234]
• Close encounter of the first kind [mex145]
• Kepler’s second and third laws [mex43]
• Circular and radial motion in inverse-square law potential [mex164]
• Circular orbit of the Yukawa potential [mex54]
• Orbital differential equation [mln46]
• Exponential spiral orbit [mex49]
• Orbital differential equation applied to the Kepler problem [mex48]
• Linear spiral orbit [mex52]
• Crash course on circular orbit [mex50]
• Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector [mln45]
• Precession of the perihelion [mln21]
• Precession of the perihelion: orbital integral [mex165]
• Precession of the perihelion: orbital differential equation [mex166]
• The comet and the planet [mex45]
• Free fall with or without angular momentum [mex42]
• Elliptic and hyperbolic orbits [mex169]
[mex44] Cometary motion on parabolic orbit
Determine a parametric representation x(η), y(η), t(η), ϑ(η) for the parabolic motion in time of a
comet with mass m in the central force potential V (r) = −κ/r. Start from the general integral
expression for t(r) and use the parametrization r = rmin (1 + η 2 ).

y
m

r
x
rmin

Solution:
Motion in time on elliptic Kepler orbit [mln19]

κ
Use the formal solution with E < 0, V (r) = − , κ = GmM :
r
Z r Z
dr m rdr
t= q = q .
2

E + κr − 2mr
` 2  2|E| κ
−r2 + |E| r− `2
m 2 2m|E|

r
κ 2|E|`2
Introduce semi-major axis a = and eccentricity e = 1− :
2|E| mκ2
r Z
ma rdr
⇒ t= p .
κ a e − (a − r)2
2 2

Substitute a − r = ae cos ψ: ⇒ r(ψ) = a(1 − e cos ψ), dr = ae sin ψdψ.

r r
ma3
Z
ma
⇒ t= dψ a(1 − e cos ψ) = (ψ − e sin ψ).
κ κ

For the angular coordinate ϑ, use r(ψ) and the orbital equation r(ϑ) =
p/(1 + cos ϑ) with p = a(1 − e2 ). Then eliminate r from r(ϑ) and r(ψ).
For the Cartesian coordinates use ex = p − r and x2 + y 2 = r2 .
Parametric representation for the motion in time: 0 ≤ ψ ≤ 2π

r(ψ) = a(1 − e cos ψ) (rmin ≤ r ≤ rmax )

r
ϑ(ψ) 1+e ψ
tan = tan (0 ≤ ϑ ≤ 2π)
2 1−e 2
x(ψ) = a(cos ψ − e)
√
y(ψ) = a 1 − e2 sin ψ
r
ma3
t(ψ) = (ψ − e sin ψ) (0 ≤ t ≤ τ )
κ
r
ma3
Period of motion: τ = 2π .
κ
ϑ
Circular limit: e = 0 ⇒ r = a = const, ϑ = ψ, t = τ .
2π
[mex234] Cometary motion on hyperbolic orbit
Determine a parametric representation x(ξ), y(ξ), t(ξ), ϑ(ξ) for the hyperbolic motion in time of a
comet with mass m in the central force potential V (r) = −κ/r. Start from the general integral
expression for t(r) and use the parametrization ã + r = ãe cosh ξ with ã = κ/2E and e2 =
1 + 2E`2 /mκ2 , where E is the energy and ` the angular momentum.

y
m

r
x
rmin

Solution:
[mex145] Close encounter of the first kind
A rock of mass m approaches the solar system with a velocity v0 , and if it had not been attracted
toward the sun it would have missed the sun by a distance d. Neglect the influence of the planets.
Show that the closest approach of the orbit is

. Gm
q
a = d2 + d20 − d0 , d0 = .
v02

Solution:
[mex43] Kepler’s second and third laws
Derive Kepler’s second and third laws of planetary motion from the results established in class
for central force motion. Use the case of an elliptic orbit (0 < e < 1). Specifically: (a) Show
that the rate at which area is swept by the position vector of the planet, dA/dt, is a constant.
Determine that constant. (b) Integrate the result for dA/dt over one period of revolution τ to
show that the following relation holds between τ and the semi-major axis a: τ 2 = 4π 2 (m/κ)a3 ,
where κ = GM m, M = mS + mP , m = mS mP /(mS + mP ).

Solution:
[mex164] Circular and radial motion in inverse-square law potential
A particle of mass m is subject to the central force F (r) = −mk 2 /r3 , where k is a constant. (a)
Find the time T it takes the particle to move once around a circular orbit of radius r0 . (b) Find
the time τ it takes the particle to reach the center of force if released from rest at radius r0 .

Solution:
[mex54] Circular orbits of the Yukawa potential
A particle of mass m moves in the Yukawa potential V (r) = −(k/r)e−r/ρ . Circular orbits exist only
if the angular momentum ` does not exceed a certain value `max . For any value ` < `max , there
exist two circular orbits, one stable
√ orbit at radius RS (`) and one unstable orbit at radius RU (`).
(a) Determine the value of `max / mkρ. (b) Determine the value RS (`max )/ρ = RU (`max )/ρ. (c)
Sketch the two functions RS (`) and RU (`) and label them clearly.

Solution:
Orbital Differential Equation [mln46]

`2
Equation of motion for radial motion: mr̈ − = F (r), F (r) = −V 0 (r).
mr3
`
Angular velocity: ϑ̇ = .
mr2
1
Use new radial variable: u ≡ .
r
dr d 1 1 du 1 du dϑ ` du
⇒ = =− 2 =− 2 =− .
dt dt u u dt u dϑ dt m dϑ
 2
d2 r ` d2 u dϑ 2
 
` d du ` 2 d u
⇒ = − = − = − u .
dt2 m dt dϑ m dϑ2 dt m dϑ2
`2 2 d2 u `2 3
 
1
⇒ − u 2
− u =F .
m dϑ m u

d2 u
 
m 1
Orbital differential equation: 2
+ u = − 2 2F .
dϑ `u u
Initial conditions: u(0) = 1/rmin , 1/rmax , u0 (0) = 0.
Like the orbital integral, the orbital differential equation describes the rela-
tion between the radial and angular coordinates of an orbit, a relation from
which the variable ’time’ has been eliminated.
While the orbital integral is most useful for calculating orbits of a given cen-
tral force potential, the orbital differential equation is particularly useful for
finding central force potentials in which given orbits are realized.

Applications:

• Kepler problem [mex48]

• Exponential spiral orbit [mex49]
• Circular orbit through center of force [mex50]
• Linear spiral orbit [mex52]
[mex49] Exponential spiral orbit
A particle of mass m moves along an exponential spiral orbit r(ϑ) = r0 eϑ under the influence of a
central force potential V (r). (a) Use the orbital differential equation

d2 u m
+ u = − 2 2 F (u−1 ),
dϑ2 ` u
where u ≡ 1/r, F (r) = −dV /dr to determine the potential V (r). (b) Determine the energy E of
this orbit. (c) Determine the motion in time r(t), ϑ(t) of the particle on this orbit.

Solution:
[mex48] Orbital differential equation applied to Kepler problem
p
Derive the orbital relation p/r = 1 + e cos(ϑ − ϑ0 ) with p = `2 /mκ and e = 1 + 2E`2 /mκ2 , which
describes all orbits of the Kepler problem, from the orbital differential equation

d2 u m
+ u = − 2 2 F (u−1 ),
dϑ2 ` u
where u ≡ 1/r, F (r) = −dV /dr, and V (r) = −κ/r. Do not reason backward. Pretend you do not
know the solution.

Solution:
[mex52] Linear spiral orbit
A particle of mass m moves along a linear spiral orbit r(ϑ) = kϑ under the influence of a central
force potential V (r). (a) Use the orbital differential equation

d2 u m
+ u = − 2 2 F (u−1 ),
dϑ2 ` u
where u ≡ 1/r, F (r) = −dV /dr to determine the potential V (r). (b) Determine the energy E of
this orbit. (c) Determine the motion in time r(t), ϑ(t) of the particle on this orbit.

Solution:
[mex50] Crash course on circular orbit
A particle of mass m moves on a circular orbit of radius a passing through the center O of a
power-law central force potential V (r) = −κ/rα . (a) Determine the exponent α for which such an
orbit exists. (b) Find the angular momentum ` and the energy E of this orbit. (c) Determine the
period τ of this circular orbit as a function of a, m, κ.

θ
O
2a

Solution:
Laplace-Runge-Lenz Vector [mln45]

Central force: F(r) = −∇V (r).

r
Equation of motion: ṗ = F (r) .
r
Angular momentum: L = r × p = mr × ṙ.
Conservation law: L̇ = ṙ × p + r × ṗ = 0 ⇒ L = const.

d mF (r) mF (r) 
r(r · ṙ) − r 2 ṙ

⇒ (p × L) = ṗ × L = r × (r × ṙ) =
dt r  r
1 ṙ d hri
= −mF (r)r 2 ṙ − 2 r = −mF (r)r 2 .
r r dt r

1 d
We have used a × (b × c) = b(a · c) − c(a · b), r · ṙ = (r · r) = r ṙ.
2 dt
κ d d h mκr i
Kepler system: F (r) = − ⇒ (p × L) = .
r2 dt dt r
r
Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector: A = p × L − mκ = const.
r
The vector A lies in the plane of the orbit, points to the pericenter, and has
magnitude A = mκe, where e is the eccentricity of the orbit.

L ⊥ p × L and L ⊥ r ⇒ A ⊥ L.

A · r ≡ Ar cos ϑ = r · (p × L) − mκr = L · (r × p) − mκr = `2 − mκr.

r
A · assumes its maximum value for r = rmin (pericenter).
r
`2 /mκ A
= 1+ cos ϑ (conic section).
r mκ

m
p
A r

L
Precession of the Perihelion [mln21]

Gravitation ⇒ inverse-square force ⇒ bounded orbits are closed (station-

ary ellipses with sun at one focus) ⇒ apsidal angle: ∆ϑ = π.
Any slight deviation from the 1/r2 -force law causes a precession of the peri-
helion in planetary orbits.
The perihelion of the planets Mercury, Venus, and Mars, was long observed
to precess. The main cause is the presence of other planets in the solar
system.
For Mercury the total precession observed is 531” per century, of which 43”
are unexplained by many-body effects.
The residual 43” per century can be accounted for as a combination of rela-
tivistic effects:
1
• 3
due to time dilation (special relativity),
1
• 6
due to mass increase (special relativity),
1
• 2
due to the fact that force is not instantaneous (general relativity).

In the framework of a pertubation calculation, the relativistic effects can be

taken into account as a correction to the gravitational potential:

κ γ G`2 M
V (r) = − − 3 , κ = GmM, γ= 2 .
r r cm
Here m is the mass of the planet, M is the solar mass, G is the universal
gravitational constant, ` is the angular momentum of the orbit, and c is the
speed of light.
The angle δϑ of precession per cycle can be calculated by different means
including the following:
• perturbative correction to the orbital integral ⇒ [mex165],
• perturbative solution of the orbital integral equation ⇒ [mex166].

 2
GmM 6πGM
The result of both methods is δϑ = 6π ' .
c` c2 a(1 − e2 )

The effect is enhanced when the semi-major axis a is small and the eccen-
tricity e is large. Hence it is most prominent in Mercury’s orbit.
[mex165] Precession of the perihelion: orbital integral
Consider the Kepler problem with a correction term reflecting relativistic effects:

κ γ G`2 M
V (r) = − − 3, κ = GmM, γ= .
r r c2 m
Calculate the angle δϑ of precession per cycle of the perihelion as a correction to the known apsidal
angle of the Kepler problem in a perturbative treatment of the orbital integral:
Z r2
`/mr2
δϑ = 2 dr q 
2 `2
 − 2π.
r1
m E − V (r) − 2mr 2

Solution:
[mex166] Precession of the perihelion: orbital differential equation
Consider the Kepler problem with a correction term reflecting relativistic effects:

κ γ G`2 M
V (r) = − − 3, κ = GmM, γ= .
r r c2 m
(a) Show that the resulting orbital differential equation acquires a nonlinear term as follows:

d2 u 1 1 mκ 3GM
+ u = + αu2 , = 2 , α= .
dϑ2 p p ` c2

(b) Calculate the angle δϑ of precession per cycle of the perihelion by a perturbative solution.

Solution:
[mex45] The comet and the planet
A comet moves along a parabolic orbit which brings it to a distance d from the sun at its closest
point. A planet circles the sun at radius R in the same plane. (a) Find the fraction of a planetary
year which the comet spends inside the planetary orbit as a function of d/R. (b) Show that
this fraction cannot exceed the value 2/3π no matter what the value of d/R is. Use the results of
[mex44] for the parabolic motion. The masses of the comet and the planet are very small compared
to the mass of the sun.

Solution:
[mex42] Free fall with or without angular momentum
Two particles of mass m1 and m2 under the influence of their mutual gravitational attraction
describe circular orbits with period τ about their center of mass. Now they are abruptly stopped
in their orbits
√ and allowed to gravitate toward each other. Show that they will collide after a time
T = τ /4 2.

Solution:
[mex169] Elliptic and hyperbolic orbits
Calculate the orbital integral (a) for an orbit with energy E > 0 and angular momentum ` of the
attractive central-force potential V (r) = 12 kr2 and (b) for an orbit with energy E < 0 and angular
momentum ` of the repulsive central-force potential V (r) = − 21 kr2 . Show that the solutions (a)
and (b) can be cast into the form x2 /a2 ± y 2 /b2 = 1, respectively, if the Cartesian axes are suitably
oriented. Find the parameters a and b in each case as functions of E, `, m, k. Express E and ` in
terms of a, b, m, k in each case.

Solution: