CHAPTER FOUR

DC-DC CONVERSION:
DC CHOPPERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A dc-to‐dc converter, also known as d.c. chopper, is a static device
which is used to obtain a variable d.c. voltage from a constant d.c. voltage
source. Also the dc-to-dc converter is defined in more general way as an
electrical circuit that transfers energy from a d.c. voltage source to a load.
The energy is first transferred via power electronic switches to energy
storage devices and then subsequently switched from storage into the
load. The switches used are GTO, IGBT, Power BJT, and Power
MOSFET for low power application and thyristors or SCRs for high
power application. The storage devices are inductors and capacitors. The
power source is either a battery (d.c. volt) or a rectified a.c. volt. This
process of energy transfer results in an output voltage that is related to the
input voltage by the duty ratios of the switches.
The dc-to-dc converter products are used extensively for divers
applications in the healthcare (bio-life science, dental, imaging, labor-
atory, medical), communications, computing, storage, business systems,
test and measurement, instrumentation, and industrial equipment
industries. They are used in electric motor drives, in switch mode power
supplies (SMPS), trolley cars, battery operated vehicles, traction motor
control, control of large number of d.c. motors, etc. They are also used as
d.c. voltage regulators.

Types of dc-to-dc converters

There are mainly two types of dc-to-dc converters: (1) Step‐down
choppers, and (2) Step‐up choppers. In step‐down choppers, the output

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

voltage will be less than the input voltage, whereas in step‐up choppers
output voltage will be more than the input voltage. Hence a chopper is
considered as d.c. equivalent of an a.c. transformer since it behaves in an
identical manner. Also dc-to-dc converters can be categorized into two
groups:

1) DC-to-DC converters without isolation

These dc-to-dc converters do not have any isolation transformer
between input and output stages. Some of the commonly used dc-to-dc
converters without isolation are:
a. Buck converter
b. Boost converter
c. Buck-boost converter
The buck converter is step-down converter (output voltage ˂ input
voltage) whereas Boost converter is a step-up converter (output voltage >
input voltage). The buck-boost converter is derived from step-up and step-
down converters. The buck-boost converter can be operated in step-up or
step-down mode depends on the duty cycle of switch (ton / T ), where ton is
the duration for which switch is on and T is the switching time period).

2) DC-to-DC converters with isolation

A transformer is provided in between to isolate the input and output
stages. The electrical isolation is an additional feature and is mainly
useful in cases where the input voltage level (Vin) and output voltage level
(Vout) differs significantly i.e. high or low values of Vout / Vin. The dc-to-dc
converters with isolation is again divided into two types based on polarity
of transformer core excitation:
 Unidirectional core excitation, core is excited with forward
currents of only one direction. In these dc-to-dc converters the
isolation transformer core is operated in only the positive part of
B-H curve.
 Bidirectional core excitation, core is excited with currents in
either direction. In these dc-to-dc converters the isolation
transformer core is operated alternatively in positive and
negative portions of B-H curve.
Some of the commonly used dc-to-dc converters with isolation are:
a. Cuk converter (can be used in non-isolated mode also)
b. Fly-back converter
c. Forward converter
d. Full-bridge converter
e. Half-bridge converter
f. Push-pull converter

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4.2 PRINCIPLE OF STEP-DOWN CHOPPER

The basic chopper circuit, often referred to as a class-A chopper, with
resistive load is shown in Fig.4.1. It consist of a semiconductor switch S
(often a thyristor) and its commutation circuit. The thyristor in the circuit
acts as a switch. By the action of the switch, i.e. when thyristor is ON,
supply voltage appears across the load and when thyristor is OFF, the
voltage across the load will be zero. The output voltage waveform is as
shown in Fig.4.2 which has an average value Vave =Vo .

Fig.4.1 Step-down simple chopper circuit.

Fig.4.2 Chopper output voltage waveform, case of R-load.

The applied voltage is therefore “chopped” by the action of the switch.

Since the average load voltage Vo is less than the input voltage, this circuit
is called “step-down chopper”. For all loads the current is unidirectional
and the polarity of the load voltage is non-reversible. Operation takes
place only in the positive voltage, positive current quadrant of the load
voltage/load current plane so the circuit is referred to as a one-quadrant
chopper.

Methods of Control
The output d.c. voltage can be varied by the following methods.
(a) Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.
(b) Variable frequency control.

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 Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Pulse Width Modulation

 ton is varied keeping chopping frequency „f’ and chopping period
„T ‟ constant.
 Output voltage is varied by varying the ON time ton.
Typical thyristor chopper circuit:
Fig.4.3 shows one typical thyristor chopper circuit. Thyristor ( ) is the
main thyristor through which the flow of power is controlled. The
capacitor C and the four Thyristors ( , , , ) is the commutation
circuit ( this circuit had been already discussed in Chapter One).

Fig.4.3 Typical thyristor d.c. chopper with forced commutation circuit.

The function of the commutation circuit is to switch off the main

thyristor at the end of each ON period. If the capacitor is charged such as
plate a is positive. To switch OFF (Tm) , Thyristors ( , ) are triggered
ON. This results in applying reverse polarity voltage across ( ) and
hence it will be switched OFF. Also the capacitor polarity will be
reversed; i.e. plate b will now be positive. Thyristor ( ) is switched ON
for the next ON period, and now to switch OFF ( ) , Thyristors ( , )
are switched ON , and so the cycle is repeated . However , the thyristor
commutation circuits are discussed in details in Appenix-B.
The Li-Ci circuit in the input terminal is a filter circuit that reduces the
harmonics injected into the power source. The inductance (Lo) in the
output terminal is filter that smooth the current passing through the load.
The diode ( ) is a freewheeling diode, its function is to circulate the d.c.
current through it when the main Thyristor ( ) is OFF.

4.3 ANALYSIS OF A STEP‐ DOWN DC CHOPPER WITH RESISTIVE

- LOAD
Referring to Fig.4.2, the average output voltage can be found as:

Let T = control period = ton + toff (4.1)

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and,
1
f = chopping frequency = ( ) = 1/ T (4.2)
control period (T )

Typical chopping of the frequencies are usually in the range

⁄ for thyristor chopper and up to
10kHz for transistor choppers. In low power applications MOSFET
switches can be used at frequencies in excess of 200 kHz.
The average value of the load voltage waveform shown in Fig. 4.2 may be
expressed by the basic relationship,

Evaluating this integration gives,

 Maximum value of γ =1 when ton =T (toff = 0)

 Minimum value of γ = 0 when ton = 0 (toff = 0)
The output voltage is stepped-down by the factor γ, (0 ≤ Vo ≤ Vd ).

Therefore, this form of chopper is a step-down chopper. Since the load is

resistive the average load current is given by the basic equation

The average power transferred to the load may be expressed by the basic
relationship.
∫

The rms value of the load voltage waveform is given by,

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

√ ∫ √ [] √γ

The rms value of the load current,

In the equivalent circuit of the Fig.4.1 the load power can be written, in a
form more convenient for calculation as

Since the input voltage is constant, average power is only transferred

from the supply to the chopper by the combination of with the average
value of the input current

The ripple factor, RF : It is a measure of the ripple content. Also, the

ripple factor, defining the ratio of the a.c. components to the average
value, is given by

√
√

For full conduction and RF= 0.

Note1: In this type of chopper both

the voltage and current are always
positive, hence this chopper is called
a single-quadrant Buck converter or
class-A chopper.
Note2: The chopper switch can also
be implemented by using a power BJT,
power MOSFET, GTO, and IGBT
transistor. The practical devices have Fig.4.4 Single-quadrant
a finite voltage drop ranging from operation.

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 Power electronics and drives

0.5V to 2V, and for the sake of simplicity, the voltage drop of these
power semiconductor devices are generally neglected.

Example 4.1

A class-A d.c. chopper circuit (Buck converter) is supplied with power

form an ideal battery of 100 V. The load voltage waveform consists of
rectangular pulses of duration 1 ms in an overall cycle time of 2.5 ms. For
resistive load of R =10 Ω , it is required to calculate:
(a) The duty cycle γ.
(b) The average value of the output voltage Vo.
(c) The rms value of the output voltage Vorms.
(d) The ripple factor RF.
(e) The output d.c. power.

Solution
(a) ton = 1ms , T = 2.5 ms

(b) Vav = Vo = γ Vd = 0.4 100 = 40 V.

(c ) √ = √0.4 100 = 63.2 V.

1  1  0.4
(d) RF    1.225
 0.4

(e) The load (output) current and the average power are

Pav = Io Vo = 4 40 = 160 W

4.4 ANALYSIS OF A STEP‐DOWN DC CHOPPER WITH R‐L LOAD:

EXACT ANALYSIS
Referring to Fig.4.5 which shows typical class-A chopper operating
with series resistive-inductive load, the current “io”will alter between
certain maximum and minimum values. These values depend on the
parameters of the circuit and the value of the duty cycle (operation
conditions). The waveforms of the output voltage and current are shown
in Fig. 4.6. However, class-A chopper can operates in two modes with
R-L loads:

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Fig.4.5 Class-A chopper operating with series resistive-inductive load.

Fig.4.6 Load current and voltage waveforms with inductive load:

(a) Load voltage waveform, (b) Continuous load current,
(c) Discontinuous load current ( tx is the instant when the current
falls to zero).

 For high values of γ, the load current fluctuates in magnitude

but it is more or less “continuous”, as shown in Fig.4.6(b).
 For low values of γ , the load current may fall to zero during
the OFF periods “discontinuous”, as shown in Fig.4.6(c).
However the load voltage waveform is the same for both
cases as shown in Fig.4.6(a).

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Analytical properties of the load current waveform

With an R-L load, during the ON-state, when switch S closed, the
equivalent circuit is represented by Fig.4.7. The current flows through the
circuit is governed by the following equation:

Fig.4.7 ON-state equivalent circuit.

To solve this equation, we re-arrange it as,

Integrating both sides and simplify,

∫ ∫

( )

where K and K’ are constants.

 Special case : at t = 0 ,

Hence, the equation for the current is,

⁄
( )

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Where τ = time constant = L / R,

 The general case when : at t = 0 , io = Io

⁄ ⁄
( )
This general equation of the current can be re-written in terms of ωt as,
⁄ ⁄
( )
where ⁄
Equation (4.18) can be considered as a general solution for the instant-
aneous current flowing through an R-L load fed by d.c. chopper circuit,
and when applied to the chopper circuit shown in Fig.4.5 yields,
At the end of the ON period t=ton = γT , io = I2 ( or Imax) and therefore ,

⁄
( )

On opening S , Fig.4.8 , the current “ io “ is commutated to the freewhe-

eling diode and falls exponentially from I2 to I1 (or Imin) according to

Fig.4.8 OFF-state equivalent circuit.

At the end of the OFF period, t = T , I = I1 and therefore,

or

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Power electronics and drives

The variation of the current is shown in Fig.4.9.

Fig.4.9 Current waveform for R-L load.

The average value of load current is defined by,

The average value of the current drawn from the source is

where is = io

is = 0

The peak-to-peak ripple of the load current Ir is given by Ir = ΔI = I2 – I1.

From above equations, with simple algebraic manipulation one can show
that:

⁄ ⁄ ⁄

where Im = Vd / R : Maximum ON-state load current ( i.e. , when γ ).

Thus, for given circuit parameters (namely R and L) and the cycle time,
is function of γ. The variation of with γ is shown in Fig.4.10 for
different values of ( ⁄ ). From this figure one can simply draw the
following conclusions:

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 Chapter 4: DC Choppers

1. The maximum ripple occurs at γ .

2. The ripple is very small when (T < 0.1 ) , (or when f ˃ 10/ ).

Fig.4.10. The variation of with γ.

4.5 ANALYSIS OF A STEP-DOWN DC CHOPPER WITH LOAD

CONSISTING BACK EMF (E)
When the load has a back emf E (such as battery or motor), Fig.4.11,
the governing equations during the ON and OFF periods are respectively:

Fig.4.11 Operation with load consisting back emf.

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In this case the current will be either continuous or discontinuous

depending on the values of E and the duty cycle . However, the output
voltage waveform is assumed to be the same for both continuous and
discontinuous current operation which is also the same for resistive load.
It should be noted that the voltage forcing the current build up during the
ON period is (Vd - E), and during the OFF period, the decay of the current
is aided by E. Thus a slower ON-state increase and faster OFF-state
decrease in the current is expected.

4.5.1 Continuous Current Operation Condition with Back - emf

For analysis of class-A chopper circuit operation with back emf E, it is
convenient to start by considering the case of continuous current
conditions, when the back emf E is small, and the waveform of the current
alter between Imax and Imin as in Fig.4.6(b) as follows:
When switch S is ON (and DFW OFF) at t = 0, then at t = 0 + (just after
switching), , io = Imin. From Eq.(4.17) and these initial conditions,

⁄ ⁄
( )

At t = ton , when S is opened, io= Imax , and:

⁄ ⁄
( )

Equation (4.30) is not time dependent and remains true after S switches
off.
When switch S is off (and D on),
With , in Fig.4.9, and and in the interval
, the load current is given by

⁄ ⁄
( )

But at , , equation Eq.(4.31) may then be rewritten as

⁄ ⁄
( )

The simultaneous solution of Eq.(4.32) and Eq.(4.30) yields

⁄
( ⁄
)

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 Chapter 4: DC Choppers

⁄
( ⁄
)

For full conduction of switch S in Fig.4.11, , so that

⁄ . The use of Eq.(4.33) and Eq.(4.34) permits solution of
Eq.(4.29) and Eq.(4.30) to determine a value for at any instant of the
cycle during continuous conduction.

4.5.2 Discontinuous Current Operation Condition

Under certain circuit conditions, depending on the duty cycle and the
value of the back emf E, the load current may fall to zero resulting
in the discontinuous pulse pattern of Fig.4.12; this waveform consists of
two parts that may be classified according to the conduction of switch S,
as in subsection (4.1.1) above. The maximum current is now, in general,
different from the value obtained with continuous operation and it
occurs for a different value of . The minimum current for discon-
tinuous operation is, by definition, zero.

Fig.4.12 Load voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous current

operation.

 With switch S on (and diode D off),

In the interval of Fig.4.12 (c) the current equation Eq.(4.30)
applies with the limits that , and at . This gives

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Power electronics and drives

⁄
( )

Maximum occurs at so that

⁄
( )

Where is defined as the maximum current value for discount-

inuous current operation.
 With switch S off ( and DFW on)
When S switches off in Fig.4.11 the load voltage falls to zero due to
the conduction through diode DFW. The circuit differential equation (4.28)
is then modified to:

This has the solution of Eq.(4.38) except that the maximum current is now
given by Eq.(4.36) to result in

⁄
( )
⁄ ⁄
( )

The current extinction angle x

To find the current extinction angle x, let the repetition
periodicity , Fig.4.2, be designated as radians, hence
(4.39)
Since the independent variable is chosen as at the periodic time of the
over all cycle is
Periodic time = (4.40)
The frequency of the chopper operation is the inverse of the periodic time,

The ON period of the chopper is,

(4.42)
The ON time of the switch in seconds is therefore
Switch ON – time = 2πγ/ω (4.43)
The terms now serve the double purpose of identifying the
conduction state of switch S in Fig.4.11 and also defining its period of
conduction or extinction in radians.
Let current extinction occur at t = tx ( ) in Fig.4.12 (b), where x is

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

the current extinction angle which occurs at time tx. Putting and
into Eq.(4.38) gives expression for x,

⁄ ⁄
[ { ( )}]
Or in terms of the duty cycle ,

⁄ ⁄
[ { ( )}]

In terms of time in seconds, we can re-write Eq.(4.44) above as,

⁄ ⁄
[ { ( )}]

where and

If ton is decreased to the value at which that represent the

boundary between continuous and discontinuous operation. i.e. the
converter is operating at the point of changeover from continuous current
operation to discontinuous current operation. Then, from Eq. (4.5),

For this boundary condition, from Eq. (4.34)

⁄ ⁄

The relationship between m ( ) and is shown in Fig.4.13 with

the factor ⁄ as parameter. If a circuit operate with a specified
value of , then the criteria for continuous or discontinuous operation are,

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 Power electronics and drives

, continuous current (4.49)

discontinuous current

where is defined by Eq.(4.47).

Fig.4.13 Relation between m and for different values of .

If the circuit is passive, and Eq.(4.38) can only be satisfied by

in other words, there is no finite value of that will result in
discontinuous operation. Although the current may become small it is
finite and operation is, therefore, continuous.

4.6 HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF THE LOAD VOLTAGE WAVEFORM

OF CLASS-A DC CHOPPER

As it had been considered that the repetition periodicity ,

Fig.4.2, be designated as radians to facilitate harmonics analysis, so
that, Hence, .
In many cases it had been found that the output voltage waveform
is a very close approximation to one of the ideal waveforms shown in
Fig.4.2 for both continuous and discontinuous current operation. When
this is so, the waveform may be represented as,

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Since this waveform is periodic function, the time variation of may be

represented by Fourier series as,

∑ ∑

where, the Fourier coefficients are:

π
∫ ω ω
π

πγ
πγ
∫ ω [ω ]
π π

This value is the average value of the output voltage waveform which
represents the zero frequency components in the series or the d.c. value of
. The Fourier coefficients for the nth harmonic (higher order harmonics)
of the load voltage waveform are given by,
∫

The peak amplitude ̂ and phase-angle of nth load voltage harmonic

are therefore given by,

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Power electronics and drives

̂ √

√[ ] ( )

πγ ( )

π γ
( ) ( ) ( )
π γ
π
πγ ( )

The fundamental component of the output voltage waveform is found for

n =1, thus:

√[ ]

√[ ]

But , hence:
√
√[ ]

√
√[ ]

Example 4.2

In a class-A chopper circuit an ideal battery of terminal voltage 100 V

supplies a series load of resistance 0.25 Ω, and a series inductor of 1 mH.
The load consists of a series battery of 10 V. The control time T of the
chopper is 2.5 ms and the ON time is 1 ms.

(a) Specify whether the current will be continuous or discontinuous?

(b) Calculate the average output voltage Vo, and average output
current Io.
(c) Calculate the maximum and minimum values of the output
current.
(d) Sketch to scale compatible waveforms for vo, io, iD, and is.

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

(e) Calculate the fundamental component of output harmonic voltage

and the first order harmonic current.

Solution
(a) To find whether the current will be continuous or discontinuous, we
have to calculate the parameters first,

⁄
But

Since the current is continuous.

(b) From Eq.(4.4), the average output voltage Vo is,

(c ) Expressions for Imax and Imin are given in equations (4.33) and (4.34),

( )

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Power electronics and drives

( )

(d) Waveforms for vo, io, iD , and is are shown in Fig.4.14.

(e) The fundamental component of output harmonic voltage is calculated
from Eq.(4.56),

√[ ]
√

√[ ]

√ √

Fig.4.14 Class-A chopper waveforms.

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Example 4.3

Repeat Example 4.2 when Vd = 100 V, L= 0.2 mH. R = 0.25 Ω, E = 40 V,

T = 2.5 ms , ton = 1.25 ms.

Solution
(a) To find whether the current is continuous or discontinuous,

Since the current is discontinuous.

From Eq.(4.46)

⁄ ⁄
[ { ( )}]

{ }

(b) Since the current is discontinuous, Imin = 0. From Eq.(4.36)

⁄
( )

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 Power electronics and drives

(c) Waveforms for vo, io, iD, and is are shown in Fig.4.15.

Fig.4.15 Waveforms.

4.7 ANALYSIS OF A STEP-DOWN DC CHOPPER WITH R‐L LOAD:

APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS
Consider a class-A chopper circuit with R-L load as shown in
Fig.4.16(a). This is a step down chopper with one quadrant operation.
If we use the simplified linear analysis by considering that T<< , where
(T = ton + toff ). In this case the current is continuous as shown in
Fig.4.16(b).

(a)

(b)
Fig.4.16 Class-A chopper circuit with R-L load : (a) Circuit, and
(b) Voltage and current waveforms.

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Referring to Fig.4.16:
 The current variation is almost linear and the current waveform
becomes triangular.
 During the ON period , the equation govern the circuit is,

Since = constant, hence during ON period:

Where ΔI is the peak-to-peak of the load current .Thus the equation of the
current is given by:

where

During the off period:

Hence, during the off the equation of the current is

The average value of the output current is

[ ]

Example 4.4

A 140V battery supplies R-L load through a class-A d.c. chopper. The
load has a freewheeling diode across it is composed of 0.4 H in series
with 10 Ω resistor. Load current, due to improper selection of frequency
of chopping, varies widely between 8 A and 9.2 A.
(a) Find the average load voltage, current and the duty cycle of the
chopper.
(b) What is the operating frequency f ?
(c) Find the ripple current to maximum current ratio.

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Power electronics and drives

Solution
(a) The average load current is:

The average load voltage is

Vav = Vo = γ Vd

Vav = 0.614 140 = 86 V.

(b) To find the operating (chopping) frequency:

During the ON period,

Assuming

From Eq. (4.5a)

The maximum current Im occurs at γ = 1,

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Ripple current Ir = ΔI = 9.2 - 8 =1.2 A

Input Current Is
For the class-A chopper shown in Fig.4.16(a), the ON-state and
OFF-state equivalent circuits are as depicted in Fig.4.17. When the
thyristor is closed (during the ON period), the load current “i” rises from
I1 to I2 and falls from I2 to I1 during the off period as shown in
Fig.4.18(a).The input current is flows during the ON period only is as
shown in Fig .4.18 (b).

(a) ON-State equivalent circuit. (b) OFF-State equivalent circuit.

Fig.4.17 ON and OFF-states equivalent circuits.

(a) (b)

Fig.4.18 Class-A d.c. chopper : (a) Load Current, (b) Input current.

The equation of the input current is

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Power electronics and drives

The average value of the current drawn from the supply is simply found
by,

[ ]

[ ]

Approximate equations for the minimum and maximum load

currents
To find approximate formulae for the minimum current I1 and
maximum current I2 in a chopper circuit let us consider the equivalent
circuit of the chopper during the OFF-state period toff as depicted in
Fig.4.17 (b).
During the OFF period, the only voltage source is the inductor voltage
which its average value is given by

But

Substituting Eq.(4.66) into Eq.(4.65) yields

For further simplification of the above equation yields

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

where Vo = VL(av)= V(av) and

Example 4. 5

A d.c. Buck converter operates at frequency of 2000 Hz from 200 V d.c.

source supplying a 5 Ω resistive load. The inductive component of the
load is 5 mH. For output average voltage of 100 V, find:
(a) The duty cycle.
(b) ton .
(c) The rms value of the output current.
(d) The average value of the output current.
(e) Imax and Imin .
(f) The input power.
(g) The peak-to-peak ripple current.

Solution

(a) Vav = Vo = γ Vd

(b) T= 1/ f = 1 / 2000 = 0.5 ms

(c) √ =√

⁄ ⁄
(d)

(e)

= 20 + 2.5 = 22.5 A

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 Power electronics and drives

= 20 – 2.5 = 17.5 A
(f)

(g)

4.8 STEP-UP DC CHOPPER (BOOST CONVERTER)

The boost converter, also called fly-back converter, is a dc-to-dc
converter that steps up the dc voltage from low value to a desired high
value. In contrast to the step-down chopper, the minimum average output
voltage of the step-up chopper equals the input voltage Vd . Again
changing the duty cycle can change the average output voltage Vo . The
boost converter basic circuit is shown in Fig. 4.19.

Fig.4.19 Boost converter.

The principle of operation of this chopper is the storage of energy at

low supply voltage (in an inductor) and its release at higher voltage. i.e.
the energy transfer, from the source to the load, takes place only during
the off period of the switch. This is why it is called fly-back converter. A
thyristor or a transistor is usually used to act as a switch for transferring
the energy in the storage component (the inductor) to the output circuit.
Since the energy is supplied in pulses, a large capacitor at the output is
required to smooth the output voltage. The essential parts of the circuit are
shown, where “S” represents the main switching element.
Let us assume that the circuit has been operating for a long time and
the inductor current varies between minimum value I1 and maximum
value I2 as a function of time. We begin our analysis when the inductor
current is at its minimum and the switch S is closed at t = 0, see

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Fig.4.20(a), the inductor current builds up during the period

according to the differential equation,

With high chopping frequency and assuming linear and small current
variation, its solution is,

(a) (b)

Fig.4.20 Boost converter equivalent circuits : (a) ON-state equivalent

circuit, (b) OFF-state equivalent circuit.

During the ON time the inductor current increases from its minimum
value toward its maximum value. In other words, the stored energy in the
inductor increases during the time the switch is in the closed position.
At the beginning of the OFF time, S will be open (chopper becomes
OFF) and the inductor current is will start reducing from I2 to I1 ,
Fig.4.20 (b). Due to the reversal of current change (it is reducing now, not
increasing) the inductor voltage reverses polarity. Therefore, the voltage
at point “A” in Fig.4.19 will be higher than that at point “B‟ thus, with
the beginning of the OFF period the diode D becomes forward biased and
the current is directed toward the load via diode D. The inductor current,
therefore, charges the capacitor and supplies the load current. The diode D
blocks not only the current flow toward the source when the switch is in
the closed position but also stops the output voltage from appearing across
the closed switch. The inductor also helps control the percent current
ripple and determines whether or not the circuit is operating in the
continuous conduction mode. The capacitor C provides the filtering action
by providing a path for the harmonic currents away from the load. In
addition, its value is large enough so that the output voltage ripple is very
small. Referring to Fig.4.20 (b) , during the OFF period :

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Using

where : the ON time ratio.

Therefore, can be controlled by controlling the ON and OFF time of
the chopper.
Equation (4.73) states that the output voltage of the boost converter is
indirectly proportional to (1-γ) and directly proportional to the source
voltage . Since the duty cycle is usually less than unity, the output
voltage is greater than the applied voltage. This is the reason why a boost
converter is commonly called the step-up converter. When the switch, the
inductor, and the capacitor are treated as ideal elements, or low-loss
chopper circuit, the average power dissipated by these components is
zero. Consequently, the average power supplied by the source must be
approximately equal to the average power delivered to the load. That is,

or

and from Eq. (4.73)

or the average input (source) current can be expressed in terms of the

average output (load) current as :

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Since the source current is exactly the same as the inductor current, the
average inductor current is,

It is to be noted that the average current in the inductor for the boost
converter is not the same as the average load current, which was true for
the buck converter. The expressions for the maximum and minimum
currents through the inductor may now be written as

The inductor current variation between its maximum and minimum

values is as shown in Fig.4.21, keeping in mind that it also represents the
source current.

Fig.4.21 Inductor and source currents waveforms.

The peak-to-peak current ripple can be expressed in terms of the output

voltage, by subtracting Eq.(4.80 ) from Eq.(4.79) above, as

The current through the diode is shown in Fig.4.22. Its average value is,

Fig.4.22 The diode current waveform.

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Power electronics and drives

Since the average current in the diode is equal to the average current
through the load resistor R, the average current in the capacitor, as
expected, is zero. When the switch S is in its closed position, the capacitor
supplies the load current. Hence, from , the capacitor current
is

When the switch S is opened, the inductor current supplies both the
capacitor current and the load current. Thus, during the time interval
, the capacitor current is

The maximum and minimum values of the capacitor current when the
switch S is in its open position as

It is also must be noted that

The capacitor current waveform is shown in Fig. 4.23.

Fig.4.23 Current through capacitor C.

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The input resistance at the chopper terminal (the equivalent resistance

appearing across the source) is

The voltage regulation of practical

chopper is very poor. A feedback
regulator is therefore very essential
for operation with variable load to
stabilize the output voltage. This is
depicted in Fig.4.24 .

Fig.4.24 Chopper voltge regulation.

Example 4.6

A boost converter is used to convert 12 V input to supply 50 W at an

output voltage of 48 V ± 0.5 %. The input current variation shall be no
more than ± 1%. If the switching frequency is 10 kHz, specify the
smallest inductance and capacitance to meet the given specifications.

Solution

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Power electronics and drives

Assuming the converter is operating with low – loss, i.e. ,

hence

During the ON period of the chopper,

The maximum allowable variation in the input current is , the

peak-to-peak variation at the input current is therefore 2% . Hence,

The capacitor has to supply 1.04 A for the entire ON-period ( such
that will not changed more than of the rated value . Thus, the
peak-to-peak variation of the output voltage is

The variation in the input voltage is approximately determined from,

The required capacitor is 160 μF

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4.9 OTHER CLASSES OF CHOPPERS

In the previous sections, we discuss the basic principle of class-A
chopper (one-quadrant) operation in its two types, the step down chopper,
also called Buck converter and the step up chopper which is called Boost
converter. However, there are other types of choppers that are classified
depending upon the directions of current flow and voltage. These
choppers are:
1- Class-B chopper
2- Class-C chopper
3- Class-D chopper
4- Class-E chopper

4.9.1 Class-B Chopper Circuit (Two-Quadrant Operation)

If the supply voltage is not reversible, reversal of load current can
be realized in the circuit of Fig.4.25(a). In this circuit, converter is capable
of regeneration. When the thyristor switched on the supply voltage is

vo

0
1 io
+ Current io : T1 and D1 (a)

vo

Q
2
io 0
- Current io : T2 and D2 (b)

Fig.4.25 Class-B, chopper : (a) Positive current mode,(b) Negative

current mode.

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 Power electronics and drives

clamped across the passive R-L load and active load Eb (which is may be
a motor). Hence, positive or 'motoring' current flows causing diode to
be reverse biased. When is switched off the potential of point p drops
from to zero. The load current cannot change instantaneously and a
return path is provided via diode . When this current has been driven
down to zero by the back emf, thyristor switches on to provide a path
for negative armature current. Thyristor is then switched off and the
instantaneous negative armature current io transferred through diode to
the supply, and constitutes a regenerative current pulse. The opposition of
supply voltage reduces the negative current to zero and thyristor is
switched on to restart the cycle of events.
The circuit of Fig.4.25 therefore operates in the two positive voltage
quadrant of the load voltage / load current plane. Hence diode D2 allows
the current flow only from load to source and the back emf Eb is
responsible for negative current flow.

4.9.2 Class-C Chopper

In some texts the circuit of class-B chopper shown in Fig.4.25(b) (only
operation in Q2) is called class-B chopper, while the circuit shown in
Fig.4.25(a) is called class-C chopper when class-B chopper operates in
two-quadrant Q1 and Q2, i.e. as rectifier and as inverter. Fig.4.26 shows
the quadrant of operation of this type of chopper.
vo

Q2 Q1

0 io
Fig.4.26 Two-quadrant operation of class-C chopper.

4.9.3 Class-D Chopper

The schematic circuit diagram of the chopper is shown in Fig.4.27(a).
This type of chopper also operates in two quadrants as shown in
Fig.4.27(b). The output io is always positive ,whereas the load voltage vo
may be either positive or negative. Rectifying process occurs when vo and
io are both being positive, however, when the voltage is reversed inverting
process takes place and the energy fed from load to the source. The
operation of class-D chopper can be summarized as follows:

 When T1 and T2 conduct simultaneously, the chopper operates in

the 1st quadrant. In this case vo and io both are positive. The
converter is rectifying and the inductor L stored energy.

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 Chapter 4: DC Choppers

vo

Q1

0 io
Q4

(a) (b)
Fig.4.27 Class-D chopper: (a) Circuit, (b) Quadrants of operation.

 When T1 and T2 are switched off , the load inductor produces

sufficient voltage across it to maintain the current io in the same
direction. The inductor voltage forward biases D1 and D2 causing
these diodes to conduct and supply energy from load to the source.

4.9.4 Class-E Chopper ( Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter)

Fig.4.28(a) shows the circuit diagram of a full bridge dc-to-dc
converter which is also called a class-E chopper. This chopper operates in
the four quadrants of vo – io diagram, i.e. the output voltage as well as the
output current both can take positive or negative values as shown in
Fig.4.28(b).

io
Q2 Q1

- vo vo
Q3 Q4

- io
(a) (b)

Fig.4.28 Full bridge dc-to-dc converter (Class-E Chopper): (a) Circuit,

(b) Four quadrants operation.

 When T1 and T2 conduct simultaneously, the chopper operates in

the 1st quadrant. In this case vo and io both are positive.
 When T3 and T4 conduct simultaneously, the chopper operates in
the 3st quadrant. In this case vo and io both are negative.

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 Power electronics and drives

 If T4 is turned off, the inductor of the R-L load will force the
current to flow through D1 and D2 and load power is fed to the
source. In this case io is negative and vo is positive, inverting
operation, and the chopper is operate in the 2nd quadrant.
 Similarly, if T2 is turned off, the inductor of the R-L load will force
the current to flow through D3 and D4 and load power is fed to the
source. In this case io is positive and vo is negative, inverting
operation, and the chopper is operate in the 4nd quadrant.

Class-E chopper is, therefore, can operate in the four quadrants which is
suitable for use in reversible d.c. drives to operate a d.c. motor in forward,
reversing, breaking and regenerating modes. Hence the d.c. drives using
class-E choppers are considered to be highly efficient and their dynamic
response is also fast.

4.10 DC-DC SWITCH-MODE CONVERTERS

These types of converters are widely used in industry as regulated
switch-mode power supplies. They are basically chopper circuits that may
use BJT transistor, MOSFET, IGBT, thyristor or GTO for switching
operation.
Power supplies in industrial applications have to meet the following
specifications:
1. Isolation between the source and load.
2. High power density for reduction of size and weight.
3. Controlled direction of power flow.
4. High conversion efficiency.
5. Input and output waveforms with a low “ THD “ for small filters.
6. Controlled PF of the source in an a.c. voltage.
Power supplies can be categorized into two types:

1. DC power supplies.
2. AC power supplies.

In d.c. power supplies, usually two-stage converter (ac-dc) is used,

however this type is known as a rectifier either controlled or uncontrolled,
but the voltage output is always stepped down and often unregulated .
There is, however, another type of ac-dc converter which uses three-stage
( ac-dc, dc-ac, and ac-dc) which can be accomplished by PWM or switch-
ing regulator or resonant oscillation switched mode power supplies
SMPS. Typical block diagram of a three-stage switch-mode power supply
is depicted in Fig.4.29.

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Fig.4.29 Block diagram of three-stage switch-mode power supply.

The output d.c. voltage of stage-1 in Fig.4.29 which is obtained by

rectifying the main supply line voltage will be greatly affected by the
fluctuation of the line voltage magnitude. However, using switch-mode
dc-to-dc converters in stage-2 and stage-3 will convert the unregulated
d.c. input to these sages into a d.c. output voltage at a desired level.
Depending on requirement of application switched-mode dc-to-dc
converter can be one of three basic converter types:

(a) Forward (Buck).

(b) Fly back.
(c) Balanced (Buck Boost ).

4.10.1 Forward or (Buck) Regulator Using MOSFET

This converter is basically like a step-down d.c. chopper with low
pass LC filter connected across the load as shown in Fig.4.30. The load is
assumed to be pure resistance and the transistor is ideal. The converter
operates in two modes:

Mode 1: When the transistor Q is ON at t = 0, here the input current is

flowing through LC and load.
Mode 2: When the transistor Q is OFF at t = , FW diode conducts and
current flow through LC and load.
Waveforms of the output voltage and current for the two modes of
operation of the converter ar depicted in Fig.4.31.

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Power electronics and drives

(a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 4.30 Forward converter operation in two modes : (a) Regulator

circuit, (b) Mode-1 equivalent circuit, (c) Mode-2 equivalent
circuit.

Analytical properties of the forward Buck regulator

The voltage across inductor is = L
Assuming that inductor current rises linearly from a minimum current
to a maximum current in time , then

and falls linearly from to in time

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Fig. 4.31 Forward regulator waveforms.

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Power electronics and drives

Assuming a lossless transistor switch:

Hence the average input current is

The switching period T,

Which gives a peak – peak ripple current as

Using KCL:

If we assume load ripple is very small that can be neglected , thus

The average capacitor current which flow for is

Peak-peak ripple voltage of C is thus:

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 Chapter 4: DC Choppers

⁄
∫

Advantages:
1- Use one transistor.
2- High efficiency.
3- I/p current is continuous.
4- Step-up convertor without transformer.
Disadvantages:
1- High peak of current flows through the transistor.
2- Output voltages very sensitive to change.
3- Difficult to protect the transistor in case of short-circuit.
4- Average output current is less than average of inductor current.

Example 4.7

A forward buck regulator has Vd =15 V. The average output voltage

required is Va = 6 V with peak-to-peak ripple input of 10 mV, the
switching frequency is 20 kHz and the peak-to-peak ripple of current of
the inductor L is 0.6 A. Calculate the duty cycle and the values of L and C
required.
Solution
γ γ

4.10.2 Fly Back Regulator (Boost Regulator)

The principle of operation of the fly back converter is that the energy
is stored in an inductor and then transfers it to the load storage capacitor
such that the output voltage is in excess of the input voltage. There are
two types of fly back convertors:
(1) Step-up voltage called boost regulator.
(2) Step-up/step-down voltage fly back regulator called Buck-boost.

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Power electronics and drives

Boost regulator (step-up chopper)

The boost regulator provides output voltage which is higher than the
input voltage. Hence it works like step-up d.c. voltage transformer.
Fig.4.32 shows a typical circuit diagram of the boost regulator using
MOSFET as a switching device. Waveforms of the output voltage and
current for the operation of the converter are depicted in Fig.4.33.

Fig. 4.32 Boost converter operation in two modes : (a) Converter circuit,
(b) Mode-1 equivalent circuit, (c) Mode-2 equivalent circuit.

The operation of the regulator can be illustrated as follows:

Mode 1: At t = 0 transistor Q is ON, input current flows through the

inductor L and transistor Q. The diode FW is reversed biased, thus
isolating the output stage. The inductor L stores energy from the supply.
Mode 2: At t = transistor Q is OFF, current flows through L,C, load
and the freewheeling diode FW. Both the input Vd and inductor L supply
energy to the load.
Assuming the inductor current floes continuously and rises linearly
from I1 to I2 in time t1 , then

Inductor current falls linearly from I2 to I1 in t2 .

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Fig. 4.33 Boost regulator waveforms.

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Power electronics and drives

Dividing both sides by T and rearranging terms yields,

so that Vo > Vd for this converter. Theoretically, at least, Vo → ∞ when

γ = 1.
Assuming a lossless transistor switch:

Two useful equations can be obtained from the above equation

γ γ

Hence the average input current is

which gives a peak-to-peak inductor ripple current as

The peak-to-peak capacitor ripple voltage can be obtained by considering

that the capacitor supplies current to the load during the period when

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 Chapter 4: DC Choppers

transistor Q is ON for t =t1. Under this condition, the average capacitor

current is Ia , and hence ΔVc is

Using Eq.(4.99) and Eq.(4.96) one can get

Advantages :
1- Uses one transistor .
2- High efficiency.
3- Input current is always continuous.
4- Step-up converter without using external transformer.

Disavantages
1- High peak of current flows through the transistor.
2- The output voltage is very sensitive to the change in duty cycle γ.
3- Difficult to protect the transistor in case of short circuit.
4- Average output voltage is less than average inductor current by a
factor of (1-γ) and a much higher rms current flow through filter
capacitor resulting in the use of a large capacitor and inductor
(filters) than those of Buck regulator.

4.10.3 Buck-Boost Regulator

In this type of regulators , the output voltage may be less than or
greater than the input voltage Vd . The output voltage is always opposite to
the input voltage, hence the Buck-boost regulator is also called as
inverting regulator. The ciccuit diagram of the regulator is typically
shown in Fig.4.34. The L-C and FW diode are the filtering components
whearas Q is the transistor switch. Waveforms of the output voltage and
current for the operation of the converter are depicted in Fig.4.35.

Two modes are exist in operation of Buck-boost regulator:

Mode-1:
Here when the transistor Q is ON and diode FW is reversed biased, the
input current rises through inductor L and transistor Q , hence inductor L
stores energy from t = 0 to t1 (= γT) . The capacitor discharges and supply
current to the load.The output voltage takes the form of the capacitor
voltage exactly.

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Power electronics and drives

Mode-2:
At t = t1 , transistor Q is turned off .The equivalent circuit will be as
shown in Fig.4.34 (c) and current through L will through L , C , FW
diode and load.

Fig. 4.34 Buck-Boost regulator operation in two modes: (a) Converter

circuit, (b) Mode 1 equivalent circuit, (c) Mode 2 equivalent
circuit.

The inductor generates voltage vL =Vd = L di/dt in the direction shown

which forward biased FW diode. Thus inductor L supplies energy to the
load from t = t1 to t = T. Assuming that the load current is continuous and
ripple-free, and that the inductor current rises linearly from I1 to I2 in time
t1, thus

where ΔI is the peak-peak ripple current of L.

Inductor current falls linearly from I2 to I1 in time t2, thus

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Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Fig. 4.35 Buck-Boost regulator waveforms.

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Power electronics and drives

Assuming a lossless transistor switch:

Hence, the average input current related to the average current by

To find the peak-to-peak inductor ripple current ,the control period T can
be be obtained from

From this equation , the peak-to-peak ripple current can be obtained

The average inductor current , assuming continuous current, is therefore

given by

To find the peak-to-peak capacitor ripple voltage consider the circuit

when transistor Q is ON. At this condition, the capacitor C supply current
to the load for the period from t = 0 to t = t1 in average discharging
current Ic = –Io. Therefore, the peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the
capacitor is

∫ ∫

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 Chapter 4: DC Choppers

Advantages:
1- Provide reversal output voltage without using transformer.
2- High efficiency.
3- Under fault, di/dt of fault current would be Vd /L and limited by L.
4- Output short circuit protection would be easy implemented.

Disadvantages:
1- Output current is discontinuous.
2- High peak current flows through transistor Q.

PROBLEMS

4.1 A class-A transistor chopper circuit shown in Fig.4.36 supplied with power
from an ideal battery of terminal voltage 150 V. The load voltage
waveforms consists of rectangular pulses of duration 1 ms in an overall
cycle of 3 ms.
(a) Sketch the waveforms of vL and iL.
(b) Calculate the duty cycle γ.
(c) Calculate the average and rms values of the load voltage.
(d) Find the average value of the load current if R = 10 Ω.
(e) Calculate the input power and the ripple factor RF.

Fig.4.36

[Ans : (b) 0.333, (c ) 50 V, 86.6V, (d) 2.5 A , (e) 0.833 A, 125 W, 1.414]

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 Power electronics and drives

4.2 A class-A thyristor d.c. chopper shown in Fig.4.37 is operating at a

frequency of 2 kHz from 96 V d.c. source to supply a resistive load of
8 Ω. The load time constant is 6 ms. If the mean load voltage is 57.6 V,
find duty cycle (mark to space ratio), the mean load current, and the
magnitude of the current ripple. Derive any formula used.

Fig.4.37

[Ans: γ = 0.6 , Iav = 7.2 A, ΔI = 0.24 A ]

4.3 A d.c. Buck converter (class-A chopper) shown in Fig.4.37 supplies power
to a load having 6 Ω resistance and 20 mH inductance. The source voltage
is 100 V d.c. and the output load voltage is 60 V. If the ON time is 1.5 ms,
find:
(a) Chopper switching frequency.
(b) Imax and Imin (I2 and I1).
(c) The average diode current.
(d) The average input current.
(e) Peak-to-peak ripple current.

[Ans: (a) fc = 40 Hz , (b) Imax = 1.5 A, Imin = 8.5 A, (c) IavD = Iav = 10 A
, (d) ΔI= 3 A]

4.4 In a class-A chopper circuit an ideal battery of terminal voltage 100V

supplies a series load of resistance 0.5 Ω and inductance of 1.0 mH. The
thyristor is switched on for 1 ms in an overall period of 3 ms. Calculate
the average values of the load voltage and current and the power taken
from the battery. Assuming continuous current conduction. Also calcul-
ates the rms value of the load current taking the first two harmonics of
the Fourier series.

[Ans: Vav = 33.3 V, Iav = 66.7 A , Pin= 2223 W, ILrms = 69.1 A]

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 Chapter 4: DC Choppers

4.5 In a class-A chopper circuit an ideal battery of terminal voltage 220 V

supplies a load of resistance10 Ω. The chopping frequency is f =1 kHz
and the duty cycle is set to be 0.5. Determine:
(a) The average output voltage.
(b) The rms output voltage.
(c) The chopper efficiency.
(d) The ripple factor.
(e) The fundamental component of output harmonic voltage.

[Ans: (a) Vav = 110 V, (b) VLr.m.s = 155.56 V, ( c) ή = 100%, (d) RF = 1.0,
(e) VL1 r.m.s = 99 V]

4.6 In the transistor chopper circuit shown in Fig.4.36 (problem 4.1)

Vd = 300 V, L = 3 mH, R = 1.0 Ω and it operating with T = 3 ms, and
ton = 1.5 ms. Using the approximate solution to:
(a) Determine the minimum, maximum and average values of load
current.
(b) Express the load current variation in during the of ON and OFF
periods.

[Ans: (a) Imin = 112.5 A, Imax=187.5 A, Iav = 150 A,

(b) i1 = 112.5+50000t , i2 =212 – 50000t ]

4.7 Repeat problem 4.6 , determine the minimum, maximum and average
values of load current using exact solution and compare your results.

[Ans: Imin = 113.15A, Imax = 186.7A, Iav = 149.925A ]

4.8 Repeat problem 4.7 assuming that = 40 V.

[Ans: Imin =78.18 A, Imax= 146.7 A, Iav 112.44 A ]

4.9 In the thyristor chopper circuit shown in Fig.4.37, Vd = 220V, L = 30 mH,

R = 0.5 Ω and it operating with T = 3 ms, ton = 1.5 ms and Eb =30V. State
clearly any approximation you may make to simplify the solution. Find
the minimum, maximum, average load current and average value of the
current drawn from the 220V source. Draw the equivalent circuit
appearing across the source terminals.

[Ans:157.25 A, 162.75 A, 160 A, 80 A. Equivalent circuit parameters

are: 60 V source in series with 2 Ω resistance.]

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 Power electronics and drives

4.10 A dc-dc converter is connected to a 100 V d.c. source to supply an

inductive load having 40 mH in series with 5 Ω resistance. FWD is placed
across the load. Load current varies between two limits of 10 A and 12 A.
(a) Find the time ratio (duty cycle) and the frequency of the chopper.
(b) Find the equivalent Thevenin resistance across the source and
determine the average source current.

[Ans: (a) 0.55, 309 pps; (b) 16.53 Ω, 6.05 A]

4.11 Sketch the power circuit diagram for a class-A thyristor chopper. Show
waveforms of the load voltages for the two duty cycle conditions (a) γ =
0.25, and (b) γ = 0.8. For both conditions calculate the average value, rms
value and ripple factor of the load voltage waveform for Vd = 100 V.

[Ans : (a) 25 V, 50 V, 1.224, (b) 80 V, 89.44 V, 0.5]

4.12 A class-A d.c. chopper circuit is supplied with power from an ideal
battery of 120 V. The load voltage wave form consists of rectangular
pulses of duration 1ms in an overall cycle time of 2.5 ms. Calculate the
rms values of the fundamental component and the third harmonic
component of the load voltage waveform .

{Ans: 51.36 V, 12.73 V]

4.13 The output d.c. voltage Vo of a step-down (Buck) converter is maintained

at 5 V by controlling the duty cycle γ. The input d.c. voltage Vd to the
converter varies in the range of 10 - 40 V. The chopping frequency fc of
the converter is 20 kHz. The minimum load current, Io , of the converter
is 1A. Assuming ideal devices and componenents, calculate the minimum
inductance required for operation of the converter in continuous
conduction mode.

[Ans : L = 108.9 µH]

4.14 The output d.c. voltage Vo of a boost (step-up) converter is maintained at

24V by controlling the duty cycle γ. The input d.c. voltage Vd to the
converter varies in the range of 8 - 16 V. The switching frequency fc of
the converter is 20 kHz. The minimum load of the converter is 5 W.
Assuming ideal devices and components, calculate the minimum
inductance L required for operation of the converter in continuous
conduction mode.

[Ans: L = 427 µH]

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