Fabrication of Fibers: The material to be spun is heated until it

forms a relatively viscous liquid. It is then pumped through a spinneret

Chapter 5: Polymer Structures which contains numerous small, round holes. As the molten material
Polymer: Compound of high molecular weight (normally organic), consisting of (at least five) repeated chemical units (`mers') passes through these orifices, a single fiber is formed. During drawing
joined together, like beads on a string. the molecular chains become oriented in the direction of drawing,
Formation of polytyhylene: Ethylene (C2H4)transforms to polyethylene (solid) by forming active mers through reactions with such that the tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and toughness are
an initiator or catalytic radical (R.) Polymerization: 1. Initiation reaction. 2. Rapid propogation - 1000 mer units in 1-10 ms improved. Polymerization: The synthesis of high polymers from raw
3. Termination: When two active chain ends meet each other or active chain ends meet with initiator or other species with materials like oil or coal. It may occur. Polymer Additives: Fillers: To
single active bond. improve tensile and compressive strengths, abrasive resistance,
Polyethylene (PE), Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS) toughness, dimensional stability. Materials used include powdered
1. Rock Salt (NaCl) 2.Cesium chloride(CsCl) 3. Zinc blende (ZnS) 4. Fluorite (CaF2) 5. Perovskite sawdust, sand, glass, clay and limestone. Plasticizers: To improve
AX - Type (1,2) AmXP - Type (3,4) AmBnXP - Type (5) flexibility, ductility and toughness. Also reduction in hardness and
stiffness. Plasticizers are liquids having low vapour pressures and low
Silicate Ceramics: Materials composed of silicon, oxygen. To char the crystal structure of these materials in terms of molecular weights. Stabilizers: To counteract deteriorative processes.
arrangements of (tetrahedral, SiO4-,4).Silica: Most simple silicate material = silicon dioxide. 3D struct that is generated when Chemistry of polymer molecules: Replace hydrogen The two primary approaches to UV stabilization: Add a UV-absorbent
the corner oxygen atoms shared by adjacent tetrahedral. Mat is electrically neutral and atoms have stable electronic structure. atoms in polyethylene: make polytetraflouroethylene material; Add materials that react with the broken bonds. Colorants:
Silica Glasses: Silica exists as monocrystalline solid having a high degree of atomic randomn. Tetrahedrl basic units. Beyond (PTFE) – Teflon To impart a specific colour. In the form of dyes or pigments. Flame
this- structural disorder. Other oxides can form glassy structures = network formers. SG are network modifiers. Other oxides Retardants: To improve the flammability resistance, since most
become part of the stable network as well. This is easier to form at decrease in temp. Silicates: For various silicate mineral, Replace every fourth hydrogen atom in polyethylene with Cl polymers are flammable in their pure form. The retardant interfere
one, two or three of corner oxygen’s are shared by other tetrahedral to form complex structures: Simple silicates atom: polyvinylchloride with the combustion process, and reduces the temperature.
Structurally simple. Involve isolated tetrahedral. Layered silicates Factors that influence mechanical properties of semicrystalline
2D sheet be produced by sharing of three oxygen ions in each tetrahedral. Has repeating units of (Si2O5)2-. Replace every fourth hydrogen atom in polyethylene with polymers: 1.Molecular weight(increases TS), 2.Degree of crystallinity
Carbon: Graphite: More stable than diamond at ambient temp and pressure; Layers of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms; CH3 methyl group: polypropylene (increases TS), 3.Drawing(stiffens and strengthens), 4.Annealing
Chapter 10: Failure
Simple fracture: separation of body into two or more pieces in Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 coplanar neighbours. Diamond: Metastable at room temp and atmospheric pressure; Crystal (increases TS, increases YS, decreases ductility). Annealing of
response to imposed stress that is changing with time and at temperatures below the melting temp. structure: variant of zinc blende where C atoms occupy all positions; Called diamond cubic crystal structure. polymers has opposite effect of metals. Crystallization: Melted
Two modes: Ductile: Different materials different fracture surfaces; Fracture occurs after stages of initial deformation; Ceramic Phase Diagrams: Binary/two-component PD. Two compounds share commen element, often oxygen. polymers – upon cooling through the melting temperature, nuclei
Quantified: % elongation; High energy absorption and plastic deformation before fracture. Sperical dimples. Brittle: Al2O3-Cr2O3, MgO-Al2O3 , ZrO2-CaO, SiO2-Al2O3 form, in which small regions of the tangled and random molecules
Direction of crack is perpendicular to applied tensile stress and yields a flat fracture surface; Crack profile can happen become ordered and aligned in the manner of chain-folded layers.
through interior of grains or along a grain boundary; Takes place without any appreciable deformation and by a rapid
crack propagation. Chevron markings or radial fan-shaped ridges. Intergranular: crack propagation along grain
Chapter 14: Properties and Applications of Ceramics
Static fatigue: Sensitive to environmental conditions (moisture in atoms) at the crack tip; Leads to sharpening and lengthening

 Nuclei grow by the continued ordering and aligning of additional
molecular chain segments, but increase in lateral dimensions, or for
boundary; Transgranular: fracture cracks pass through grains. of cracks; Crack grows to a size capable of rapid propagation; Kic > plain strain fracture toughness of the material; Specimen spherulitic structure there is an increase in spherulite radius.
Principles of fracture mechanics: 1. Stress concentration: concentrated at tip. Stress raisers: flaws which amplify size and volume influences fracture; Compressive stress = no stress amplification; Ceramics display higher compressive Homopolymer: When all of the repeating units along a chain are of
applied stress. strengths in compression; Fracture strength is enhanced by imposing residual compressive stresses at its surface. (by thermal the same type. Copolymer: Chains that are composed of two or
tempering).; more different repeating units. Functionality: The number of bonds
1. Maximum stress at crack tip: 𝞂m = 2𝞂0(a/𝝆t)½ a = length of surface crack or half-length of internal crack(a/2). 2. Stress
Plane fracture toughness: measure of ceramics materials ability to resist fracture when a crack is present: 1. Kic = Y𝞂√𝝅a that a given monomer can form. (Bifunctional- two active bonds,
concentration factor: Kt = 𝞂m/𝞂o 3. Critical Stress: 𝞂c = (2E𝝲s/𝝅a)½ 𝝲s = specific surface energy. Fracture toughness:
Crack propagation won’t occur if (Y𝞂√𝝅a) < plain fracture toughness of the material; Slow crack growth when stresses are trifunctional- three active bonds etc.). Miscellaneous applications:
Measurement of material’s resistance to fracture when crack is present. 4. Fracture toughness: Kc = Y𝞂c√𝝅a [MPa√m] 1. Coatings – protection against environment, Improve appearance,
static; At room temp both crystalline and non-ceramics always fracture before any plastic deformation can occur in
Y = given or 1.0 Plane strain: Condition, wherein, for tensile loading, there is zero strain in direction perpendicular to provide electrical insulation. 2. Adhesive – Bond together the
response to applied tensile load; Brittle fracture process: formation of cracks through the cross section of material in direction
both stress axis and direction of crack propagation; this condition is found in thick plates, and zero-strain direction is surfaces of two solid materials (factors – type of materials, required
perpendicular to the applied load.; Crack growth in ceramics: through the grains or along grain boundaries (transgranular and When all the mers are the same, the molecule is called a homopolymer; When there is more than one type of mer
perpendicular to plate surface. 5. Plane strain fracture toughness: KIC = Y𝞂√𝝅a KIC low for brittle materials, high for present, copolymer; Mer units that have 2 active bonds to connect with other mers are called bifunctional; Mer units adhesive properties, maximum exposure temperatures, processing
intergranular); Measured fracture strengths of most ceramic materials are substantially lower than predicted by theory from
ductile materials. KIC diminishes with increasing strain rate and decreasing temp. Decrease in KIC enhances yield that have 3 active bonds to connect with other mers are called trifunctional. They form 3-D molecular network conditions). 3. Films – low density high degree of flexibility, high
bonding forces; Single phase: stress amplification depends on crack length and tip radius of curvature.
strength. KIC increases with reduction in grain size. 6. Design stress: structures. tensile and tear strengths, resistance to moisture, low permeability
Stress strain behavior: Flexural strength: modulus of rupture, fracture strength or bend stress. Stress strain behavior
𝞂c = KIC/Y√𝝅a If stress level and KIC are fixed by design: 7. ac = (1/𝝅)(KIC/𝞂Y)2 (polyethylene, polypropylene). 4. Foams – Relative high volume
ceramics can’t be determined by tensile test because: 1. Ceramics fail after only about 0.1% strain that which necessitates the
Two fracture toughness test methods: Charpy V-notch (CVN) (and Izod): Shape of bar with square cross-section percentage of small pores and trapped gas bubbles.
tensile specimens to be perfectly aligned for the test to avoid bending stresses; 2. Difficult to prep and test the specimen having
into which a v-notch is machined, Load is applied as impact from weighted hammer that strikes spec., Difference the required geometry; 3. Difficult to grip brittle materials without fracturing . Transverse bending test is used. Rod specimen
between two methods is based on the manner of specimen support. Realeased from a height h, Knife edge on tip of is bent until fracture using three or four point loading technique. 2. Square cross-section: 𝞂fs = 3Ff L/2bd2 3. Round cross-
hammer. Ductile to brittle testing: Ductile surface = fibrous or dull, Brittle surface = granular (shiny) texture; Ductile to section: 𝞂fs = Ff L/𝝅R3
brittle transition features of both types will exist; Structures from alloys that show ductile to brittle behaviour should be
Stress is computed from: specimen thickness, bending moment, and moment of inertia of cross section. Max tensile
used at T above transition temp to avoid brittle failure; Relates to temperature dependence; Higher temperatures the
stress exists at bottom surface directly below point of load; Three point: top surface state of compression and bottom state of
CVN energy is large, linked to ductile fracture; As temp decreases the impact energy does too over a narrow
tension.
temperature range below which the energy has a constant but small value, fracture is then brittle. Fatigue: Occurs in
Hardness of ceramic materials is difficult to measure because of their brittleness and susceptibility to cracking when indented.
structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses. Failure can occur at stress level < yieldstrength. Occurs over
Microindentation Knoop and Vickers techniques are normally utilized, which employ pyramidal-shaped indenters. Hardest Chapter 16: Composites
a lengthy period time. Fatigue is of brittle like behavior even in ductile metals. Process starts with small cracks in
known materials are ceramics, which characteristic makes them especially attractive for use as abrasives. Composites: artificially produced multiphase materials, desirable
surface perp. to applied tensile stress. Fatigue limit: maximum stress amplitude level below which material can endure
Types of ceramics: combinations of best properties of constituent phases. Usually one phase
an essentially infinite number of stress cycles and not fail. Fatigue strength: maximum stress level that material can
Glasses: containers, lenses, fiberglass. Non crystalline ceramics containing other oxides. Optical transparency and ease of (matrix) is continuous and completely surrounded by other (dispersed
sustain, without failing, for some specified number of cycles. Fatigue life (Nf): total number of stress cycles that will
fabrication. Glass Ceramics: Glass, by heat-treatment, crystallized form fine-grained PM. Di-electric properties; Bio- phase).Classification of composites: three categories: 1. Particle-
cause a fatigue failure at some specified stress amplitude.
compatibility, May be optically transparent. Overware, tableware. Improved mechanical strength, lower coeff. of thermal reinforced (large-particle and dispersion-strengthened): Large Particle:
expansion which improves thermal shock resistance. Clay products: Widely used raw material; Dried to remove moisture, Isomerism: Hydrocarbon compounds with same Mechanical properties are enhanced with an increase in particulate
then fired at elevated temp. 2 classes: structural clay products: applications in which structural integrity is important. composition may have different atomic compositions. Two types of isomerism are possible: Stereoisomerism: content. Concrete is most common. Dispersion-strengthened: Improved
Whitewares: become white after high temperature firing. China, tableware. Refractories: Withstand high temperatures without Isotactic configuration: all side groups R are on the same side of the chain; Syndiotactic configuration: side groups strength achieved by extremely small particles of dispersed phase, it
melting: Remain unreactive and inert when exposed to severe environments. Metal refining, glass manuf. Fire clay refractories: R alternate sides of the chain; Atactic configuration: random orientations of groups R along the chain. AND inhibit dislocation motion; particle size=normally greater with large-
Consists large+fine particles: Fine particles involved in bonding during firing, increase strength of the material. Silica Geometrical isomerism: consider two carbon atoms bonded by a double bond in a chain. H atom or radical R particle composites, whose mechanical characteristics are enhanced by
Refractories: Aluminia content kept to a minimum; Resistant to slugs. Abrasives: particles bonded to grinding wheels as coat bonded to these two atoms can be on the same side of the chain (cis structure) or on opposite sides of the chain reinforcement action; concrete=type of large-particle composite, consists
abrasive and as loose grains by means of glassy ceramics; Used to cut, grind and polish softer materials. Surface structure has (trans structure). Isomerism: isotactic, syndiotactic polymers crystallize relatively easily - geometrical regularity of an aggregate of particles bonded together with cement. In the case of
some porosity for air flow or liquid coolants. Diamond, silcon carbide - most common. Cements: Some of these cement allows chains to fit together, atactic difficult to crystallize portland cement concrete, the aggregate consists of sand and gravel; the cementitious bond develops as a result of chemical reactions between the
materials act as bonding phase that chemically binds particulate aggregates into a single cohesive structure; Bonds develop at Thermoplastic: A semicrystalline polymeric material that softens when heated and hardens upon cooling. While in portland cement and water: mechanical strength of concrete may be improved by reinforcement methods (e.g., embedment into the fresh concrete of steel
room temperature. Mix with water forms paste assuming desired shape. Portland cement: hydration = chemical reaction. the softened state, articles may be formed by molding or extrusion. Process is reversible, can be repeated. During rods, wires, etc.). 2. Fiber-reinforced like in aircraft parts, there is a need for high strength per unit weight (specific strength). Achieved by composites
heat treatments, secondary bonding forces are diminished so that the relative movement of adjacent chains is consisting of low-density (and soft) matrix reinforced with stiff fibers. Strength depends on: fiber length: composite under tension, shear stress appears in
Chapter 17: Fabrication of glasses and glass-ceramics facilitated when a stress is applied. Relatively soft. Linear/branched. Ex. polyethylene, polystyrene. matrix that pulls from fiber. It’s uniform over area of fiber. Force minimum at ends and maximum in middle. Continuous & aligned: mechanical
Annealing: Avoid thermal stresses by cooling at slower rates; Once stresses are introduced remove annealing heat treatment; Thermosetting: A polymeric material that, once having been cured (or hardened) by a chemical reaction, will not properties=highly ansitropic. In alignment direction, reinforcement=max; perpendicular to alignment=minimum. Discontinuous & aligned: significant
Thermal shock: Fracture of brittle material as result of stress due to rapid temp. change. Glass Tempering: Increase soften or melt when subsequently heated. Not reversible, permanent. During heat treatments, bonds anchor chains strengths and stiffnesses are possible in longitudinal direction. Discontinuous & randomly orientated: despite some limitations on reinforcement
strengthening by introducing compressive residual surface stresses by Thermal tempering: increasing strength of glass piece together to resist the virbrational and rotational chain motions at high temp. Harder, stronger. Network polymers. effieciency, properties = isotropic. The Fibre Phase: On basis of diameter & material type, fiber reinforcements are classified as: whiskers: extremely
by intro of residual compressive stresses with outer surface using right heat treatment. Characteristics of clay: Strong Better dimensional stability. Ex. Epoxies, phenolics. Degree of crystallinity is determined by: Rate of cooling strong single crystals with very small diameters; fibers: normally polymers/ceramics - either amorphous/polycrystalline; wires: metals/alloys with relatively
ceramic may be formed during firing without complete melting; Fusion temp range depends on the composition of clay; When during solidification: time is necessary for chains to move and align into a crystal structure, Mer complexity: large diameters. Use of ceramic whiskers, such as SiC or Si3N4. May inhibit crack propagation by 1. Deflecting crack tips. 2. Forming bridges across
water is added they become very plastic (hydroplasticity) – important in forming operations. Fabrication techniques: crystallization less likely in complex structures, simple polymers, such as polyethylene, crystallize relatively easily crack faces. 3. Absorbing energy during pullout as whiskers debond from matrix. 4. Causing redistribution of stresses in regions adjacent to crack tips.
Hydroplastic forming: Low yield strengths; Maintains shape during handling and drying; mixed with water. Slip Casting: Cast Chain configuration: linear polymers crystallize relatively easily, branches inhibit crystallization, network polymers The Matrix Phase: three basic material types used for matrices, most common=polymers&metals. Matrix phase normally performs 3 functions: 1.Binds
pieces dry and then begin to pull away from the mold wall; Nature of slip: high specific gravity and very fluid; Mold porosity almost completely amorphous, crosslinked polymers can be both crystalline and amorphous Copolymerism: fibers together and transmits an externally applied load. 2.Protects individual fibers from surface damage. 3.Prevents propagation of cracks from fiber to
varied to control the casting rate. Drying: Green body = formed and dried but not fired; Evaporation rate controlled by easier to crystallize if mer arrangements are more regular - alternating, block can crystallize more easily as fiber. Fibrous reinforced composites classified according to matrix type; polymer-, metal-, and ceramic-matrix. Essential that adhesive bonding forces
Fatigue failure has 3 steps: 1. crack initiation, small crack forms at point of high stress concentration 2. crack temperature, humidity and rate of air flow; Factors that influence shrinkage: Body thickness, Water content, Clay particle size. compared to random and graft. (random, alternating, block, graft) between fiber and matrix be high to minimize fiber pullout. Adequate bonding = essential to maximize stress transmittance from weak matrix to strong
propogation, crack grows each stress cycle 3. final failure occurs rapidly once advancing crack has reached critical size. Firing: Cooling fused phase forms a glossy matrix (dense and strong); Final microstructure = vitrified phase, any unreached Chapter 15: Characteristics and Applications of Polymers fibers. 3. Structural: Laminar Composites: Sheets (panels) with different orientation of high strength directions are stacked and glued together, producing
Markings formed: Striations: microscopic, each represent crack tip advance distance over single load. Beachmarks: quarts particles and some porosity; Degree of vitrification controls the temp properties; When clay based materials heated to Melting behaviours will depend on three aspects: 1.Rate of cooling or heating; 2.Thickness of the lamellae. (the material with more isotropic strength in plane. Examples are plywood and modern skis. Laminar composites are virtually isotropic in a two-dimensional
macroscopic, form on components that experience applied stress interruptions. Factors that affect fatigue life: very high temps some complex and involved reactions occur: Vitrification: formation of liquid gass that filles pore volume, thicker the lamellae, the higher the melting temperature); 3.The temperature at which the polymer was crystallized. plane. Sandwich panels consist of two strong and stiff sheet faces that are separated by core material or structure. Structures combine high strengths and
reducing mean stress level, eliminating sharp surface discontinuities, improving surface finish by polishing, imposing Degree depends on firing temp and time, Temp at which liquid is formed is lowered by addition of fluxing agents = feldspar. Melting involves breaking of the inter-chain bonds, so the glass and melting temperatures depend on: 1.Chain stiffnesses with low densities. Used in roofs, walls and aircraft structures. Polymer-Matrix: most common, may be reinforced with glass, carbon, aramid
surface residual compressive stresses by shot peening, case hardening by using a carburizing or nitriding process. Powder pressing: Three basic powder pressing procedures: For both uniaxial and isostatic firing is required after pressing stiffness (Single vs. double bonds): Double bonds increases; 2.Size and type of side groups: Bulky/large side fibers. Metal-Matrix: higher service temp., use variety of fiber and whisker types. Ceramic-Matrix: design goal = fracture toughness, achieved by
Environmental effects: Thermal fatigue: 𝞂 = 𝜶tE𝝙T, induced at elevated temperatures by fluctuating thermal stresses: operation; Hot pressing: powder aggregate is compacted at elevated temperature. Used for materials that do not form liquid groups increases; 3.Molecular weight: Low molecular weight increases; 4.Degree of branching: Side branches interactions between advancing cracks and dispersed phase particles; transformation toughneing = technique of improving Kic. Carbon-Carbon:
Origin of thermal stresses is the restraint to expansion and contraction as temp changes. Propagation rate increases phase; Uniaxial: pressure applied in one direction. Shapes that are relatively simple; Isostatic: powder material contained in decreases. Elastomers: Must not crystallize easily; Have relatively free chain rotations. Delayed plastic composed of carbon fibers embedded in pyrolyzed carbon matrix; materials are expensive; used in applications requiring high strengths and stiffnesses
due to corrosive environment; Prevention: eliminate or reduce, restraint the source. Creep: time-dependent plastic rubber envelope and pressure is applied by fluid. More complicated shapes. Tape Casting: This slip consists of suspended deformation by cross-linking (achieved by vulcunization). Be above glass transition temp. Fibers: A high tensile (retained at elevated temp.), resitance to creep, good fracture toughness. Hybrid: atleast two different fiber types. all-around better sets of properties.
deformation of metals subjected to constant load and at temp. greater than 0.4Tm. Primary/Transient Creep: A ceramic particles in organic liquid that contains binders and plasticizers. Process: Pour slip onto flat surface; A doctor blade strength; A high modulus of elasticity. Abrasion resistiance. A relatively high molecular weight to avoid breaking Chapter 18: Corrosion
continuously decreasing creep rate, which suggests the material is experiencing an increase in creep resistance or spreads into thin tape with uniform thickness; Dried by evaporation; Green ceramic = flexible tape. during drawing process. Linear and unbranched chains. Chemical stability. Corrosion: The destructive and unintentional attack of a metal, it is electrochemical and ordinarily begins at the surface. Oxidation: A reaction where
strain hardening. Secondary/Steady-state Creep: The rate is constant. The plot becomes linear. Tertiary Creep: There is metal atoms characteristically lose or give up electrons. The site at which oxidation takes place is called the anode. Reduction: A reaction where the
an acceleration of the rate and ultimate failure. Steady-state creep rate: electrons generated from each metal atom that is oxidized is transferred to and becomes a part of another chemical speci. The site at which reduction
Constant temp: έs = K1𝞂n takes place is called the cathode. 1.Uniform Attack: electrochemical corrosion, occurs with equivalent intensity over entire exposed surface. Ex: General
έs = K2𝞂n exp(-Qc/RT) rusting of steel and iron, the tarnishing of silverware. Prevent: Can be predicted and designed for with ease. 2.Galvanic Corrosion: when two metals/alloys
with different compositions are electrically coupled while exposed to electrolyte. Ex: Steel screws corrode when in contact with brass in marine
environment. Transformation Toughening. Prevent: If coupling of dissimilar metals is necessary, choose 2 that are close in galvanic series. Avoid
unfavourable anode-to-cathode surface area ratio; use anode area as large as possible. Electrically insulate dissimilar metals from each other. Electrically
connect a third, anodic metal to other two. 3.Crevice Corrosion: consequence of concentration differences of ions/dissolved gases in electrolyte solution.
Occurs in locale with lower concentration. Ex: Under deposits of dirt/corrosion products where solution becomes stagnant and there is localized depletion
of dissolved O. aqueous environments. Prevent: Use welded instead joints. Use nonabsorbing gaskets. Remove accumulated deposits frequently. Design
containment vessels to avoid stagnant areas and ensure complete drainage. 4.Pitting: small pits or holes form, ordinarily penetrate from top of horizontal
Chapter 4: Structure of crystalline solids surface downward in vertical direction. undetected,very little material loss until fracture occurs. Gravity-pit grow downward, solution denser as pit grows.
Ceramics=inorganic&nonmetal. Properties achieved Prevent: Polished specimens=greater resistance. Alloy steel 5.Intergranular Corrosion: along grain boundaries Ex: welding of stainless steels. Prevent:
through high temp. heat treatment (firing). Composed of Subject material to high-temperature heat treatment where chromium carbide particles=redissolved. Lower C content that carbide formation=minimal.
at least 2 elements. Crystal structures more complex Alloy steels with titanium. 6.Selective Leaching:solid solution alloys, occurs when one element removed as consequence of corrosion processes. Ex:
than metals. Bonds are purely ionic to totally covalent or dezincification of brass, zinc selectively leached form copper-zinc brass alloy. change from yellow to red/copper colour. 7.Erosion-Corrosion: chemical
combonation. Characteristics that influence crystal attack&mechanical abrasion/wear as consequence of fluid motion. All metal alloys are susceptible.Ex: Propellers, turbine blades, valves and pumps. Soft
structure: Magnitude of electrical charge; Relative size of metals (copper&lead). May erode away film leaving exposed bare metal. piping at bends, elbows and abrupt changes in diameter. where fluid changes
cations and anions. For atomic bonding that is direction/becomes turbulent. Prevent: Change design to eliminate fluid turbulence and impingement effects. Use different materials that resist corrosion.
predominantly ionic structure composed of charged ions. Remove particulates and bubbles from solution. 8.Stress Corrosion: Results from combined action of an applied tensile stress & corrosive environment.
Glass fabrication: Melting point (10Pa.s), working point (103 Pa.s), softening point(4 x 106
Metallic ions = cation; Nonmetallic ions = anions. Crystal Small cracks form which propagate perpendicular to stress. may result from rapid temp changes/uneven conc. Prevent: reducing external load/increase
Pa.s) Max temp. at which glass can be handled without being deformed, annealing point
must be electrically neutral. CN=2; (rC/rA)<0.155 CN=3; Photomicrograph of spherulite cross-sectional area. use appropriate heat treatment to anneal out any residual stresses.
(1012 Pa.s), strain point (3 x 1013 Pa.s) (viscocity)
(rC/rA)=0.155-0.225. CN=4; (rC/rA)=0.225-0.414. CN=6; structrure of polyethylene.
(rC/rA)=0.414-0.732. CN=8; (rC/rA)=0.732-1.0
Chapter 8: Mechanical properties of metals Temp. and time dependent. Slower in alloys than in pure metals. Decreases as CW increases. Below 3. V𝝰 = v𝝰/(v𝝰-v𝝱) (fraction of 𝝰-phase for alloy with 2 phases) V𝝰 + V𝝱 =1
1. Eng. Stress: 𝞂=F/Ao critical deformation it doesn’t occur. Recr. Temp. = temp. at which process is completed within one 4. V = W/𝝆 Eutectic (easily melted) reaction: L(CE) ⇌ 𝝰(C𝝰E) + 𝝱(C𝝱E) CCT Diagrams: A plot containg modified beginning and ending reaction curves. Bainite will not form
2. Eng. Strain: 𝞊=(li-lo)/lo = 𝝙l/lo hour. Grain growth: The increase in average grain size of a polycrystalline material; for most when alloy of eutectoid composition or, any plain carbon steel is continuously cooled to room temp.
materials, an elevated-temperature heat treatment is necessary. Driving force = reduction of grain Eutectic structure: A two-phase microstructure resulting from the solidification of a liquid having Austenite will have transformed to pearlite by the time bainite transformation has become possible.
3. Shear stress: 𝞃=F/Ao
boundary area and hence energy. Big grains frow at expense of small ones. GG during annealing the eutectic composition; the phases exist as lamellae that alternate with one another. For continuous cooling of a steel alloy - critical quenching rate respresents minimum rate that will
4. Hooke’s Law: 𝞂=E𝞊 Modulus of elasticity/Young’s modulus(E): Ratio of stress to strain when E = Invariant point: Point — 3 phases in equilibrium. Eutectoid reaction: 𝝳 ⇌ 𝝲 + 𝞊 Peritectic
occurs in all PM. Boundary motion occurs by short range diffusion of atoms across boundary. Strong produce a totally martensite structure. Only martensite will exist for quenching rate greater than the
deformation is totally elastic; also a measure of the stiffness of a material. Elastic deformation: temperature dependance. critical. Range of rate over which pearlite and martensite are produced until finally a totally pearlitic
reaction: 𝝳 + L ⇌ 𝞊
Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional, deformation is nonpermanent, totally structure develops for low cooling rates.
recoverableAnelasticity: Time dependant elastic (nonpermanent) deformation Congruent transformation: No in change in composition for phases involved. Microstructure
5. Poisson’s ration: 𝝼=-𝞊x/𝞊z=-𝞊y/𝞊z characteristics multiphase alloys: number of phases present, relative proportions of phases, Chapter 13 & 17: Application and Processing of Metal Alloys:

6. Moduli relations: E=2G(1+𝝼) (Most metals: G=0.4E) arrangement of phases. Affecting factors of alloy: alloying elements present, concentration of Ferrous alloys (steels and cast irons): iron is prime constituent. Used extensively as engineering
Plastic defromation: Deformation that is permanent/nonrecoverable after releas of applied load. elements, heat treatment of alloy. Eutectic reaction: L ⇌ 𝝲 + Fe3C Eutectoid reaction: 𝝲(0.76 materials because: 1. iron-bearing compounds are abundant 2. economical extraction, refining, and
fabrication techniques are available 3. they may be tailored to have a wide variety of mechanical
Accompanied by permanent atomic displacements. Yielding: The onset of plastic deformation. wt% C) ⇌ 𝝰(0.022 wt% C) + Fe3C(6.7 wt% C) and physical properties. Limitations include: 1. relatively high densities 2. comparatively low
Proportional limit: Point on stress–strain curve at which straight line=proportionality between stress
electrical conductivities 3. susceptibility to corrosion in common environments
and strain ceases. Yield strength: Stress required to produce slight yet specified amount of plastic
Low-Carbon Steels: Contains less than 0.25 wt% C. Relatively soft and weak. (Microstructures
strain (commonly 0.002) Tensile strength: Maximum engineering stress, in tension, that may be
consists of ferrite and pearlite constituents). Good ductility and toughness. Machinable, weldable,
sustained without fracture. Often termed ultimate (tensile) strength. Ductility: Measure of material’s
least expensive (of all steels) to produce. Automobile components, bridges/buildings, truck frames,
ability to undergo plastic deformation before fracture.
railway cars Medium-Carbon Steels: Between 0.25 and 0.60 wt% C. Low hardenabilities. Can be
7. %EL=(lf-lo)/lo x 100
heat treated to give rise to variety of strength-ductility combinations. Stronger than Low-Carbon
8. %RA=(Af-Ao)/Ao x 100
steels. Lower ductility and toughness than Low-Carbon steels. Railway wheels/tracks, gears,
Resilience: The capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is elastically deformed.

crankshafts High-Carbon Steels: Between 0. 60 and 1.4 wt% carbon. Hardest and strongest of
9. Ur=∫𝞂d𝞊 (from 0 to 𝞊y) Linear elastic region: 10. Ur=½𝞂y𝞊y=½𝞂y(𝞂y/E)=𝞂y2/2E
carbon steels. Least ductile carbon steel. Crankshaft, bolts, hammers, knives, blades, springs, hand
Toughness: Ability of material to absorb energy and plastically deform before fracturing, total area tools. Stainless Steels: Highly resistant to corrosion. Predominant alloy = chromium. 3 classes
under stress-strain curve taken to fracture based on constituents of microstructure - martenistic, ferritic, austenitic. Exhaust components,
Ductile metals are normally tougher than brittle ones True stress/strain: Instantaneous stress/ valves, food processing equipment, welding construction, cutlery, jet engine parts, surgical tools,
strain(at that moment) Hardness: Measure of a materal’s resistance to deformation by surface bearings, springs, knives. Cast Irons: Above 2.14 wt% C. (In practice between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C).
indentation or by abrasion. Melts easily, responsive to annealing. Very brittle. Casting - most convenient. C exists in graphite
Hardness test: 1. Simple and inexpensive 2. Nondestructive 3. Can estimate other mechanical form Gray iron: Between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% C. Silicone between 1 and 3 wt%. Weak and brittle. High
properties from hardness data. Rockwell(most common), Brinell, Knoop and Vickers Microindentation. strength and ductility under compressive loads. High resistance to wear. Least expensive. Castings,
11. TS(MPa) = 3.45 x HB; TS(psi) = 500 x HB cylinder blocks, pistons, liners.

Ductile/nodular iron: Produced by adding small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to gray iron before
casting. Castings are stronger and more ductile than gray iron. Valves, pump bodies, crankshaft, gears,
machine components. White iron: Low silicone content: less than 1.0 wt% Extremely hard, but also very
brittle. (To the point of being unmachinable) Used in the production of malleable iron. Rollers in rolling
mills. Malleable iron: Heating white iron for prolonged time and in neutral atmosphere causes formation
of Malleable Iron. High strengths and appreciable ductility or malleability. General engineering service.
Compacted graphite iron: Silcone content between 1.7 and 3 wt%. Between 3.1 and 4 wt% C. Higher
thermal conductivity. Better resistance to thermal shock. Lower oxidation. Diesel engine blocks, exhaust
manifolds, brake discs.
Forming operations: When metal piece is shaped by plastic deformation. Hot working: Metal-forming
operation performed above metal’s recrystallization temperature. Forging: Mechanical forming of a metal
by heating and hammering. Rolling: Reduces the thickness of sheet stock; also, elongated shapes may
be fashioned using grooved circular rolls. Extrusion: Material is forced, by compression, through a die
orifice. Drawing: Used to fabricate metal wire and tubing. Deformation is accom- plished by pulling the
material through a die by means of a tensile force applied on the exit side.
Casting: Depending on properties and shape of finished piece, casting may be the most desirable and
economical fabrication process. Sand casting (packing sand around a pattern), Die Casting (Liquid
metal forced into a mold under high pressure and velocities) Investment Casting (Mold Heated, pattern
melts leaving a mold cavity), Lost Foam (Mold pattern formed by pressing polysterene). Continuous
Chapter 7: Diffusion (molten metals solidified by casting into large ingot moulds).
Diffusion: Mass transport by atomic motion. Conditions: 1. empty adjacent site 2. atom must have Miscellaneous Techniques: Powder metallurgy involves compacting powder metal particles into
sufficient energy to break bonds Interdiffusion/Impurity diffusion: Diffusion of atoms of one metal desired shape, which is then densified by heat treatment. P/M is used primarily for met- als that have low
into another metal. Self-diffusion: Atomic migration in pure metals. ductilities and/or high melting temperatures. Welding: used to join together two or more workpieces; a
Vacancy diffusion: The diffusion mechanism where in net atomic migration is from a lattice site to an fusion bond forms by melting portions of workpieces and, in some instances, a filler material.
adjacent vacancy(normally occupied lattice site from which atom or ion is missing). Interstitial Annealing is carried out to: relieve stress, increase softness, ductility, toughness, produce specific
diffusion: A diffusion mechanism whereby atomic motion is from interstitial site to interstitial site. microstructure. Three stages of annealing: heating to desired temperature, holding/soaking at that
Diffusion flux (J): Quantity of mass diffusing through and perpendicular to unit cross-sectional area of temp., cooling, usually to room temp. Process annealing is a heat treatment used to negate the effects
material per unit time. of CW. For ferrous alloys: Lower crit. temp.: below which all austenite transf into ferrite and cementite.
1. J = M/At; J=(1/A)(dM/dt) [kg/m2s or atoms/m2s] Upper crit. temp.: lines for hypo and hyper steels above only austenite. Normalise: decreas grain size (55
Steady-state diffusion: The diffusion condition for which there is no net accumulation or depletion of above upper crit. temp.); Full anneal: >50 upper crit. temp). Spherodizing: having uniform grain struct
diffusing species. Diffusion flux doesn’t change with time. results.
2. Concentration gradient=dC/dx=𝝙C/𝝙x=(CA-CB)/(xA-xB) Heat treatment of Steels: Heat treating of steels to produce martensitic microstructure depends on three
Chapter 12: Phase Transformations factors: (1) composition of the alloy, (2) type and character of quenching medium (3) size and shape of
3. J = -D(dC/dx) Fick’s 1st law; D=diffusion coefficient [m2/s]; - indicates direction of diffusion is down Transformation rate: Time necessary for a reaction to proceed halfway to its completion. Phase specimen.
gradient (from high to low concentration) transformations: Change in number and/or character of phases that constitute the Hardenability: A measure of the depth to which a specific ferrous alloy may be hardened by the
Nonsteady-state diffusion: The diffusion condition for which there is some net accumulation or microstructure of an alloy. Nucleation: Initial stage in phase transformation. It’s evidenced by formation of martensite upon quenching from a temperature above the upper critical temperature.
depletion of diffusing species. The diffusion flux is dependent on time. formation of small particles/nuclei (usually around grain boundaries and other defects) of new Jominy End-Quench Test: Standardized laboratory test used to assess hardenability of ferrous alloys.
4. Fick’s 2nd law; dC/dt = d/x (D dC/dx) = D d2C/dx2 phase that are capable of growing. Growth: During phase transformation and subsequent to Cylindrical specimen is austenitized at prescribed temp. for presribed time. After removal from furnace it
Factors that influence diffusion: 1. Diffusing species nucleation, increase in size of particle of new phase. Growth of new phase at expense of original is mounted. Lower end is quenched by jet of water of specified flow rate and temp. (cooling rate is max.
2. Temperature: D = D0exp(-Qd/RT) R=8.31 J/mol.K phase. 1. Avrami equation: y = 1 - exp(-ktn) [y=fraction of phase trans.] Austenite slowly cooled transforms to ferrite phase with cementite. Pearlite is at quenched end). After cooling to room temp., piece shallow flats are ground along specimen length and
3. Activation energy (Qd): Energy required to initiate diffusion. Supercooling: Cooling to below phase transition temperature without occurrence of microstructural product. [Pearlite + proeutectoid phase]. Coarse pearlite — high temp., Rockwell hardness measurements are made. Readings are taken. By plotting hardness as function of
5. ln D = ln D0 - Qd/R (1/T) transformation. Superheating: Heating to above… More rapid heating or cooling — the greater high diff. rate. Fine pearlite — low temp., low diff. rate. posistion from end hardenability curve is produced.
6. log D = log D0 - Qd/2.3R (1/T) supercooling/-heating. Austenite moderately cooled (lower temp./higher cooling rate than fine pearlite) forms Precipitation hardening: Hardening and strengthening of metal alloy by extremely small and uniformly
bainite. Speriodite — Steel alloy having pearlitic/bainitic microstructure is heated and left dispersed particles that precipitate from supersaturated solid solution; (age hardening). Strength and
Chapter 9: Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms: at temp. below eutectoid (700℃) for long enough. Austenite is quenched rapidly to hardness of some metal alloys can be enhanced by extremely small precipitates that hinder dislocation
Dislocation: A linear crystalline defect around which there is atomic misalignment. Plastic deformation relatively low temp. to form martensite. Nonequilibrium, single-phase structure. motion. It’s done by phase transformations that are induced by appropriate heat treatments. Heat
corresponds to the motion of dislocations in response to an applied shear stress. Edge, screw, mixed. Diffusionless transformation. Occurs when quenching is rapid enough to prevent carbon treatments: 1. Solution Heat Treating: All the solute atoms are dissolved to form a single-phase
Dislocation density: The total dislocation length per unit volume of material; alternately, the number diffusion and formation of pearlite/bainite. When martensite is reheated (between 250 and solution. 2. Precipitation Heat Treating: The supersaturated solution is heated to an intermediate
of dislocations that intersect a unit area of a random surface section. 650℃) it forms tempered martensite.
Chapter 6: Microscopy temperature to induce precipitation and kept there for some time. Overaging: During precipitation
Plastic deformation of polycrystalline materials: Grain orientations with respect to applied stress are
Optical - uses light, needs surface preperation - ground and polished to mirror-like surface, then hardening, aging beyond the point at which strength and hardness are at their maxima.
random. The dislocation motion occurs along the slip systems with favorable orientation (that with
etching (uses chemical reagent to reveal microstructure), small grooves form that are more visible. Nonferrous Alloys:
highest resolved shear stress). Larger plastic deformation corresponds to elongation of grains along
Max. mag. = 2000x All other alloys = nonferrous. May be further subclassified as either wrought or cast. Alloys that are
direction of applied stress. Dislocations cannot easily cross grain boundaries because of changes in
Electron - uses beams of electrons, for smaller microstructures that need more mag. amenable to forming by deformation are classified as wrought. Cast alloys are relatively brittle, and
direction of slip plane and disorder at grain boundary. Polycrystalline metals are stronger than single
Transmission Electron - an image is formed from an electron beam that, while passing through the therefore fabrication by casting is most expedient. 7 classifications of nonferrous alloys—copper,
crystals. The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the ability of dislocations to move.
specimen, is scattered and/or diffracted. Max. mag. = 1 000 000x aluminum, magnesium, titanium, the refractory metals, the superalloys, and the noble met- als, as well as
Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a material harder and stronger.
Scanning Electron - employs an electron beam that raster-scans the specimen surface; an image is miscellaneous (nickel, lead, tin, zinc, and zirconium).
Mechanisms of strengthening in metals: 1. Grain size reduction: Grain boundaries = barriers to
dislocation motion. (when crossing boundary, direction must change and there is discontinuity if slip produced from back-scattered or reflected beams. Max. mag. = 50 000x
planes within vicinity of boundary). Metal with small grains = stronger than metal with large grains Scanning Probe - generates topograph map, tiny probe with sharp tip is brought to surface, raster-
because it has more grain boundary area and thus more barriers to motion. scans specimen surface, Out-of-plane probe deflections - result from interactions with surface atoms.
1. Hall-Petch: 𝞂y = 𝞂0 + kyd-½ Computer-generated 3-D image of surface. Max. mag. = 109x
2. Solid-solution strengthening: Strength and hardness of metal increas with increase of
Chapter 11: Phase diagrams
concentration of impurity atoms that go into solid solution. Results from lattice strain interactions
Solubility limit: Maximum concentration of solute that may be added without forming a new phase.
between impurity atoms & dislocations. 3. Strain hardening: Enhancement is strength (decrease of
Phase: Portion of system that has uniform physical and chemical characteristics that are
ductilty) of metal as it is plastically deformed. Cold work: Degree of plastic deformation.The plastic
homogeneous. Every pure metal is a phase. Solid, liquid, gas is a solution. Homogeneous: Single-
deformation of a metal at a temperature below that at which it recrystallizes. Hot working = above
phase system. Heterogeneous (mixture): Two or more phases. Equilibrium (phase): State of
recrystallization temp. Increase in CW - increase in YS, TS and hardness of metal. D density
system in which phase characteristics remain constant over indefinite time periods. At equilibrium free
increases - average distance between adjacent dislocation decreases interactions are repulsive -
energy is a minimum. Most stable state. Free energy: Thermodynamic quantity that is a function of
mobility restricted. 3. %CW = (Ao-Ad)/Ao x 100
both internal energy and entropy of system. Metastable: Nonequilibrium state that may persist
Recovery: The relief of some of the internal strain energy of a previously cold-worked metal at
indefinitely with only slight changes. Isomorphous: Having same structure. In phase diagram sense,
elevated temperature, usually by heat treatment. Some reduction in number of dislocations and
isomorphicity means having same crystal structure/complete solid solubility for all compositions.
dislocation configurations are produce having low strain energies. Physical properties are recovered to
Isomorphous diagrams are for those which there is complete solubility in in solid phase. Solute: One
pre-CW state. Recrystallization: The formation of a new set of strain-free grains within a previously
component/element of solution present in minor concentration. Dissolved in solvent. Solvent:
cold-worked material; normally an annealing heat treatment is necessary. Metal becomes softer,
Component of solution present in the greatest amount. Component that dissolves solute.
weaker and more ductile. Driving force = difference in internal energy between strained and
1. WL = S/(R+S)=(C𝝰-C0)/(C𝝰-CL) 2. W𝝰 = R/(R+S)=(C0-CL)/(C𝝰-CL)
recrystallized material.