Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones

Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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 Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil

INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED GEOPHYSICS

EXPLORING THE SHALLOW SUBSURFACE
H. R. Burger, A. F. Sheehan, & C. H. Jones

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

H. R. Burger (Ph.D. 1966, Indiana University) is Achilles Professor of Geology at
Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts. His research focuses on the evolution
of ancient mountain belts in south-western Montana, applying geophysics to further
elucidate the structural evolution of the Connecticut Valley in Massachusetts, and
using Geographic information System GIS to mitigate natural hazards.

A. F. Sheehan (Ph.D. 1991, MIT) is Associate Professor of Geological Sciences and

Fellow of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environment Sciences CIRES at
the university of Colorado at Boulder. Her research focuses on the study of the crust
and upper mantle of the earth and its relation to tectonic deformation. She has
conducted field studies in many regions including the Rocky Mountains, the
Himalaya, and New Zealand.

C. H. Jones (Ph.D. 1987, MIT) is Associate Professor of Geological Sciences and

Fellow of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environment Sciences CIRES at
the university of Colorado at Boulder. His research focuses on understanding the
tectonics of continental areas, especially the western U.S., and on obtaining
geophysical observations of those features. He has developed and maintained
geophysical software for more than 25 years.

PREFACE
This book is based on exploration geophysics courses that we have taught for a
combined total of 35 years. The organization of this book follows, in a general way,
the relative utility and frequency of use of various geophysical methods for exploring
the shallow subsurface. Seismic methods are discussed first. After a brief chapter
devoted to some basics (propagation of elastic waves, instrumentation, and so forth),
we present refraction seismology because this still is the most common method
employed for shallow work. The longest chapter in the book concentrates on
reflection seismology. Electrical resistivity methods follow seismic methods because
these often are used in conjunction with seismic works for investigation at shallow
depths. The next chapter is concerned with gravity. Although mot as commonly used
for shallow surveys, gravity, especially microgravity investigation, has quite a lot to
offer in obtaining useful information, so applications to shallow as well as deep
surveys are elucidated, compared, and contrasted. Magnetic surveying is discussed
next to last because this the least common method currently used for shallow
investigations other than for metals exploration and locating buried iron and steel
objects. The last chapter of the book covers electromagnetic methods. These methods
build on the physical principles introduced in the seismic, electrical resistivity, and
magnetics chapters. Electromagnetic techniques include ground conductivity
measurements and ground-penetrating (or ground-probing) radar. Both of these
techniques are used extensively in engineering and environmental applications.

We introduce each geophysical method by presenting the basic theory and

considerations necessary for understanding its application in exploring a given target.
Each chapter includes a brief discussion of the instruments used in field surveys. This

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 Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil

discussion is intended to convey the fundamental principles of design to support

discussions of field procedures and data and interpretation limitations. Data collection
and reduction procedures are discussed in sufficient detail to enable the student to
plan well-conceived field surveys. Approaches and techniques for analyzing field data
follow the section on field operations. This discussion typically covers the classic
methods but also attempts to pay sufficient attention to the inherent uncertainties in a
given method and some common pitfalls. We consider the fact that uncertainties in
interpretation are common by discussing the goals of the field survey, the accuracy of
results likely with a given method, and the time needed in the field to gather data. The
final material presented for each exploration method focuses on applications and
illustrates data and interpretations.

Because geophysics exploration depend heavily on computer processing and analysis,

students must be introduced to hands-on experience as soon as possible.
Accompanying this text is a series of computer programs that perform forward and
inverse modeling and support all the major exploration methods covered in the book.
A total of five programs are available: REFRACT for refraction seismology,
REFLECT for reflection seismology, RESIST for electrical resistivity, GRAVMAG
for gravity and magnetics, and DIFFRACT for ground-penetrating radar. Because of
the utility and graphics capability of these programs, fundamental concepts are
illustrated and supported with examples created by them. Therefore, students can
reproduce the diagrams used in the text to elucidate concepts and can test variations in
starting assumptions as their curiosity dictates. It is important to realize, however, that
the text is written to stand-alone and does not depend on using these programs. Rather
the programs add an important dimension that is missing from the most existing texts.

Almost all the tables on the CD accompanying the book are dynamic tables. As a
student works through text material, she or he can access the table, change values in
certain cells, and study the effect. Most tables contain already constructed graphs, so
the result of changing variables is conveniently displayed.

Our main objective in designing this book was to cover the fundamental principles of
common methods of exploration geophysics, while at the same time making it
possible for a student to interact with and explore these ideas. Such hands-on
experience has proved successful for both learning and retention of basic concepts,
but even more important, it fosters an atmosphere in which students not only ask
questions but often seek their own answers by using the computer programs.

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 Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil

Chapter 0
APPROACHING THE SUBSURFACE

1.1 WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS?

Various approaches are available to gather information about the subsurface. The best
is direct observation of the sediments and rocks themselves. Of course this is rarely
possible to the extent that we would like. It is relatively unusual for an investigation
site to contain numerous wells that were logged by a professional geologist and are
uniformly distributed. Geophysics essentially is the measurement of contrasts in the
physical properties of materials beneath the surface of the earth and the attempts to
deduce the nature and distribution of the materials responsible for these observations.
The value of geophysics is its ability to acquire information about the subsurface over
a substantial area in a reasonable time frame and in a cost-effective manner.

Variations in elastic properties and density cause seismic waves to travel at different
speeds through different materials. By timing the arrivals of these waves at surface
observations points, we can deduce a great deal about the nature and distribution of
subsurface bodies. Density variations in the subsurface lead to variations in
gravitational acceleration at surface instrument stations, and variations in magnetic
susceptibilities produce measurable differences in the magnetic field at field
observation sites. A frequent problem is that insufficient contrasts exist to detect the
subsurface target of interest. Other times the presence of nearby bodies of great
contrasts creates effects that mask those created by our target.

1.2 SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

We tend to treat the earth and the subsurface as an ideal subject for study. Subsurface
geology often is visualized as constituted by bodies of constant thickness with
perfectly planar contacts. Dipping beds are only infrequently pictured, and even then
dips rarely depart from those of constant inclination. Lateral variations in physical
properties are mentioned as something to be aware of, but they rarely are treated in as
much detail as homogenous bodies. Lateral variations also always seem to be pictured
as abrupt and with vertical boundaries, gradational, inclined contacts are not the rule
in geophysics texts. Every geologic unit pictured always has a sufficient physical
property contrast to enable it to be differentiated from all adjacent units. The earth’s
surface is almost always horizontal, and differences in materials at the surface are
nonexistent. Of course, the real world departs significantly from the ideal of this text.
We must make certain assumptions to deduce the effects produced by the variations in
physical properties that we have mentioned. We also take pains to point out how the
non-ideal subsurface affects our assumptions and results.

1.3 DEFINING OBJECTIVES

As you begin your work in geophysics, your excitement and curiosity will quite
naturally make you impatient to go into the field and begin to accumulate

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 Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil

observations for analysis. Always have a specific survey objective in mind, and define
it as explicitly as possible. Even the most standard elements of survey procedure will
vary somewhat depending on what subsurface information is of primary importance.

In the real world there always will exist constraints, which necessitate that survey
objectives be defined well and in detail. Funding always will be tight, and time is
money. You will not enjoy the luxury of laying out a few more seismic lines.
Transportation costs, crew salaries, prices for expendables (such as explosives), and
deadlines will impose severe restrictions. Even if you are working alone on a summer
research project, you may have only two months and $1000 to define the geometry of
a local aquifer.

The first step, of course, is to understand the fundamentals of the various exploration
methods. Ask what is most important and what constitutes an added dividend but is
not essential. Before planning the data acquisition stage, be sure to determine what
information already exists. One or two good well logs could be valuable for the
interpretative phase of your project. After survey objectives are defined and existing
information researched, then plan your field design in detail. Think about a lot of
‘what if?’ questions and prepare contingency plans for unforeseen but likely
difficulties during data acquisition (such as farmer plowing a field near your most
important seismic line).

1.4 LIMITATIONS
A common limitation is the lack of sufficient contrast in physical properties. Even
though seismic wave velocities vary for saturated sediments of different
compositions, they typically are similar enough in value that layers of different
compositions cannot be differentiated by the seismic refraction method.

A second common limitation is the non-uniqueness of many interpretations. In

geophysics we tend to engage two type of modeling: forward and inverse. In forward
modeling we develop an equation to describe the effect of the specific physical
property variation we are studying. This equation then tells us what effects this
variation produces. In many cases such an equation can be derived and leads to
unambiguous results. However, we most often use the reverse process of observing
effects and then modeling the cause. This is referred to as inverse modeling and
typically is more difficult and more ambiguous. The computer programs included
with this book support both modeling types.

Ambiguity tends to be most obvious in gravity work, when it often is difficult to

differentiate the effect of a small body near the surface from that of a larger body at
depth. A good geological background and knowledge of the area being studied are
essential if you are to arrive at the correct interpretation.

Another limitation is resolution. All geophysical methods are saddled with this
restriction. Because seismic wavelengths typically are many meters, there is a lower
limit to stratigraphic thickness that can be resolved by reflection surveys.

Finally we must mention ‘noise’. Almost all geophysical data contain some undesired
signal (or noise) to a greater or lesser extent. It is relatively straightforward to reduce
noise due to operator error to a very minor amount. Noise due to human activities and

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 Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil

natural phenomena (such as water pumps and wind) can be eliminated by careful
survey planning. What ‘noise’ remains carries important information about ways in
which the subsurface varies from our idealized picture.

1.5 THE ADVANTAGE OF MULTIPLE METHODS

Often specific survey objectives cannot be met by applying only one geophysical
method. Assume that we are mapping the confined aquifer diagrammed in Figure 1.1.
A thick sequence of saturated clay overlies saturated sand that overlies a heavily
fractured bedrock surface. Our goal is to map the thickness of the sand. The clay-sand
contact does not have a sufficient velocity contrast to be detected by seismic
refraction, but the resistivity contrast is sufficient for mapping by the electrical
resistivity method. Conversely, the fractured bedrock surface is filed with water and
possesses a resistivity similar to the saturated sand. However, a sufficient velocity
contrast is present here for bedrock depth to be determined by the refraction method.

Learn the strengths and weaknesses of each method, and determine how and when
you will benefit by employing more than one method. Never forget that the real world
is messy and that your data reflect this. Rather strive to solve the sticky problem. The
easy ones are not as much fun.

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