Chapter 1
Chapter 1
1
Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil
PREFACE
This book is based on exploration geophysics courses that we have taught for a
combined total of 35 years. The organization of this book follows, in a general way,
the relative utility and frequency of use of various geophysical methods for exploring
the shallow subsurface. Seismic methods are discussed first. After a brief chapter
devoted to some basics (propagation of elastic waves, instrumentation, and so forth),
we present refraction seismology because this still is the most common method
employed for shallow work. The longest chapter in the book concentrates on
reflection seismology. Electrical resistivity methods follow seismic methods because
these often are used in conjunction with seismic works for investigation at shallow
depths. The next chapter is concerned with gravity. Although mot as commonly used
for shallow surveys, gravity, especially microgravity investigation, has quite a lot to
offer in obtaining useful information, so applications to shallow as well as deep
surveys are elucidated, compared, and contrasted. Magnetic surveying is discussed
next to last because this the least common method currently used for shallow
investigations other than for metals exploration and locating buried iron and steel
objects. The last chapter of the book covers electromagnetic methods. These methods
build on the physical principles introduced in the seismic, electrical resistivity, and
magnetics chapters. Electromagnetic techniques include ground conductivity
measurements and ground-penetrating (or ground-probing) radar. Both of these
techniques are used extensively in engineering and environmental applications.
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Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil
Almost all the tables on the CD accompanying the book are dynamic tables. As a
student works through text material, she or he can access the table, change values in
certain cells, and study the effect. Most tables contain already constructed graphs, so
the result of changing variables is conveniently displayed.
Our main objective in designing this book was to cover the fundamental principles of
common methods of exploration geophysics, while at the same time making it
possible for a student to interact with and explore these ideas. Such hands-on
experience has proved successful for both learning and retention of basic concepts,
but even more important, it fosters an atmosphere in which students not only ask
questions but often seek their own answers by using the computer programs.
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Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil
Chapter 0
APPROACHING THE SUBSURFACE
Variations in elastic properties and density cause seismic waves to travel at different
speeds through different materials. By timing the arrivals of these waves at surface
observations points, we can deduce a great deal about the nature and distribution of
subsurface bodies. Density variations in the subsurface lead to variations in
gravitational acceleration at surface instrument stations, and variations in magnetic
susceptibilities produce measurable differences in the magnetic field at field
observation sites. A frequent problem is that insufficient contrasts exist to detect the
subsurface target of interest. Other times the presence of nearby bodies of great
contrasts creates effects that mask those created by our target.
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Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil
observations for analysis. Always have a specific survey objective in mind, and define
it as explicitly as possible. Even the most standard elements of survey procedure will
vary somewhat depending on what subsurface information is of primary importance.
In the real world there always will exist constraints, which necessitate that survey
objectives be defined well and in detail. Funding always will be tight, and time is
money. You will not enjoy the luxury of laying out a few more seismic lines.
Transportation costs, crew salaries, prices for expendables (such as explosives), and
deadlines will impose severe restrictions. Even if you are working alone on a summer
research project, you may have only two months and $1000 to define the geometry of
a local aquifer.
The first step, of course, is to understand the fundamentals of the various exploration
methods. Ask what is most important and what constitutes an added dividend but is
not essential. Before planning the data acquisition stage, be sure to determine what
information already exists. One or two good well logs could be valuable for the
interpretative phase of your project. After survey objectives are defined and existing
information researched, then plan your field design in detail. Think about a lot of
‘what if?’ questions and prepare contingency plans for unforeseen but likely
difficulties during data acquisition (such as farmer plowing a field near your most
important seismic line).
1.4 LIMITATIONS
A common limitation is the lack of sufficient contrast in physical properties. Even
though seismic wave velocities vary for saturated sediments of different
compositions, they typically are similar enough in value that layers of different
compositions cannot be differentiated by the seismic refraction method.
Another limitation is resolution. All geophysical methods are saddled with this
restriction. Because seismic wavelengths typically are many meters, there is a lower
limit to stratigraphic thickness that can be resolved by reflection surveys.
Finally we must mention ‘noise’. Almost all geophysical data contain some undesired
signal (or noise) to a greater or lesser extent. It is relatively straightforward to reduce
noise due to operator error to a very minor amount. Noise due to human activities and
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Applied Geophysics: Exploring The Shallow Subsurface By Burger, Sheehan & Jones
Prepared By A. Fadil For FSSM UCA Graduate & Undergraduate Students
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdelali_Fadil
natural phenomena (such as water pumps and wind) can be eliminated by careful
survey planning. What ‘noise’ remains carries important information about ways in
which the subsurface varies from our idealized picture.
Learn the strengths and weaknesses of each method, and determine how and when
you will benefit by employing more than one method. Never forget that the real world
is messy and that your data reflect this. Rather strive to solve the sticky problem. The
easy ones are not as much fun.
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