Knowledge, Science,

and the Universe

The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason
for existing. One cannot help but be in awe when he contemplates
the mysteries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous structure
of reality. It is enough if one tries merely to comprehend
a little of this mystery every day. Never lose a holy
curiosity.

1
Albert Einstein

LEARN
Y
ou are a born explorer. From the cradle
your natural curiosity led you to investi-
gate the world around you. As a baby you
• To identify and describe the four ways we looked at something you did not understand
learn. then instinctively tried to grab it, feel it, touch it,
taste it. These experiments taught you that candy
• The scientific method and how it tastes good or touching a hot stove is painful! In
generates knowledge. a remarkably short amount of time you learned
and remembered an enormous body of facts
• Six basic assumptions the scientific about what to embrace and what to avoid. From
method rests upon. a young age, and without any training, you have
been learning through experimentation.
• The four interactions of nature and the The process scientists follow to gain knowl-
scope of their influence. edge, known formally as the “scientific method,”
is the same process you followed while experi-
menting as a toddler. Just as you gained knowl-
edge from your explorations by the sensations
they created, scientists gain knowledge from
their explorations by the results they observe
and measure. The scientific method is not a
foreign approach to learning—it is a familiar,
natural extension of our ability to scrutinize the
world with an inquiring eye.
The scientific method has yielded some of
the greatest ideas ever thought by mankind. we receive. This difference in judgment creates
These elegant ideas have changed the way peo- a view of the real world that is unique to each
ple presently look at the world and have shaped of us. In essence, every person is a philosopher,
expectations for the future. Hopefully these creating his or her own view of the world from
ideas have affected or will affect and shape your shared sources of knowledge.
thinking as well. These “shared sources of knowledge” are Authority:
Science proves ideas right or wrong by authority, intuition, reason, and sensory data. An accepted source of expert
discovering whether or not predictions match information or advice.
experience. In a careful and deliberate way it Authority Intuition:
leads mankind to truth. Even so, actually know- Learning through authority means trusting The act or faculty of knowing
ing what is true is not as straightforward as one the knowledge possessed by another person or
or sensing without the use of
rational processes; it involves
might think. So let us first consider how we some other source and accepting it as true, even immediate cognition.
know what we know. though you yourself have not had the experi- Reason:
ences through which your accepted authority The capacity for logical, ratio-
1–1 
How We Gain Knowledge gained his or her knowledge. The authority nal, and analytic thought—
could be a parent, scholar, historian, reporter, intelligence.
We often assume that we know something leader, scripture, or any of a number of other Sensory Data:
without realizing how this knowledge is built sources. In cases of conflicting claims of knowl- Knowledge obtained through
from the information presented to us. Informa- edge between competing authorities, we often the senses.
tion may come to us as signals to our brains from give precedence to those that come to us from
our eyes, ears, hands, etc., while other informa- antiquity and thus have been tested by time, or
tion comes in less physical ways. Although we all to those that are held to be true by the greatest
live in the same world, each of us weighs differ- number and so have been validated by the most
ently the value and validity of the information witnesses. Perhaps we might give greater weight
3
4 1 Knowledge, Science, and the Universe

Figure 1.2
Figure 1.1
Intuitive learning is direct and pure but personal. Great
Much of our learning comes from following authority. moments of learning often come with an intuitive “flash of
insight.”
to knowledge from a prestigious source, some-
one with a special perspective, such as an astron- ing, and direct. Individuals who experience this
omer telling us about the stars. Much, possibly source of knowledge often alter their lives and
the majority, of our knowledge comes from perform deeds that the other sources of knowl-
authority because our own sphere of experience edge seldom inspire.
is so limited compared to the world at large. Intuition’s greatest strength is that it may be
The strength of this source of knowledge knowledge from the giver of life who knows all
is that it allows us to accept and learn from the things. But it is possible that several individu-
experience of others, so that we do not have to als may experience a similar intuitive event, yet
experience all things ourselves. Its weakness is have an individual interpretation of it that may
that sources of authority may conflict with each be difficult to describe to someone else. It is this
other, and we cannot resolve competing claims privateness, this inaccessibility to public scru-
of truth without reference to one of the other tiny, that is the weakness of intuitive knowledge.
sources. How do we know which sources of How do we know if our intuition is right or if
authority to trust? our interpretation of it is correct and properly
communicated?
Intuition
We define intuition as knowledge imparted Reason
to us through methods outside our five physical Reason is knowledge derived from assump-
senses. Inspiration and revelation are in this cat- tions and conclusions. An example of reason is
egory, as are “hunches” or “feelings” or a “belief ” the mathematical proof. We begin with basic
that something is correct or true. Because intui- assumptions, such as Euclid’s five postulates of
tive experiences often come after contemplating geometry, and proceed to logical, inescapable,
questions relating to the meaning and purpose and indisputable conclusions. You can write the
of life, intuition is often regarded as religious conclusions down, describe the process by which
knowledge. However, the scientific process ben- they are obtained, and subject the argument to
efits from intuition as well. Albert Einstein and public scrutiny. These are the strengths of rea-
other great scientists have freely acknowledged son.
that intuitive thinking was the genesis of many The main weakness of reason is the set of
of their ideas. Einstein unashamedly confessed assumptions that are the basis for the argument.
that intuition guided his scientific judgment. If the assumptions are reliable, then the conclu-
The inner experiences of intuition may be sions should be reliable. If an assumption is false
impossible to articulate or quantify scientifically, then some of the reasoning is surely false as well.
but nonetheless, they are deeply felt, convinc- With limited knowledge, we may not always
 1–1  How We Gain Knowledge 5

Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4

Reason builds conclusions from basic assumptions. Sensory data taken under carefully controlled conditions tells us how the universe acts.

choose the best assumption. How do we know from that we infer the reality behind the appear-
our assumptions are valid, and that our reason- ance. Since sensation is filtered through our
ing is done correctly? senses and, in the modern world, may addi-
tionally be filtered through instruments like
Sensory Data cameras and TV, its information can be altered
We define sensory data or “sensation” as from reality. Perhaps you have had the delight
experience obtained through the five senses of of being fooled by a magician who showed you
sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Sensa- empty hands and then immediately produced a
tion gives us the knowledge of our immediate bird in them, seemingly from nowhere! Or there
surroundings necessary to function in everyday are “virtual reality” rooms where individuals can
life. Sensation’s strength is its ability to portray be outfitted with sensors that track their every
the world accurately. In fact, sensory data is so move. They might wear goggles that tell their
reliable that we nearly always correctly assume eyes and ears they are moving through a jungle
it is true. or climbing a mountain when it really isn’t so.
We must remember, though, that sensed A weakness, then, of the senses is that they
data represent the appearance of things, and can be tricked or fooled. And their sensitivity

SCIENCE AND RELIGION

Both science and religion use these shared sources of knowledge. However, their emphases are typically different. Science
relies on sensory data; religion depends upon intuition, in the form of inspiration or revelation. Furthermore, their aims differ; reli-
gion tells us about life’s spiritual journey, while science seeks to describe the physical world around us. (Galileo is supposed to have
said that religion teaches us how to go to heaven, while science teaches us how the heavens go.) We hope and expect these two
disciplines to be in harmony, but we often see little overlap between them, and sometimes they even appear contradictory. Why?
Differences arise because of the different aims and learning methods, and also because our knowledge is incomplete in both
areas. Science is incomplete, as is evidenced by the thousands of new scientific articles written and published every year. Religion
is incomplete, as we see from several scriptures which indicate that there is more religious information to come forth. In fact,
despite the great amount of knowledge that already exists in both disciplines, there is good reason to believe that there is much,
much more to learn. (There are some scientists who think that, at least in some areas, we are approaching completeness. The
authors of this book respectfully disagree.) Consequently, it is not surprising that there may be little overlap and some differences.
In view of this situation, humility and patience are required. We must wait for progress in unifying understanding of these areas,
be it in this life or the next. We must not try to force a reconciliation of these two areas where it is not yet apparent how to do so. In
the meantime, we should be content to allow differences to exist without assuming that either science or religion is wrong.

—B. Kent Harrison

6 1 Knowledge, Science, and the Universe
and accuracy can diminish with time or injury. judged to be reasonable or not. If reasonable, the
How do we know if what we sense is always hypothesis and its set of assumptions remain. If
accurate? not reasonable, the assumptions are modified or
replaced and a new hypothesis is formed. The
1–2 
The Scientific Method cycle then is repeated: experiment, results, mod-
ifications, new hypothesis, experiment, etc. until
Science uses all four shared sources of all results are adequately explained.
knowledge. Authority is very important. A well-tested and refined hypothesis is
Library shelves are filled with technical papers called a theory. The Special Theory of Relativity
and books reporting research results from sci- was considered a viable theory only after Ein-
entists all over the world. Scientific exploration stein and others made quantitative, verifiable
begins by reading what others have learned from predictions about motion, space, and time from
their experiments and studies. Intuition may be it. While there is no well-defined line between
used in choosing which topics to investigate and hypotheses and theory, a theory generally pos-
which assumptions to make in the investigation. sesses a greater level of mature detail than an
Hypothesis: Even so, the “scientific method” as it is usually hypothesis does.
A tentative explanation for an defined relies mostly on the last two ways of Theories that have been proven accurate
observation, phenomenon, are often called laws, such as Newton’s laws of
or scientific problem that obtaining knowledge: reason and sensory data.
can be tested by further Figure 1.5 illustrates the relation between motion or the law of gravity. They may also be
investigation. reason and sensory data. We consider some phe- generalized principles such as the law of conser-
Theory: nomenon and make an hypothesis about why it vation of momentum. There is no definitive line
A set of statements or is that way. An hypothesis is a first guess; a set of between a law and a theory and the difference in
principles devised to explain assumptions with a reasoned conjecture about many cases is just semantics.
a group of facts or phenom- Science uses reason based upon its laws, the-
ena, especially one that has what might be happening. It is reasoned from
been repeatedly tested or knowledge gleaned from authority, intuition, ories, and hypotheses to create models of reality.
is widely accepted and can and the limited sensory data at hand. For exam- Models are schematic descriptions of physical
be used to make predictions systems. You will read about many models in
about natural phenomena. ple, Albert Einstein began his Special Theory of
Relativity by first hypothesizing that the speed this book. Models are often pictorial and may
Law: emphasize some concepts while neglecting oth-
of light in empty space is always constant. This
A well-tested theory, so firm ers. They may sometimes be expressed in terms
as to be unquestioned by assumption was based on experiments and writ-
science. ings from other prominent scientists plus his of mathematics. The predictions of models are
own inner feelings. tested against the outcome of experiments and
Model:
Hypotheses are tested through experimen- models that don’t work are revised or rejected.
A schematic description of a
system, theory, or phenom- tation. The sensory data obtained is considered
enon that accounts for its against the predictions from the hypothesis and
known or inferred properties
and may be used for further
study of its characteristics. Hypothesis

Reasoning Experiment

Sensory Data

Figure 1.6
Figure 1.5 Models are used to represent reality. Science leads us to
The scientific method is a refining cycle of hypothesis lead- truth by building models and refining them through theory
ing to experiment, experiment leading to sensory data, data and data. This picture of the atom shows electrons orbiting
leading to better reasoning, and better reasoning leading to a nucleus. As we will learn later in the book, this model is
a more accurate hypothesis. useful for some things but is not very accurate.
 1–3  Six “Self-Evident” Truths 7
If successful models cannot be built upon the
theories, then the theories themselves are called
into question. Models that work are kept and
tested again. As they pass more tests, trust in
their accuracy and truthfulness increases. The
cycle is repeated with the trust that the process
is progressing toward an enlarged, better under-
standing of nature’s truth.
Scientific research is always a test of an
hypothesis, theory, law, or model against the
behavior of nature. This critical feature—con-
sistency with nature—is the hallmark of science.
Any idea that is not or cannot be tested against
nature cannot properly be included in scientific
knowledge. Some “pseudoscientific” theories
Figure 1.7
claim to be science but fail this test. Ideas rise Existence: The universe is wonderful and real!
and fall by this condition, and are always tenta-
tive to some degree because there is always some Did Chuang Tsu dream he was a butterfly or did
possibility, however small, of disagreement with the butterfly dream he was Chuang Tsu?1
future experiment. Perhaps you, too, have had dreams that were
The scientific method is a priceless tool, so vivid that after awakening you were puzzled
which, when powered by curiosity, helps us effi- for a moment about what was real. In essence
ciently comprehend our complex world. It helps the principle of existence asserts that Chuang
our curious minds formulate important “why” Tsu is, indeed, a Chinese philosopher and not a Existence:
and “how” questions. It helps us sift through butterfly, and the reality around him is the same The fact or state of having
clouds of variables and possible answers to find as the reality that surrounds us. Each of us might actual or real being.
the few laws and principles through which a see this reality a little differently because of who Causality:
broad range of phenomena can be understood. we are. But regardless of how we understand it, a Cause must always precede
single, unique, reality is there, existing indepen- the effect.

1–3 
Six “Self-Evident” Truths dent of us.

All reasoning rests upon assumptions. Sci- 2. Causality

ence as a whole rests upon a set of assumptions Events in the physical universe have natural
so logical and basic that we present them here as causes. Causes precede the events in time and
six “self-evident” truths or principles. can be explained rationally in terms of the laws
of nature.
1. Existence
There exists a physical world separate and
distinct from our minds that is comprehensible
through our senses. This world is governed by
certain generalities called the “laws of nature.”
Our senses are usually very reliable and
give a true picture of the world around us. But
as previously stated, they can be deceived. The
Chinese philosopher Chuang Tsu illustrated the
dilemma with the following story:
Figure 1.8
Once upon a time, I, Chuang Tsu, dreamed I Causality: The apple cannot burst before the bullet strikes it.
was a butterfly, flying happily here and there,
enjoying life without knowing who I was. Sud-
denly I woke up and I was indeed Chuang Tsu. 1
Chuang Tsu, Inner Chapters, p. 48, translated by Gia-Fu
Feng and Jane English, Vintage Books, Random House,
New York, NY, 1974 .
8 1 Knowledge, Science, and the Universe
Science has not proven that travel back in
time is impossible, but the idea is beset with
paradoxes. For example a person traveling to the
past could kill their own parents before the trav-
eler was born, negating the cause of their own
birth. The principle of causality guides us to
reject any hypothesis or theory that leads to the
possibility of a result existing in time before its
cause does. The cause must always precede the
effect. So time travel to the past cannot be pos-
sible without constraints that ensure causality is
never violated and that paradoxes like the above
do not occur.

3. Position Symmetry Figure 1.10

The laws of nature are the same everywhere Time Symmetry: The laws of nature as deduced by Galileo
in Italy 400 years ago have not changed with time.
in the universe.
The universe is a huge entity. A beam of 4. Time Symmetry
Position Symmetry:
light takes over 100,000 years to cross the Milky The laws of nature have remained the same
The laws of the universe
are not different at different
Way Galaxy alone. We have no hope at present through time. They are the same now as they
locations. of ever traveling to the far side of the Galaxy, were in the distant past, and they will be the
Time Symmetry:
conducting experiments, and returning. Even so, same in the future.
The laws of the universe do
we are confident it is reasonable to use the law of In the absence of time travel, we cannot visit
not change with time. gravity to explain how the Galaxy behaves. We past epochs and conduct experiments in those
therefore assume that the law of gravity—and all time periods. Even so, we are confident it is rea-
Principle of Non-
contradiction: laws of nature—hold true for all matter every- sonable to use the laws of nature to explain the
Of two contradictory proposi- where in the Universe. While this is a general past and predict how nature will unfold in the
tions, both cannot be true. assumption, experiences and observations on future. Indeed, science is a means of predicting
Occam’s Razor: Earth and in our solar system provide support the future through understanding universal
The rule that where two or
for it. The idea of “symmetry” in this context laws. For this to be true, those laws must be eter-
more explanations exist for means that the laws of nature remain the same nally true. Here the idea of “symmetry” means
the same physical phenom- from position to position.
enon, we should choose the that the laws of nature remain the same for all
simplest one that satisfies all times.
of the observations.

5. Principle of Non-contradiction
Of two contradictory propositions, both
cannot be true.
When based on different assumptions, rea-
son can lead to different conclusions. When two
conclusions contradict each other, at least one
conclusion, and possibly both, is wrong. Oth-
erwise logic and reason would not hold true
and the basic scientific methodology would
be invalid. Apparent contradictions in science
therefore indicate a lack of full understanding
that must be resolved by further study.

6. Occam’s Razor
Figure 1.9 If alternative explanations of any phenom-
Position Symmetry: The laws of nature are the same in our
galaxy as they are in other galaxies and everywhere in the enon are available, where each are logical and
universe.
 1–4 The Universe Around Us 9

Figure 1.11
A drawing of the complex
model and the simpler Coper-
nican model. Only one of the
competing models of the
solar system can be true. The
simpler Copernican model is
correct.

Ptolemaic Model Copernican Model

explain the phenomenon equally well, then the 1–4 

The Universe Around Us
simplest explanation shall be chosen. Explan-
atory principles or factors are not to be mul- We close this chapter with a brief tour of
tiplied beyond necessity. On the other hand, the Universe. On this tour, we pay attention to
explanations cannot be too simple; they must the sizes of objects and how they interact. This
adequately explain the available data. section may be viewed as a coarse outline of the
Of all the self-evident truths, Occam’s rest of the book. In later chapters, we look at the Interaction:
Razor is perhaps the hardest to quantify, yet it is specific theories, laws and interactions that gov- Any of four fundamental ways
in which elementary particles
a bright beacon. Great scientists of antiquity for- ern the objects considered here to understand
and bodies can influence
mulated a theory of the universe in which Earth how these produce the beauty and order of the each other.
stood motionless in the center and the stars and world around us.
Force:
planets all whirled about it in the heavens. A A push or pull on an object.
model based on this theory, called the Ptolemaic Interactions and Force
cosmology, said the Sun, the Moon, and plan- Strong Nuclear
Whether we are looking at microscopic Interaction:
ets all orbited about Earth on two circles. (See objects nearby, or large bodies halfway across The interaction between
Figure 1.11.) This model was accurate for its day the universe, all things are made of matter and nucleons that gives rise to
in predicting when and where a planet would energy organized differently and rather uniquely the strong force.
appear in the sky. on different lengths and scales. This organiza- Electromagnetic
As measurements of planetary positions tion is governed by the influence of interactions Interaction:
became more precise, the Ptolemaic model that give rise to forces. The interaction between
was changed to fit the data by including more We know of four interactions in nature: charged objects that gives
circular paths for the planets to move on. Soon rise to the electromagnetic
the strong nuclear, the electromagnetic, the force.
the long-accepted Ptolemaic model became an weak nuclear , and gravity . Matter interacts
entangled collection of circles connected to Weak Nuclear
in accordance with attributes possessed by the Interaction:
circles connected to even more circles that was matter. The nuclear interactions act only on The interaction between
complex beyond reason. Nicholas Copernicus nucleons and quarks deep inside atoms, the elec- nucleons that gives rise to
saw that if the Sun were at the center of the solar tromagnetic interaction acts on anything that is the weak force.
system and Earth moved around it, the com- charged, and gravity acts on anything that has Gravity:
plex arrangement of circles could be discarded mass. In some structures these four interactions The interaction between any-
in favor of a simple, single orbital path for each may be at work simultaneously with similar or thing with mass that gives
planet. opposing effects. rise to the gravitational force.
The simplicity of this new scheme correctly The relative strengths of the forces of these
guided mankind to the truth. The incorrect interactions are surprisingly diverse. If two pro-
assumption that the Sun and planets orbited tons are placed side by side and the forces on
about Earth was replaced by the correct and them are measured, the strong nuclear force
much simpler assumption that Earth and plan- acting on the protons is 100 times greater than
ets orbited about the Sun. the electromagnetic force, 1013 times greater
10 1 Knowledge, Science, and the Universe
Size (in meters) Dominant Force
Table 1.1  The Four Interactions of Nature
?
Relative 1026 Universe
Force Range Acts Upon
Strength
Nuclear Strong 1038 Atomic Nuclei 10–15m Nucleons 1024
Clusters of
Electromagnetic 1036 Earth Diameter 107m Charged Matter Galaxies
Nuclear Weak 1025 Atomic Nuclei 10–15m Nucleons 1022
Galaxies
Gravity 1 Entire Universe 1026m Mass
1020
Force strength varies with distance. The relative strength listed here is what is
felt by two protons sitting side-by-side (approximately 10–15m apart).
1018
Distance to Nearest Stars
than the nuclear weak force, and 1038 times

Gravity
greater than the force from gravity (see Table 1016
1.1). The strong nuclear force is the most pow-
erful force known, but its range (and that of the 1014
weak nuclear force) is so short that the electro- Solar Systems
magnetic force dominates by the time we have
10 12
increased in scale to the size of an atom.
The electromagnetic force dominates the
1010 Stars
world in which we live. Gravity increases slowly
and steadily with increasing mass and becomes
the dominant force when the sizes we are con- 108 Planets
Atomic Nuclei: sidering are as large as a planet or larger (see
The positively charged Figure 1.12). The nuclear weak force is the only 106 Continents
central region of an atom,
composed of protons and
one that does not dominate at any scale length.
neutrons. The realms over which each of these forces dom-
104 Mountains
Proton:
inates is described in the following sections.

Electromagnetic Force
Plants,
A positively charged particle
in atomic nuclei made up of
three quarks.
Nuclear Interactions: The Strong and 100 } Animals,
People
Weak forces
Neutron: We start at a scale size of approximately 10–2
An uncharged particle in 10–15m. Are there structures smaller than this?
atomic nuclei made up of
three quarks. Perhaps, but if so, we do not yet have the abil- 10–4
ity to measure them. Atomic nuclei are this size One-celled Organisms, Bacteria
Nucleon:
and are comprised of protons and neutrons, 10–6 Viruses
A generic name for either a
proton or a neutron. which we together call nucleons . Nucleons
are so small that it would take one trillion (or
Quark: 10–8 Molecules
1012) lined up next to each other to reach across
The basic building block of Atoms
protons and neutrons. the head of a pin. They are so dense that a pin-
head-size ball made of nucleons packed next to 10 –10
Weak Force
Strong Force

each other would weigh about a million tons.

No crane could lift it! 10–12
A well-tested model theorizes that protons
and neutrons are each comprised of more fun- 10–14 Nucleus +

damental particles called quarks. The strong Protons, Neutrons

nuclear force acts on quarks, binding them Quarks
10–16
together into nucleons and also binding the ?
nucleons together into atomic nuclei. The
Figure 1.12
nuclear weak force, on the other hand, attempts The organization and character of the universe is deter-
to break nuclei apart. Nuclei that are suscepti- mined by forces from the four interactions of nature. Notice
the 1042 change of scale from the small to the large.
 1–4 The Universe Around Us 11
neutrons and protons feel the attractive strong
POWERS OF 10 NOTATION nuclear force.
The universe covers a huge range in
sizes that are often difficult to represent
The Electromagnetic Interaction
using ordinary numbers. To overcome Surrounding atomic nuclei are electrons
this problem, we use a shorthand system held in place by their electromagnetic attraction
called “scientific” or “powers of ten” nota- to the nuclear protons. Electrons and nuclei
tion. The cumbersome zeros of a large bound together constitute atoms . The aver-
number are condensed into a “factor of age distance of the outermost electrons from
10,” which is 10 raised to an exponent. the nucleus is about 10–10m, meaning an atom
The exponent indicates how many zeros is approximately 100,000 times larger than its
are needed to properly represent the num- nucleus and is mostly empty space. If a nucleus
ber. Positive exponents represent places were the size of a ballpoint pen tip, its surround-
to the left of the decimal while negative ing atom would be the size of a football field!
exponents represent places to the right. Atoms, in a variety of combinations, make up Radioactive:
For example: matter as we know it. The tiniest speck of dust A term referring to atoms
101 = 10 (ten) visible to the unaided eye contains about 1018 whose nuclei can sponta-
atoms. A sample of air the size of a sugar cube neously change under the
102 = 100 (one hundred)
influence of the weak nuclear
103 = 1,000 (one thousand) contains about this same number of atoms. force.
106 = 1,000,000 (one million) The atoms of each of the nearly 100 ele-
Electron:
109 = 1,000,000,000 (one billion) ments found in nature have a unique number
An elementary particle in
1012 = 1,000,000,000,000 (one trillion) of protons and electrons. The lightest element, atoms having a negative
100 = 1 (one) hydrogen, has one of each. The next lightest ele- charge. Electrons are located
10-1 = 0.1 (one tenth) ment, helium, has two protons, two neutrons outside atomic nuclei.
10-6 = 0.000001 (one millionth). and two electrons. The atoms of each successive Atom:
These values are read “ten to the first,” element increase with each step by one proton, The fundamental unit of an
one electron, and usually one or several neu- element.
“ten to the second,” on down to “ten to the
minus sixth.” trons. Element:
Since real values rarely are even pow- Atoms join together through the electro- A substance composed
ers of ten, we typically must multiply the magnetic interaction into groups called mol- entirely of atoms having the
same number of protons in
factor of 10 by a value between 1 and 10 ecules . The common table sugar molecule their nuclei.
as follows. contains 12 carbon atoms, 22 hydrogen atoms,
and 11 oxygen atoms. Some substances, such as Molecules:
5 ×105 = 500,000 The tiniest particles of a
1.23456 ×103 = 1,234.56
nylon, have long molecular chains that may con- substance that retain all the
9.87 ×10-7 = 0.000000987 tain a million atoms or more. Molecular sizes physical properties of that
vary from 10–10m to 10–8m or larger. Even so, the substance. They are usually
These would be read “five times ten to made up of more than one
largest molecules are too small to be seen under atom.
the fifth,” “one point two three four five the most powerful optical microscope.
six times ten to the third,” and “nine point
Objects from 10 –7m to 10 4m in size are
eight seven times ten to the minus sev-
made of large numbers of atoms and molecules
enth,” respectively.
mixed together. We will call these arrangements
“mixtures.” Mixtures can be simple in structure
ble to being changed or broken apart under the like a shovel full of dirt, in which the individ-
influence of the nuclear weak force are called ual molecules are just close to each other with
radioactive. little or no atomic-level connection. Other mix-
The electromagnetic force is also present tures can be quite complex, such as the human
in atomic nuclei as a repulsion between posi- body, where the individual parts interact elec-
tively charged protons. Atomic nuclei do not tromagnetically in a manner so intricate that the
fly apart only because the strong nuclear force is absence of a small amount of needed material
more powerful than the electromagnetic force. (proteins, vitamins, etc.) causes other parts of
An additional help is that protons alone feel the body to drastically change their functions.
the repulsive electromagnetic force, while both The realm of mixtures is the world we live in.
12 1 Knowledge, Science, and the Universe
The Realm of the Gravitational Interaction the galaxy would be about 200 miles away! The
As molecular assemblies increase in mass, nearest stars would be a half-dozen grains of
they are eventually held together by gravity sand spread throughout the football stadium.
instead of electromagnetism. Since gravity The vastness and emptiness of it all is stagger-
always pulls matter inward toward the center of ing. Such distances seem unreal in part because
the distribution, objects held together by gravity the Milky Way Galaxy seen on a moonless night
tend to have a round shape. seems to be crowded with stars. That so many
Earth has the shape of a ball with a radius stars are visible attests to their great brightness
of almost 6400 km (4000 miles). This is so large and prolific abundance.
we do not generally notice that the level of a Finally, we come to the realm of visible gal-
lake curves downward to be about 16 feet lower axies that populate the vastness of the universe
five miles away than it is at our feet. Earth is a itself. The deepest image from the Hubble Space
member of the solar system, which consists of Telescope suggests there are at least 100 billion
the Sun, eight planets and their moons, dwarf galaxies averaging over 100 billion stars each.
planets, thousands of asteroids and comets, and These are spread throughout the 1026m of visi-
an untold number of smaller pieces of rock and ble space in clusters of 10 to 10,000 members or
ice. The Sun’s gravity keeps these bodies orbiting more. Evidence strongly suggests that the uni-
about it in a circular disk. The average distance verse itself had a beginning about 13.8 billion
from the Sun to the farthest planet Neptune is years ago in an event of nearly incomprehensible
4.5 × 1012m, or the distance light can travel in magnitude called the “Big Bang.”
just over 4 hours. As you study the realms described above, try
Like the atom, the solar system is mainly to learn not just what they are but how we know
empty space. If the Sun were an orange on the of them. Distinguish between the well-known
50-yard line of a football field, Earth would be parts and those for which our knowledge is
Solar System: a BB ten yards away and Neptune would be a more tentative and developing by paying atten-
The Sun and all planets, marble 300 yards away in the parking lot. On tion to the data, reasoning, and assumptions
comets, asteroids, and other involved. Let your own intuitive heart guide you
bodies that orbit about it
this scale all the material in the entire solar sys-
under the pull of gravity. tem combined would form a ball smaller than a through the huge body of authority, evidence,
grapefruit. and reason the knowledge is built upon. And
As large as the solar system is, it is dwarfed do not forget that as you learn more about the
by the enormity of the Milky Way Galaxy in world in which we live, you are simply continu-
which it resides. This huge structure is a circu- ing the process of discovery you began as a child.
lar disk of over 200 billion stars held together
by their mutual gravity. It measures about 1021m Selected Sources of Additional Reading
from edge to edge, which is the distance light Bryson, Bill. A Brief History of Nearly Everything.
can travel in 100,000 years. If the entire solar Trefil, James and Robert M. Hazen. Science Matters.
system were a marble on the 50-yard line of a Weisskopf, Victor. Knowledge and Wonder.
football field in Provo, Utah, then the edge of http://www.particleadventure.org/